Other Bilateral Relations of India

What is the 1972 Simla Agreement?

Context: Pakistan has suspended the 1972 Simla Agreement, a crucial peace treaty established after the 1971 war between India and Pakistan.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts related to Simla Agreement.

Simla Agreement

Bilateral treaty signed on July 2, 1972, in Simla, Himachal Pradesh between India and Pakistan, by former Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi and then Pakistani President Zulfikar Ali Bhutto.
It came in the immediate aftermath of the 1971 Indo-Pakistani war, which led to the secession of East Pakistan and the creation of an independent Bangladesh.
Aim: To promote peace, avoid future conflict, and lay down the framework for bilateral relations between India and Pakistan.

It primarily deals with:
- How bilateral relations are to be conducted between the two countries?
- Recognition of the Line of Control (LoC) as the de facto border.
It does not create legally binding obligations and does not include a formal dispute resolution mechanism, making its enforcement dependent on mutual trust and political will.

Key provisions of the Simla Agreement:

Guided by UN Charter: India and Pakistan agreed that their relations would be based on the principles of the United Nations Charter which promotes peace, sovereignty, and non-aggression.
Peaceful bilateral resolution: Both nations committed to resolving disputes through bilateral negotiations, without involving third-party mediation — a clause India has consistently highlighted in opposing international interference, especially in the Kashmir issue.
Line of Control: The 1971 ceasefire line was redesignated as the Line of Control (LoC), marking a de facto border in Jammu and Kashmir. Neither party would attempt to alter it unilaterally, nor use force to change the status quo.
Return of Territory: India returned over 13,000 km² of land captured during the war, demonstrating goodwill and commitment to peace. However, it retained strategic zones like Turtuk and Chalunka in the Chorbat Valley.
Non-Interference and Mutual Respect: Both nations agreed to refrain from interfering in each other’s internal affairs and reaffirmed commitment to sovereign equality and territorial integrity.
Recognition of Bangladesh: Though not immediate, the agreement set the stage for Pakistan's eventual diplomatic recognition of Bangladesh.

Pakistan has frequently violated the spirit and letter of the Simla Agreement, it has repeatedly violated the ceasefire, tried to annex positions on the Indian side of the LoC in Kargil in 1999, and frequently sponsored non-state actors to breach India’s sovereignty.

Potential Impact of Suspension

Increase ceasefire violations in militarised regions like J&K and Ladakh, and attempts to alter the LoC status.
Undermines bilateralism: The suspension could mark a strategic shift in Pakistan's approach. It might now seek third-party involvement — possibly from the United Nations or allies like China or the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC) to internationalise the Kashmir conflict.
Contravention of Vienna convention: Pakistan’s unilateral suspension of the Simla Agreement may breach the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (1969).
Sets a precedent for unilateral exit of other regional/ bilateral agreements.

The Simla Agreement has been dead for a long time. In fact, even the ongoing suspension of talks between the two nations can be seen as a breach of the Simla Agreement. Pakistan suspending the treaty only means that it no longer recognises the LoC.

Impacts of Attari border closure on India-Pakistan Trade

Context: In the wake of the Pahalgam terror attack, India has decided to downgrade diplomatic ties with Pakistan and close the Integrated Check Post (ICP) at Attari border with immediate effect. This is set to halt cross-border trade worth Rs 3886 crores between India and Pakistan.

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: Location of Attari-Wagah Border.

Mains: India-Pakistan bilateral relations: trade relations

Location: Attari-Wagah Border

Attari-Wagah Border is the international border between India and Pakistan, located near the towns of Attari, Punjab in India and Wagah in Pakistan.
Attari is India’s first Land Port and the only permitted land route for trade with Pakistan. Located 28 kilometres from Amritsar, spread across 120 acres and directly connected to National Highway-I, the check post has played a crucial role in cross-border trade, particularly in imports from Afghanistan.
The border checkpost is most famous for the Wagah Border Ceremony (Beating Retreat Ceremony). While ceremonious in nature, the drill is steeped in symbolism, representing both rivalry and mutual recognition.

India-Pakistan Trade

In the last five years, the India-Pakistan trade has declined significantly, from Rs 4370 crore in FY19 to Rs 2257 crores in FY23. India imposed a 200% duty on Pakistani goods after the Pulwama attack in 2019.
The trade witnessed a recovery in FY24, reaching Rs 3,886 crore, the highest in the last five years.

Trade via Attari Border

The Attari-Wagah land route was first opened in 2005. The ICP at Attari was inaugurated in 2012, with provisions of facilities for fast and cost-effective land trade.
Major exports from India to Pakistan through this route: soybeans, poultry feed, vegetables, and plastic products.
India imports goods like dry fruits, dates, gypsum, and cement from Pakistan.

Impacts of the the Attari Border Closure on India and Pakistan

Impacts on India:

Many small-scale industries depend heavily on cross-border exports, and the suspension of trade is expected to cause both direct and indirect job losses—affecting transporters, porters, labourers, and small business owners associated with the trade supply chain.
Closure will impact Punjab's economy, particularly in the Amritsar-Attari belt. Straw reapers and cotton yarn are key exports from Punjab via the Attari-Wagah route.
Afghan imports into India and vice versa, many of which pass through Pakistan via the Attari-Wagah route, may also face logistical challenges.

Impact on Pakistan:

Pakistan's economy is struggling with high inflation, political instability, and a downgraded growth forecast of 2.6% by the IMF. The closure of the Attari ICP will worsen these issues, especially for traders dependent on the land route for exports to India.

India puts Indus Waters Treaty on Hold with Pakistan

Context: In the wake of the deadly terrorist attack in Pahalgam, India has announced that the Indus Waters Treaty of 1960 will be held in abeyance with immediate effect, until Pakistan credibly and irrevocably abjures its support for cross-border terrorism.

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: Key facts about Indus Water Treaty; Dispute Resolution Mechanism in IWT.

Mains: Issues associated with the Indus Water Treaty.

Indus Water Treaty (IWT)

Indus Waters Treaty is a water-sharing agreement between India and Pakistan, signed in 1960, facilitated by the World Bank.
Sharing of water as per IWT: It provides India 20% of the water from the Indus River System and the rest 80% to Pakistan.
- Eastern rivers: Ravi, Beas, and Sutlej were allocated to India for unrestricted use.
- Western rivers: Indus, Jhelum, and Chenab were allocated largely to Pakistan. India is permitted certain agricultural uses and can build 'run of the river' hydropower projects with limited storage.
Permanent Indus Commission (PIC): Commissioners are appointed by both countries for cooperation and information exchange regarding their use of the rivers.

Significance of putting the Treaty on Hold for India:

The decision to suspend the IWT gives various options to India on how to use the waters of the Indus river system.

India can immediately stop sharing water flow data with Pakistan. There will be no design or operational restrictions on India for the use of the water of the Indus and its tributaries.
India can now create storage on the Western Rivers, Indus, Jhelum and Chenab.
India can undertake reservoir flushing (a technique used to remove accumulated sediment from reservoirs by releasing water through low-level outlets to scour out the sediment and transport it downstream) on the Kishenganga project, which will increase the life of the dam.
India can stop visits by Pakistani officials to the two hydroelectric projects currently under construction in Jammu & Kashmir — the Kishenganga HEP on Kishenganga, a tributary of the Jhelum, and the Ratle HEP on the Chenab.

Limited Options for Pakistan

The Indus Waters Treaty lacks an exit clause, meaning neither India nor Pakistan can legally abrogate it unilaterally. The Treaty has no end date, and any modification requires the consent of both parties.
While the Treaty cannot be exited, it contains a dispute resolution mechanism that lays out procedures for raising grievances — first before the Permanent Indus Commission, then a neutral expert, and eventually, a forum of arbitrators. However, arbitration may not offer much recourse if India chooses not to follow the Treaty.
In case India ‘revokes’ the treaty, the dispute resolution mechanism will be of no use and assistance to Pakistan. It is limited to a dispute under the treaty and not meant to provide for specific performance of the treaty itself.
Since there is no provision in the IWT about its duration or suspension, there is no avenue that Pakistan can approach for ‘revival’ of the treaty. Nor can Pakistan approach the International Court of Justice seeking specific performance to implement the Treaty because of the Indian reservation given under the ICJ statute that bars the filing of a case by Pakistan against India.

Also Read: World Bank Neutral Expert supports India’s stand on IWT

However, the suspension of IWT will not have an immediate impact on the flow of water to Pakistan for a few years at least. India does not currently have the infrastructure to either stop the flow of water into Pakistan, or to divert it for its own use.

Indian President’s visit to Portugal

Context: Recently, Indian President Smt. Dropadi Murmu visited Portugal - first Presidential tour in nearly three decades. The visit to Portugal is historic, as it coincides with the 50th anniversary of diplomatic relations between India and Portugal. The visit comes amid India’s growing engagement with Europe.

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: Location of Portugal.

Mains: India’s relations with Portugal.

India-Portugal Ties

1. Historical Connections:

Relations between India and Portugal date back to over 500 years when the Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama led a sea-faring expedition to Calicut (Kozhikode) in Kerala in 1498, making him the first to discover a direct sea route between Europe and India. This enabled Portugal to directly access the highly profitable Indian spice market and emerge as a dominant colonial trading power.
In 1502 AD, the Portuguese established a trading centre at Kollam (formerly Quilon) in Kerala. They later acquired several other enclaves on the western coast including Diu, Daman, Dadra & Nagar Haveli and Goa in 1510. Goa subsequently became the capital of Portuguese activities, which stretched from Malacca (Malaysia) in the east to Mozambique in the west.
Liberation of Goa (1961): Indian military action under “Operation Vijay” liberated Goa in 1961, ending over 450 years of Portuguese rule.
India and Portugal finally signed a treaty in 1974 on recognition of India’s sovereignty over Goa, Daman & Diu, Dadra & Nagar Haveli. The treaty came into force in 1975.

2. Political Relations & Cooperation in Multilateral Fora:

Portugal has consistently supported India’s permanent membership in the United Nations Security Council (UNSC) and the Nuclear Suppliers Group.
The idea of starting an India-EU Summit was mooted for the first time by Portugal in 2000.

3. Economic Relations:

India-Portugal bilateral trade in FY23 amounted to US $1.2 billion; and is presently valued at $1.5 billion.
Portugal is the first country in Europe with whom India has signed a Migration and Mobility Agreement (2021). It has paved the way for enhanced cooperation in labour mobility between the two countries.
India and Portugal have signed an India-Portugal Double Taxation Agreement (DTAA).

4. Other Cooperations:

MOU on Cultural Cooperation facilitates a large number of cultural performances, youth and literary exchanges, seminars, art exhibitions etc. The Indian origin diaspora in Portugal is estimated to be over 1.25 lakhs.
India-Portugal Startup Hub (2020) serves as a platform to facilitate collaboration and innovation between startups, investors, and entrepreneurs from both countries.

Location of Portugal

Portugal is located on the Iberian Peninsula, in South Western Europe.
Portugal is bordered by Spain in the north and east; and by the Atlantic Ocean in the south and west.
The small archipelagos of Azores and Madeira are in the south and southwest of Portugal in the Atlantic Ocean. They are autonomous regions of Portugal.
Portugal shares its maritime borders with Morocco.
Capital: Lisbon

India and Italy seek to Deepen Ties

Context: Recently, India’s External Affairs Minister met Italy’s Deputy Prime Minister in New Delhi. They reviewed bilateral cooperation in a range of areas, including defence, trade and investment and energy. A collective resolve was taken to implement the Joint Strategic Action plan 2025-29 launched by the Indian Prime Minister and Italian Prime Minister in 2024.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: India-Italy: Bilateral relations.

India-Italy Joint Strategic Plan of Action (2025-29)

Unveiled during the G20 Summit in Brazil in November 2024. It outlines a comprehensive roadmap for enhancing bilateral cooperation across multiple sectors.
The plan reflects the shared vision to deepen strategic partnership and achieve tangible outcomes benefiting both nations.

Highlights of the Joint Strategic Action Plan

Political Dialogue: Regular high-level meetings and reciprocal visits between Heads of Government. Annual bilateral consultations between foreign ministries to discuss mutual interests and deepen cooperation.
Economic Cooperation: Strengthening trade and investment in sectors- green technologies, pharmaceuticals, food processing, agriculture, advanced manufacturing etc. Promoting industrial partnerships and mutual investments through platforms like the Joint Commission for Economic Cooperation.
Connectivity: Collaboration on sustainable transport initiatives and maritime infrastructure development. Active participation in India-Middle East- Europe Economic Corridor (IMEEC) to enhance connectivity and trade.
Science Tech and IT: Expanding cooperation in emerging technologies- Artificial Intelligence (AI), telecommunications, digital services, Industry 4.0, clean energy, and critical minerals. Launching initiatives like Indo-Italian Innovation and Incubation Exchange Program to foster academic and industrial collaboration.
Space Sector: Strengthening collaboration between ISRO and Italian Space Agency (ASI) in areas like Earth observation, heliophysics, lunar exploration, and commercial space partnerships.
Energy Transition: Joint efforts to promote renewable energy solutions, such as green hydrogen and biofuels. Supporting global initiatives like International Solar Alliance and Global Biofuels Alliance.
Defence Cooperation: Co-production of military equipment and enhanced security collaboration to address regional challenges.

India-Italy Relations

Trade between India and Italy has doubled in FY24 (from 2020) to 15 billion Euros.
There are over 2 Lakh Indians living, working and studying in Italy (The highest in the EU).
Italy has joined multilateral initiatives promoted by India like the Indian Ocean Rim Association (IORA), Coalition for Disaster Relief Infrastructure (CDRI), International Solar Alliance (ISA) etc.
Italy is part of the Coffee Club and can support India’s candidature for the UNSC in future.

India ends Transshipment Facility for Bangladesh

Context: Indian government has terminated the transshipment facility that allowed export cargo from Bangladesh to third countries via Indian Land Customs Stations, en route to Indian ports and airports.

Relevance of the Topic:Mains: India - Bangladesh bilateral relations: Key Developments

India-Bangladesh Transshipment Facility

The transshipment arrangement began in 2020. Under this system, cargo could be transported through Indian borders and shipped from Indian ports or airports, destined for third countries including Bhutan, Nepal, and Myanmar.
The arrangement facilitated smoother trade flows and reduced logistical costs for Bangladesh, particularly for its vital readymade garment sector.
The move was a goodwill gesture from India to enhance regional trade integration, under India’s Neighbourhood First Policy.

Reasons for withdrawal of the Transshipment Facility:

Following Bangladesh's advocacy of extending China’s economic reach into India's strategically crucial Northeast region, India has terminated the transshipment facility citing significant congestion at Indian ports and airports, leading to logistical delays and higher export costs for India.

Significance of the Move:

India’s balancing Act: The move is widely seen as India’s balancing act— maintaining regional cooperation while safeguarding internal logistical priorities and asserting its stance amid growing Chinese influence in South Asia.
Impacts on India-Bangladesh relations: The move is expected to complicate the already fragile India-Bangladesh relationship; given Bangladesh's increasing ties with China.
Increased efficiency of India’s logistics sector: The suspension could improve the efficiency of logistics, especially at key hubs like New Delhi’s Indira Gandhi International Airport, which handled a large portion of Bangladesh’s air cargo.

Also Read: India-Bangladesh Border Fencing Issue

India’s revocation of the transshipment facility is a significant shift in bilateral relations with Bangladesh and can have broad implications for regional trade.

UAE Deputy Prime Minister visits India

Context: The Deputy Prime Minister and the Minister of Defence of the United Arab Emirates (UAE) had his first official visit to India in April 2025.

Relevance of the Topic: Mains: India - UAE bilateral relationship.

Key Highlights of the Meeting

Both countries discussed ways to further strengthen the India-UAE Comprehensive Strategic Partnership in the areas of trade, investments, defence, energy, technology, education, sports and people-to-people ties.
Announcement made during the visit:
- Setting up of the campuses in UAE (IIM in Dubai; Indian Institute of Foreign Trade in Dubai)
- Grant of land for UAE-India Friendship Hospital in Dubai focussed on affordable healthcare to the blue-collar Indian diaspora.
- Development of ship-repair clusters at Kochi and Vadinar.
- Increase defence industry collaboration, and explore opportunities for enhancing partnership in defence manufacturing.

India-UAE Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement:

India-UAE CEPA was signed in 2022. Since the signing of CEPA, bilateral merchandise trade has nearly doubled to USD 83 billion in FY24.
CEPA has been successful in diversifying the trade basket and it will help achieve the non-oil trade target of US$ 100 billion by 2030.

Also Read: India-UAE Bilateral Relations

PM Modi’s visit to Sri Lanka 2025

Context: India and Sri Lanka inked seven MoUs — including one on defence cooperation — during the Indian Prime Minister’s visit to Sri Lanka in April 2025. The Indian PM was honoured with Sri Lanka's highest civilian award Mithra Vibhushana.

Relevance of the Topic: Mains: India - Srilanka ties: Key developments.

Key Highlights of the Meeting

Defence Cooperation Pact:
- An umbrella agreement providing a framework to pursue ongoing defence sector cooperation in a more structured manner. Aims to formalise joint military exercises, training programmes, and high-level exchanges.
- SL President reaffirmed commitment to not allow SL territory to be used against India’s security or regional stability. The countries agreed to work together on the Colombo Security Conclave and security cooperation in the Indian Ocean.
Energy Cooperation:
- The two sides signed an MoU to interconnect their electricity grids to facilitate power trade.
- Tripartite MoU involving the United Arab Emirates will focus on the development of Trincomalee (SL) as an energy hub, including the construction of a multi-product energy pipeline.
- Virtually inaugurated the commencement of Sampur solar power project (SL).
Economic Cooperation:
- MoU to share India’s digital solutions with SL to support its digital transformation.
- Support package of about 2.4 billion SL rupees for the social and economic development of SL’s eastern provinces.
Cultural Cooperation:
- Relics of the Buddha, found in 1960 in the Aravali region in Gujarat, would be sent to SL for an exposition during the Vesak festivities — commemorating the birth, enlightenment and the death of the Buddha.
- India would support the renovation of the Thirukoneswaram temple in Trincomalee and the construction of the sacred city in the Anuradhapura Mahabodhi temple complex, and the Sita Eliya temple in Nuwara Eliya.

Also Read: India-Srilanka Relations https://compass.rauias.com/current-affairs/sri-lankan-president-india-visit/

India-Thailand Relations: Towards a Strategic Partnership

Context: Recently, the Prime Minster of India met the Prime Minister of Thailand in Bangkok prior to the 6th BIMSTEC summit. The two countries have agreed to upgrade their relations to a ‘strategic partnership’. This move reflects India’s broader Act East Policy and Indo-Pacific vision.

Relevance of the Topic: Mains: India-Thailand Relations.

Historical and Cultural Linkages

India and Thailand share civilisational ties rooted in history, culture, and religion.
Buddhism as a bridge: Spread of Buddhism from India to Thailand has fostered spiritual and philosophical exchanges for centuries.
Cultural Linkages:
- Ramayana has inspired Thailand’s national epic Ramakien.
- Sanskrit and Pali influence the Thai language and rituals.
- Exchange of scholars from Ayutthaya (Thailand) and Nalanda (India) in ancient times.
- Indian influence is visible in Thai architecture, traditional medicine, and performing arts.
- An Indian Cultural Centre now known as the Swami Vivekananda Culture Centre was established in Bangkok in 2009.
Thailand has reaffirmed the ties by the issuance of a commemorative postage stamp based on the Ramayana mural paintings during PM Modi’s 2025 visit.

Political Relations between India and Thailand:

The relationship gained momentum after India launched its 'Look East Policy' in the early 1990s, which has evolved into the 'Act East Policy'.
Thailand, in turn, has embraced its 'Act West Policy', seeking deeper engagement with South Asia.
Both nations support multilateralism and collaborate closely in regional forums like ASEAN, BIMSTEC, ADMM-Plus, and the East Asia Summit.

Economic Relations

India and Thailand are important economic partners within Southeast Asia.
During FY 2023-24, Thailand was the 21st largest trading partner of India with total bilateral trade of around USD 14.94 Billion.
Thailand is part of India’s regional trade ambitions through ASEAN and BIMSTEC.
Bilateral Pacts signed:
- MoU on Digital Technologies.
- Collaboration on MSMEs (Micro, Small & Medium Enterprises).
- Agreement on National Maritime Heritage Complex (NMHC) at Lothal, Gujarat.
Trade & Investment:
- Focus on boosting trade and business exchanges.
- Potential seen in sectors like defence, tourism, culture, and education.
Connectivity: Northeast India-Thailand linkages:
- Emphasis on increasing connectivity, cultural exchange, and trade with India’s northeastern states. E.g., India-Myanmar-Thailand trilateral highway.

Indo-Pacific Vision and Strategic Significance

Shared Maritime Concerns: Both countries support a free, open, inclusive, and rules-based Indo-Pacific. Opposition to unilateral actions and expansionism (especially China’s maritime misadventurism).
India’s Strategic Positioning:
- Thailand is a key partner in the Indo-Pacific Oceans Initiative.
- Reinforcement of ASEAN Centrality and ASEAN-India Strategic Partnership.

Defence Cooperation:

The bilateral defence engagements have expanded over time and include high-level visits, capacity-building and training programs, and the annual joint military exercises.
Defence Exercises:
- Exercise MAITREE (Army).
- Exercise SIAM BHARAT (Air Force).
- India-Thailand Coordinated Patrol (Navy).

Indian Diaspora in Thailand:

The Indian community in Thailand is estimated at over 250,000, including both historical and recent migrants. They are primarily engaged in trade, jewellery business, hospitality, and various service sectors.
Prominent Indian-origin associations and Buddhist spiritual networks further bridge societal connections between the two nations.

India-Thailand Strategic Partnership:

In the recent visit in 2025, the Indian Prime Minister announced the elevation of bilateral ties to a "Strategic Partnership" following delegation-level talks with the Thai PM.
This development signifies a deepening of ties in security, trade, and regional cooperation in the Indo-Pacific.
Enhancing Security Cooperation:
- Establishment of a Strategic Dialogue between Security Agencies.
- Joint efforts to tackle maritime security, cybercrime, human trafficking, and illegal migration.

What is behind Nepal Protests?

Context: Recently, the worsening economic scenario in Nepal has led to protests and the demand for the return of King Gyanendra, the former monarch of Nepal, to power. In this context, let us see the political issues faced by the government of Nepal.

Relevance of the Topic: Mains: India-Nepal Relations: Basic Idea about state of events in Nepal.

Background

The recent protests in Nepal are rooted in growing dissatisfaction with the country’s political and economic trajectory since the abolition of the monarchy in 2008.
When the monarchy was dissolved, Nepal transitioned into a federal democratic republic with the hope of fostering stability, economic growth, and inclusivity.
However, over the years, successive governments have been plagued by corruption, inefficiency, and political infighting, leading to widespread disillusionment among the population.

Challenges to Democracy in Nepal

Political Instability:
- Nepal has seen over a dozen Prime Ministers in the last 15 years, preventing stable governance. Coalition governments are unstable due to power struggles, party infighting and frequent floor-crossing by lawmakers leads to a lack of policy continuity.
- The electoral system encourages fragmentation of political parties, making it hard to form a majority government.
Weak Institutional Structure and Governance:
- Judiciary interference: Politicisation of the courts has weakened judicial independence. It is seen that the judicial decisions have often favored those in power.
- Bureaucratic inefficiency: Nepali bureaucracy is slow, unresponsive, and burdened by political appointments.
- Delayed implementation of federalism: Though Nepal adopted federalism in 2015, power remains concentrated in Kathmandu, and provincial governments lack resources and autonomy.
Ethnic and Identity-Based Conflicts:
- The Madhesi movement (2015-16) protested against the new constitution, arguing that it marginalises their political representation.
- Janajati (indigenous) communities continue to demand proportional representation and land rights. E.g., The 2023 protests against renaming Province No. 1 as "Koshi" turned violent, highlighting the ongoing ethnic and linguistic tensions.
Electoral Manipulation: Vote-buying and electoral fraud events have been seen in past elections, undermining fair elections and post-election horse-trading leads to unstable coalition governments.
Corruption and poor governance: Nepal ranks poorly in Transparency International’s Corruption Perceptions Index. Corruption scandals in infrastructure, education, and healthcare reduce public trust in democracy.
Foreign influence in Nepal’s politics: Nepal is sandwiched between India and China, leading to significant external influence.
- While India has historical ties and economic leverage, China has increased its investments in Nepal, influencing politicians and civil society.
- The U.S. Millennium Challenge Corporation (MCC) grant named Nepal Compact faced massive protests in 2022, with some fearing it would compromise Nepal’s sovereignty.
- Nepal struggles to maintain a balanced foreign policy while protecting its sovereignty.

Thus, Nepal’s democracy remains fragile due to internal instability, weak institutions and corruption. While the 2015 Constitution provided a framework for federalism and inclusive governance, its slow implementation, coupled with rising political tensions, threatens democratic progress.

Tiger Triumph: India-US Tri-Service Exercise

Context: The Fourth edition of the bilateral Tri-Service Exercise codenamed “Tiger Triumph” is scheduled to take place on the Eastern Seaboard (Visakhapatnam) from 1 to 13 April, 2025.

Relevance of the Topic:Prelims: Key facts about Tiger Triumph: India-US Tri-Service Exercise.

Tiger Triumph

It is an India-US Humanitarian Assistance and Disaster Relief (HADR) Exercise.
Aim:
- To develop interoperability for conducting HADR operations.
- To formulate SOPs (Standard Operating Procedures) to establish a Combined Coordination Center for rapid and smooth coordination between Indian and US Joint Task Forces (JTF) during exercises, crises, and contingencies.
Indian Armed forces, as well as the US Navy and Marine troops, will participate in various phases including joint command exercises and medical aid camps.

Key details of the Tri-Service Exercise

Indian side would be represented by:
- Indian Naval Ships Jalashwa, Gharial, Mumbai and Shakti; Long Range Maritime Patrol Aircraft P8I.
- Army Troops from 91 Infantry Brigade and 12 Mechanical Infantry Battalion.
- Air Force C-130 Aircraft and MI-17 Helicopters, along with the Rapid Action Medical Team (RAMT).
The US side would be represented by US Navy Ships Comstock and Ralph Johnson, with troops of the US Marine Division embarked.

India’s Recalibration with Taliban

Context: India's evolving engagement with the Taliban-led Afghanistan marks a significant shift in its foreign policy.

Relevance of the Topic:Mains: India-Afghanistan bilateral relations.

Major Highlights:

Traditionally, India has maintained a policy of non-engagement with the Taliban due to its links with terrorism and its oppressive policies, particularly regarding human rights.
Since the Taliban’s takeover of Afghanistan in August 2021, India has cautiously re-engaged with the regime, however, this shift comes with significant risks.

India’s Diplomatic Engagement with the Taliban

Reopening of Embassy: In June 2022, India re-established a diplomatic presence in Kabul by sending a technical team to oversee humanitarian assistance and monitor ground conditions.
High-Level Meetings: In January 2025, Indian Foreign Secretary met with the Taliban’s acting Foreign Minister in Dubai to discuss strengthening bilateral ties, economic cooperation, and humanitarian aid.
Possible Taliban Representation in India: Reports suggest that India may allow the Taliban to appoint a new envoy for its embassy in New Delhi, which would mark a significant step towards official recognition of the regime.

Strategic Motivations behind India’s Engagement

Countering China’s Influence: China has moved quickly to engage with the Taliban, accepting Taliban-appointed envoys and considering Afghanistan’s inclusion in the Belt and Road Initiative. India does not want to cede strategic influence in the region.
Pakistan’s diminished role: Pakistan, once a key ally of the Taliban, now has strained relations with the group. Taliban has allowed Tehrik-e-Taliban Pakistan (TTP) to operate within its borders, leading to terrorist attacks inside Pakistan. This presents India with an opportunity to expand its influence in Afghanistan.
Economic and connectivity interests: India has interests in regional trade routes, including the Chabahar Port in Iran, which can serve as a gateway to Afghanistan and Central Asia. Engaging with the Taliban could help secure India’s trade and connectivity projects.

Challenges and Risks of Engagement

Terrorism and Security Concerns: Afghanistan has become a breeding ground for terrorist organisations including Islamic State (IS). India has already faced threats from IS, including an attack on its consulate in Jalalabad, Afghanistan in December 2024. Taliban’s links to groups like TTP raise concerns about potential spillover effects into India’s security landscape.
Human Rights and Ethical Concerns: Taliban has imposed severe restrictions on women, including banning them from education, jobs, and public spaces. The UN has described this situation as "gender apartheid," making any engagement with the Taliban controversial on moral and diplomatic grounds.
Diplomatic Risks: Officially accepting a Taliban envoy could be seen as de facto recognition of the regime, contradicting India's past stance of supporting a democratic Afghanistan. Western allies, including the U.S. and the EU, have not recognised the Taliban, and India’s move may impact its global diplomatic standing.

Way Forward

India’s engagement with the Taliban is a double-edged sword. While strategic interests and regional stability demand dialogue, it poses a risk of legitimising a repressive regime.

A cautious and multi-pronged approach is necessary, focusing on :

Maintaining strategic autonomy: India should continue engaging with all Afghan stakeholders, including opposition groups and civil society, while avoiding full diplomatic recognition of the Taliban.
Conditional engagement: Any diplomatic or economic engagement should be tied to specific conditions, such as improving human rights and countering terrorism.
Regional Coordination: Strengthening cooperation with Central Asian nations, Iran, and Russia to maintain stability in Afghanistan.

India must balance its strategic goals with ethical considerations to ensure that its engagement in Afghanistan serves long-term security and geopolitical interests.