Context: India has successfully conducted field evaluation trials of indigenously-developed third-generation anti-tank guided missile Nag Mark-2. The trials were conducted at the Pokhran field range in Rajasthan, where the missile showcased exceptional precision and reliability.
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Nag Mk-2.
About Nag Mark-2 Missile
Nag Mk-2 is an indigenously made all-weather, fire-and-forget, lock-on after launch, anti-tank guided missile (ATGM).
Developed by: Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO).
Nag Mk-2 missile is launched from the NAMICA (Nag Missile Carrier).
NAMICA is an anti-tank armored vehicle or tank destroyer vehicle used by the Indian Army to launch anti-tank missiles.
NAMICA is based on SARATH BMP-II. SARATH BMP-II is an amphibious infantry combat vehicle (ICV) used by the Indian Army.
Estimated Range of Nag Mk-2 missile: 7 to 10 kilometres.
It is a significant improvement over Nag Mark 1, which has a 4-kilometre range.
Context: The PM KUSUM scheme has achieved significant results, however, in order to achieve its objectives, both the Centre and the State governments have to work in sync, while recalibrating the process of implementation.
Relevance of the topic:
Prelims: PM KUSUM Scheme.
Mains: PM KUSUM- Challenges and Recommendations.
What is the PM KUSUM scheme?
PM-KUSUM (Pradhan Mantri Kisan Urja Suraksha evam Utthaan Mahabhiyan) Scheme was launched by the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy in 2019.
It was launched in order to endow installation of off-grid solar pumps in rural areas and reduce dependence on grid, in grid-connected areas.
Objectives:
To enable farmers to set up solar power generation capacity on their arid lands and to sell it to the grid.
To increase the income of farmers by allowing them to sell surplus solarpower to the grid.
Components:
Component A: 10,000 MW of decentralised ground-mounted grid-connected renewable power plants.
Component B: Installation of 20 lakh solar-powered agriculture pumps.
Component C: Converting 15 lakh agriculture pumps, already connected to the grid, into solar.
Significance of the Scheme:
Increase Access to Energy:
It incentivises the farmers to sell surplus solar energy to the states, which in turn will augment their income.
The scheme is expected to increase access to electricity in rural areas and provide a reliable source of energy for agriculture and other rural activities.
Contain Climate Catastrophe:
If farmers are able to sell surplus power, they will be incentivised to save power and, in turn, it will mean the reasonable and efficient use of groundwater.
Expansion of the irrigation cover by providing decentralised solar-based irrigation and moving away from polluting diesel.
When implemented fully, PM-KUSUM will lead to reducing carbon emissions by as much as 32 million tonnes of CO2 per annum.
Employment and Empowerment:
The scheme creates job opportunities in the installation, maintenance, and operation of solar power projects.
It empowers rural communities by giving them control over their own energy generation and distribution.
Challenges in Implementation:
Component-wise Progress:
Component A:Minimal progress due to lack of bidding guidelines and low feed-in tariffs.
Component B: Most successful, with 60% Central financial assistance and decentralised implementation in states like Rajasthan.
Component C: Limited traction due to lack of incentives for farmers already receiving cheap electricity.
Political Bias:
Divergence between Centre-State relations impacts scheme adoption. E.g.,Bihar’s non-participation due to earlier political differences.
Operational Issues:
Inter-state DisparityE.g., Chhattisgarh and Rajasthan together account for half of two lakh solar pumps currently deployed in the country.
Centralised implementation limits effectiveness.
Insufficient awareness campaigns and quality concerns for pumps.
Dependence on groundwater availability and irrigation challenges.
Way Forward
Decentralised Implementation:
Leverage local agencies for tailored execution.
Target linked financial assistance to reduce Inter-state disparity and address state-specific constraints.
Financial Incentives:
Increase Central assistance for Components A and C.
Introduce farmer-friendly payment options.
Policy Reforms:
Align agricultural subsidies with solar adoption to ensure farmer participation.
Promote dual-use models like Agro-PV (energy and farming integration).
Give up One Size Fits-all approach: Small and marginal farmers should be given a higher capital subsidy and long-term loans with interest subsidies.
Focus on Efficiency of Pumps: Solarising grid connected pumps must include replacement of the pump with more energy efficient newer age pumps.
Awareness and Capacity Building: Wide-reaching campaigns to educate stakeholders. Training programs for farmers and implementing agencies.
Focus on Post-harvest losses: Use solar power for post-harvesting processes to promote local value addition and enhanced income levels.
By addressing implementation challenges, PM KUSUM can contribute significantly to climate action, energy security, and rural development. Its success depends on a holistic approach that integrates policy, technology, and local insights.
Context: Amid shortages indi-ammonium phosphate (DAP) and a general lack of manufacturing sector investments, the urea industry has seen significant installation of new production capacities and progress towards achieving the goal of Atmanirbharta.
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Basic understanding ofUrea Industry- Present Status, Make vs Buy, etc.
Present Status of the Urea Industry
Domestic urea production:
Between 2011-12 and 2023-24, India’s domestic urea production has risen from 22 million to 31.4 million tonnes.
Urea Imports:
Imports fell from 7.8 mt to 7 mt after peaking at over 9.8 mt in 2020-21.
The current fiscal has so far recorded a further 31.7% drop in imports.
Increased Production: The increase in urea production is attributed to six new plants launched in FY 2019 and later:
Three of Hindustan Urvarak & Rasayan Ltd (HURL)
Chambal Fertilisers & Chemicals
Matix Fertilisers & Chemicals
Ramagundam Fertilizers & Chemicals Ltd (RFCL)
Climate-friendly:
These greenfield plants run on natural gas (mostly imported) with an identical annual production capacity of 1.27 mt.
Energy-efficient:
They are also relatively energy-efficient, requiring only about 5 giga-calories (GCal) to produce one tonne of urea. The earlier units consume between 5.5 and 6.5 GCal.
Favourable Location:
The new plants are located in the new Green Revolution- areas of eastern Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Bihar, Jharkhand and Telangana.
The older units such as the National Fertilizers Ltd’s (NFL) Bathinda, Nangal and Panipat catered solely to farmers in Punjab and Haryana.
Indigenous feedstock:
There is a seventh urea plant coming up in Talcher, Odisha.
Unlike the six gas-based units producing ammonia with technology licensed from US, Denmark and urea from Italy or Japan, Talcher Fertilizers Ltd’s project will use coal as the feedstock. The coal is from the Talcher mines.
The Make vs. Buy debate
Arguments supporting “Buy”:
Investment:
New plants need an investment of around Rs 61,575 crore.
Price:
The price of imported urea in India is currently $370-403 per tonne.
Urea from domestic greenfield projects cost $493 per tonne.
Thus it is cheaper to “buy” (import) than “make” urea in India.
Arguments supporting “Make”:
Price:
After deducting the levies on the feedstock cost of domestic urea, the cost will come down to $427 per tonne.
Transportation:
The imported bulk urea arriving in vessels has to be discharged at the port, before bagging and reloading for dispatch to the consumption centres.
Moving this urea to the northern and eastern hinterlands would involve an additional cost of $30-35/tonne.
That further narrows the gap between “buy” and “make”.
Other Benefits:
Domestic production creates employment.
Boosts overall economic activity that accrues from Make-in-India, as compared to simply Import-into-India.
A different Atmanirbhar urea strategy of “making” more in Northern and Eastern India, while exploring greater “buy” options for Peninsular India can be done by the Government. This along with shutting down some of the older energy-inefficient plants and also curbing urea consumption can boost the urea industry while placing India on path to achieve its Panchamrit goals.
Context: The Pradhan Mantri Kisan Samman Nidhi (PM-KISAN), which provides yearly income support of ₹6,000 to eligible farmer families in three installments, has been through highs and lows both in terms of coverage and payout.
Relevance of the topic:
Prelims: Questions regarding PM-KISAN scheme.
Mains: Analytical question on schemes, their impact, lacunae and suggestions.
About PM KISAN
Pradhan Mantri Kisan Samman Nidhi (PM KISAN) scheme launched in 2018 provides an annual income support of Rs. 6000/- to eligible farmers in three installments.
Intended beneficiaries:
Originally, landholding farmers having a farming area up to 2 hectares were eligible for the scheme (around 80% of farmers in India).
Later, in 2019 the scheme was extended to all farmers who owned land, irrespective of the size of their landholdings.
Expected outcomes from scheme:
Income support: The scheme was intended to benefit 14.5 crore farmers by providing them income support of Rs. 6000 annually.
Reduction in farm distress by creating a buffer for the farmers during negative externalities like drought and crop failure.
Poverty alleviation: As 22% of Below poverty line are farmers (Situation Assessment Survey), income support will reduce poverty burden on farmers.
Demonstrating commitment towards farmers' benefit and doubling farmer’s income.
Key Challenges in the Scheme Implementation
Does not address structural problems such as fragmentation of land holdings, higher dependence on monsoonal rainfall, poor marketing infrastructure (APMCs) etc. and hence, PM-KISAN is populist rather than reformist.
Promote Fragmentation of Landholdings: Farming households holding larger land parcels will try to split holdings to try to qualify for the benefits under the scheme.
Exclusionary: Excludes the landless agricultural workers, tenants, and sharecroppers.
Absence of land records may lead to exclusion of poor and vulnerable categories of farmers.
Inadequate financial support: The scheme offers Rs. 6000/- per annum to farmers equates to Rs. 17 per day per household that is substantially low to achieve goals like alleviation of farm poverty.
Under-utilised corpus: The fund allocated for the scheme was around Rs. 85000 crores but it remained under utilised since launch of scheme. The scheme witnesses fluctuating beneficiaries, also the number is reducing from 2021-22 to 2023-24.
Substandard than state schemes: Many state schemes like Telangana’s Rythu Bandhu and Odisha’s Kalia scheme provide better income support to farmers than the PM Kisan scheme, leading to limited enrollment of farmers.
Suggestive Measures for better Implementation
Increasing support amount: The scheme can explore increasing support to promote enrollment in the scheme on the lines of Rythu Bandhu and Kalia scheme of states.
Expand beneficiary coverage: Scheme should increase coverage by adding landless tenants with substantial proof of tenancy agreement in scheme.
Adding benefits: Apart from income support, the scheme can be drafted as an umbrella support extending to medical expenses, crop insurance and credit assurance scheme rationalising other schemes in PM KISAN.
Strengthening implementation: Digitisation of land records and using digital records for identification of beneficiary can improve impact of scheme at ground level.
Conclusion: The PM-KISAN scheme, while a significant step toward supporting small and marginal farmers, requires increased financial aid, broader beneficiary inclusion, and efficient implementation for maximum impact. With effective execution, it can reduce farmer distress, boost rural economies, and enhance agricultural productivity, fostering socio-economic development in India's agrarian landscape.
Context: Recently, nine workers were trapped in a flooded coal mine in Assam’s Dima Hasao district. Bodies of four of the workers have been recovered, and rescue work is still ongoing.
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Rat Hole Mining.
Rat Hole Mining
The term “rat hole” refers to the narrow pits dug into the ground, typically just large enough for one person to descend and extract coal.
A rat-hole mine involves digging of very small tunnels, usually only 3-4 feet deep, in which workers, more often children, enter and extract coal. Rat-hole mining is broadly of two types – side-cutting and box-cutting.
Rat hole mining is prevalent in the Northeastern States, especially in Meghalaya.
Why is it prevalent in North-eastern India?
Despite the presence of coal reserves, commercial mining is not practiced in the North-Eastern regions because of terrain’s unsuitability and nature of coal deposits.
The coal seam is extremely thin, and methods like open-cast mining are economically unviable.
The coal found in the North-East contains lots of sulfur and this type of coal is categorized as bad quality of coal. Thus discourages big ticket private investments.
Being a tribal state where the 6th Schedule applies, all land is privately owned, and hence coal mining (like limestone mining) is done by private parties which do not have capacity of big investment.
Further, these mines are considered as gold chest by the locals which provides employment and prospect of money for the population of these backward area without much investment.
Demerits
Damage to Ecology:
Unregulated rat mining leads to land degradation, deforestation, and water with high concentrations of sulphates, iron, and toxic heavy metals, low dissolved oxygen, and high biochemical oxygen demand.
Ecology - Piling of coals along roadside have caused severe issues of air and water pollution. Off road movements in and around mining area has resulted into damaged ecology. A petition to NGT by Assam’s All Dimasa Students’ Union has claimed that rat-hole mining in Meghalaya had caused the water in the Kopili river (it flows through Meghalaya and Assam) to turn acidic.
Risk to lives - Asphyxiation because of poor ventilation, flooding of mines during rainy season, and sudden collapse due to unscientific digging has caused loss of life to individuals.
Present Status
The National Green Tribunal (NGT) has banned rat-hole mining in 2014, and retained the ban in 2015.
The ban was on grounds of the practice being unscientific and unsafe for workers.
The Meghalaya High Court appointed Justice (Retired) BP Katakey committee to recommend the measures to be taken by the state in compliance with the directions issued by the Supreme Court and National Green Tribunal (NGT). This committee noted that despite the ban, illegal mining continues with large cache of coals reaching to the markets unhindered.
Context: With strong growth in non-corporate tax,net direct tax collection is likely to cross budget estimates by more than ₹73,000-83,000 crore. However, tax buoyancy is likely to be lower than the last fiscal year (FY 2024) due to the revision of the nominal growth number.
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Basic idea about the trends,Tax Buoyancy, Tax Elasticity.
Data on Net Direct Tax Collection
Net direct tax collection likely to cross budget estimates by more than ₹73,000-83,000 crore.
The budget presented in July 2024 pegged the net direct tax collection at ₹22.07 lakh crore for FY25. This requires a growth rate of 12.6% over the actual collection of ₹19.60 lakh crore in FY24.
However, data for the period between April 1 and December 17, 2024, showed that while the mop-up through advance tax after three installments grew by over 20%, the net collection is now 72% of the budget estimates.
Advance tax payments by corporations recorded over 16% growth. This, along with good growth in GST, is expected to help the government push the fiscal deficit lower than the budgeted estimate of 4.9% for the current fiscal.
With the rise in collections, the cost of tax collection is on a downward trend. It dipped to 0.44% in FY24 from 0.76% in FY21.
Tax buoyancy is likely to be lower than the last fiscal due to revision of nominal growth number. Tax buoyancy could be in the range of 1.68–1.73 in FY25 against 1.86 in FY24.
Probable reasons for rise in Net Direct Tax Collections:
Integration of PAN with Aadhar has streamlined the verification process.
Use ofTechnology:
Digital payment systems to file tax with simplified transactions.
e-verification and e-assesment processes.
Faceless Assessment Scheme for greater transparency and efficiency in income tax assessments.
Rise in Incomes has also facilitated higher tax payments by individuals.
Simplification of Tax Rules:
Rationalisation of tax slabs, incentives for filing returns have led to voluntary compliance. E.g. ‘Honoring the Honest’ campaign.
Decrease in cost of collection is attributed to:
Adoption of centralised processing centres (E.g., CPC Bengaluru)
Automation of processes like return filing, scrutiny and refund issuance.
Increase in the efficiency of tax administration.
Formalisation of the economy.
What is Tax Buoyancy?
Tax buoyancy is a ratio of change in tax revenue in relation to change in GDP of an economy. It measures how responsive a taxation policy is to growth in economic activities.
Taxation policy with a tax buoyancy of over 1 will deliver more tax revenue following a positive change in GDP.
Lower the tax buoyancy, poorer is the tax collection in response to economic growth.
The Central Government of India estimates a tax buoyancy of 1.1 for 2024-25 financial year.
Significance of Tax Buoyancy:
It shows an economy’s capacity to finance growing public expenditure with tax revenue.
Policy makers use the tax buoyancy ratio as a measure of their taxation policy’s reliability to deliver a steady flow of tax revenue.
Buoyancy of tax policy helps to overcome economic exigencies.
A highly buoyant tax policy can help a government rely on tax collection despite sudden fluctuations in earnings from other sources. For example, the planned direct tax buoyancy of India for FY25 is around 1.1.
This will help the government meet expenditure even if its disinvestment targets are not met.
Tax buoyancy as an indicator helps policymakers in designing pro-taxpayer taxationpolicy.
Higher tax rates can also negatively affect willingness to pay tax and increase tax evasion. Besides, a high rate of tax disrupts economic growth.
Policymakers can use the tax buoyancy indicator to increase tax collection without increasing tax rates.
What is Tax Elasticity?
Tax elasticity refers to the change in tax revenue relative to changes in the tax rate.
In simpler terms, if the government reduces the corporate income tax from 30% to 25% and the resulting change in tax revenue is observed, this reflects tax elasticity.
Context: Ahead of the Budget, the Confederation of Indian Industry (CII) has suggested a 10-point agenda to drive ease of doing business reforms. While India has remained focused on improving ease of doing business (EoDB), there is a need to maintain the momentum especially in certain specific areas.
Relevance of the topic:
Prelims: Ease of Doing Business Index
Mains: Ease of Doing Business- Reform recommendations
What is Ease of Doing Business?
Ease of Doing Business (EoDB) is an index developed by the World Bank Group.
What does it do?
It measures the regulatory environment of a country and its impact on the ease with which businesses can operate.
It assesses how conducive a country's policies, regulations, and administrative practices are for starting, running, and closing a business.
In 2021, the World Bank discontinued the EoDB index following allegations of data irregularities and ethical concerns during its preparation.
However, its principles continue to influence global reforms and economic policies.
CII recommendations for Ease of Doing Business Reforms
Mandatory Use of National Single Window System (NSWS) for Approvals:
Integrating all central ministries into the NSWS within six months, with states to follow in a phased manner.
A dedicated central budget to incentivize states to adopt the system. This will ensure transparency and faster processing.
Time-Bound Services with Statutory Backing:
A new Act to impose statutory obligations on public authorities to process industry applications and grievances within set timelines.
Provisions for deemed approvals beyond deadlines are also suggested.
Strengthening Dispute Resolution Mechanisms:
Expanding commercial courts and increasing reliance on Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR) methods like mediation and arbitration.
Prioritising establishment of the Mediation Council of India and the Arbitration Council of India.
Expanding National Judicial Data Grid (NJDG):
NJDG’s scope should include tribunal cases to manage and reduce pendency effectively. Tribunals constitute a significant share of unresolved cases.
Unified Environmental Compliance Framework:
A single framework to consolidate environmental compliance requirements.
Existing laws like the Water Act and Air Act should be incorporated into the Environmental Protection Act to centralise regulations.
Performance-based incentives could reward companies exceeding environmental standards.
Facilitating Land Access:
States should develop an Online Integrated Land Authority to streamline land records, digitise land banks, and provide dispute information.
The India Industrial Land Bank (IILB) should evolve into a National Level Land Bank with central budgetary support.
Simplified Labour Compliances:
Implementation of the four Labour Codes is essential to ease compliance.
Additionally, the Shram Suvidha Portal should become a centralised platform for all labour law compliances across central and state levels.
Improving Trade Facilitation:
The Authorised Economic Operator (AEO) program should be simplified with enhanced benefits like:
extended duty payment periods
self-declared renewals
easier access for MSMEs.
Aligning Metrology Rules with Global Standards:
Synchronising allied legal metrology rules with international standards.
Imported equipment certified by OIML labs should be exempt from additional approval processes.
Addressing Tax Dispute Pendency: The government should reduce income tax litigation by:
Unclogging cases at the Commissioner of Income Tax (Appeals) level.
Improving ADR mechanisms like Advance Pricing Agreements and Dispute Resolution Schemes.
The 10-point agenda can help create a predictable, transparent, and business-friendly environment. By implementing these recommendations, India can strengthen its position as a global investment destination while boosting domestic economic activity.
Context: Small Language Models (SLMs) are a perfect artificial intelligence system fora country like India, where the scope of Artificial Intelligence (AI) adoption is immense but resources are constrained.
Relevance of the Topic:Prelims: Basic understanding of terms like Large Language Models, Small Language Models.
What is a Language Model?
A language model is the core component of modern Natural Language Processing (NLP). It is a statistical model that is designed to analyse the pattern of human language and predict the likelihood of a sequence of words or tokens.
Large language models (LLMs) are AI systems capable of understanding and generating human language by processing vast amounts of text data (has at least one billion or more parameters). E.g., ChatGPT (by Open AI), Gemini (Google), Llama (Meta).
What is a Small Language Model (SLM)?
Small Language Models (SLMs) are compact AI systems designed for natural language processing tasks.
SLMs typically have fewer than 1 billion parameters (ranges from millions to a few billion parameters), making them more efficient in terms of computational resources and energy consumption.
SLMs are capable of performing various NLP tasks such as text generation, translation, and sentiment analysis, with potentially reduced capabilities compared to larger models.
Benefits of Small Language Model:
Ideal for specialised tasks: SLMs are cheaper to run and maintainand ideal for specific use cases. For a company that needs AI for a set of specialised tasks, a large AI model is not required.
Lesser training time: Training small models requires less time, less computation and smaller training data.
High inference speeds: SLMs have faster inference speeds (reduced latency due to fewer parameters) because of their smaller size. This is beneficial for real-time applications where quick responses are crucial. E.g., chatbots or voice assistants.
Use fewer resources: Their smaller size allows for deployment on edge devices, can run offline on smaller devices like mobile phones or embedded systems, making them valuable for applications where resources are limited or privacy is a concern.
In India, where the scope of AI adoption is immense but resources are constrained, SLMs are perfect.
Examples of Small Language Model
MicrosoftPhi (the latest Phi-3-mini has 3.8 billion parameters).
LLaMA 3 (by Meta)
Gemma (by Google)
Limitations of Small Language Model
Less capable of handling complex tasks: Smaller size of SLMs limits their ability to capture and process large amounts of contextual and nuanced information, hence, making them unsuitable for highly intricate tasks, like detailed data analysis or advanced creative writing.
Less accuracy and creativity: Their reduced scale (limited data training) restricts the richness of their outputs, leading to less imaginative or less varied responses, compared to LLMs.
Bias and reduced Performance: Since SLMs operate on fewer parameters and smaller datasets, they are more prone to bias.
Context: The Ministry of Commerce and Industry recently revised gold import figures for November 2024, reducing the reported value by $5 billion. The correction narrowed the trade deficit and highlighted challenges in data accuracy, raising concerns about the reliability of India’s trade statistics.
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Gold Imports- Trends.
What was the data correction?
India's gold imports in November 2024 saw a huge increase (331% more compared to last year).
This caused:
Pressure on the Indian rupee, which almost reached its lowest value against the US dollar.
Concerns in the gold industry, which raised alarms about the accuracy of the data.
When the government checked the numbers carefully, they realised there was a big mistake in how gold import data was calculated. This mistake happened because of technical issues during a change in the data system.
Reasons that caused the Error:
In Special Economic Zones (SEZs), businesses enjoy relaxed trade rules. The issue arose from the migration of data from SEZ Online to the Indian Customs Electronic Gateway (ICEGATE) system.
Previously, SEZ-related trade data was recorded separately by SEZ Online, while data from other ports was captured by ICEGATE.
When the decision was made to shift all SEZ EXIM declarations to ICEGATE, a technical glitch caused both systems to continue transmitting data for SEZs separately, leading to duplicate entries.
This led to double counting of gold imports, first when they entered SEZs and then again when they were cleared into domestic tariff areas (DTAs).
Impacts of Data Correction:
Budget Impact:
The earlier data suggested that gold imports were rising too fast. This could have led to an increase in gold import duties in the upcoming Union Budget.
But with the corrected numbers, the chance of higher taxes is reduced.
Impact on Trade Deficit:
Gold imports contribute significantly to India's trade deficit, which weakens the rupee. The revised data paints a better picture.
Soothes Jewellery Industry Concerns:
Higher taxes on gold would hurt the gems and jewellery industry, which relies heavily on gold. This industry is already struggling due to weak demand in Europe and China, and supply issues from Russia.
Controls Gold Smuggling Problem:
High taxes on gold encourage smuggling, which accounts for about 200 tonnes of gold (25% of the total gold entering India).
Even at the current 6% duty, cases like passengers hiding gold in their bodies are common.
Context: Pink retardants are being used to contain Los Angeles and Southern California wildfires, with thousands of gallons of it being dropped using the planes.
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Pink Fire Retardant.
What is the pink fire retardant?
Fire retardant is a mix of chemicals used to extinguish or slow down the spread of fires. There are different types of fire retardants but Phos-Chek (a brand of fire retardant) is the most common in the United States.
Phos-Chek is a mix of water, fertilizer, and colour. Phos-Chek commonly contains two types of salt: diammonium phosphate ([NH4]2HPO4) and ammonium polyphosphate ((NH4PO3)n).
Salts such as ammonium polyphosphate do not evaporate easily like water and stay for longer.
The retardant is sprayed ahead of the fire to coat vegetation and prevent oxygen from allowing it to burn.
The reaction between the retardant and cellulose (in plants) consumes heat energy from the approaching fire and produces non-flammable carbon material.
Colour is usually added to the fire retardant to ensure that firefighters can see it against the landscape. This helps them create fire lines around the fire retardant, potentially saving lives and property.
What are the concerns?
A 2024 US found that Phos-Chek is laden with toxic metals.
Between 2009 and 2021, more than 400 tons of heavy metals were released into the environment from fire suppression.
These toxic metals include chromium and cadmium which can cause cancer, and kidney and liver diseases in humans.
Further, these metals can enter waterways (growing source of pollution for rivers and streams) and can kill aquatic life.
The effectiveness of Phos-Chek also remains unclear. Aerial retardant is effective over a narrow range of conditions (dependent on slope, fuel type, terrain and weather). The windows of opportunity for these conditions are narrowing each year due to climate change.
Cause of the devastating wild fires
Southern California (the site of the fires) has been experiencing drought conditions and has not seen significant rainfall for months.
The dry conditions are aided by the Santa Ana winds (dry and hot winds common in the area) which most likely caused the wildfires.
Further, climate change has contributed to an increase in the frequency, season length and burned area of wildfires.
Context: The researchers at IIT-Bombay have identified two genera of bacteria, Pseudomonas and Acinetobacter, that have great potential in agriculture.
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Applications of Bacteria.
Major Highlights
1. Bacteria can breakdown aromatic compounds:
Pseudomonas and Acinetobacter groups of bacteria can break harmful aromatic (or ring-shaped) compounds that enter the soil through insecticides, herbicides and industrial effluents into useful nutrients for plants.
Aromatic compounds like naphthalene, benzoate and phthalates are used to make cosmetics, textiles, food preservatives and pesticides.
When these compounds enter the soil, they hinder seed germination, inhibit plant growth and bioaccumulate.
In the process, the bacteria release nutrients useful to plants, such as, Phosphorus, Potassium, growth hormone indoleacetic acid etc.
Significance: Two genera of bacteria can co-exist; which can be utilised to make biofertilizer-cum-biocontrol formulations.
2. Bacterial enzymes to degrade plasticizers:
Recently, researchers from IIT Roorkee have successfully used an enzyme — esterase enzyme — produced by soil bacteria Sulfobacillus acidophilus to break down diethyl hexyl phthalate (DEHP) plasticizer into water and carbon-dioxide.
Plasticizers are chemicals added to plastics and personal care products to enhance flexibility and shine, and are commonly found in items such as baby toys, shampoos, soaps, and food containers.
Plasticizers can be absorbed through the skin and are carcinogenic in nature.
What are Bacteria?
Bacteria are microscopic, single-celled organisms. They constitute a large domain of prokaryotic microorganisms.
Bacteria inhabit the air, soil, water, acidic hot springs, radioactive waste, and the deep biosphere of Earth's crust.
Bacteria also live in mutualistic, commensal and parasitic relationships with plants and animals.
Several species of bacteria are pathogenic and cause infectious diseases, including cholera, syphilis, anthrax, leprosy, tuberculosis, tetanus, bubonic plague etc.
However, many types of bacteria can also be beneficial to humans.
Beneficial use cases of Bacteria:
S. No.
Bacteria (species/class)
Uses
Rhizobium
Form symbiotic relationships with leguminous plants and convert atmospheric nitrogen into a form that plants can use, promoting soil fertility.
Mycorrhizal
Form symbiotic relationships with plant roots, aiding in nutrient uptake, especially phosphorus.
Cyanobacteria (blue-green algae)
Cyanobacteria are photosynthetic microorganisms that can convert sunlight into chemical energy through photosynthesis.Fourth generation biofuelsenvisage using genetically modified organisms like algae and cyanobacteria for biofuel production.
Lactobacillus
Fermentation of various food products, including curd, cheese. Contribute to preservation of food and development of distinct flavours and textures.When consumed as probiotics, they contribute to the maintenance of a healthy gut microbiome.
E. Coli
Used as a host organism in genetic engineering to produce various proteins, enzymes, and other products, like insulin, growth hormones etc.
Activated Sludge Bacteria
Anaerobic bacteria, such as Methanogens, are employed in anaerobic digestion processes. They break down organic matter in the absence of oxygen, producingbiogas (methane and carbon dioxide) as a byproduct.
Pseudomonas
Ability to break down a wide range of pollutants, including hydrocarbons and toxic chemicals. Used in bioremediation processes to clean up contaminated environments.
Cellulolytic bacteria
Some bacteria are capable of breaking down cellulose (complex carbohydrates found in plant cell walls) which is fermented to produce bioethanol and other biofuels.
Bacterial vectors as Gene Therapy Products
Bacteria can be modified to prevent them from causing infectious disease and then used as vectors (vehicles) to carry therapeutic genes into human tissues.
Context: Natural farming is one of the key strategies to reduce input costs and the government is promoting this practice to encourage farmers to move to chemical-free agriculture as part of efforts to mitigate the adverse effects of climate change.
Relevance of the Topic:Mains: Climate-smart Agriculture- Need, Benefits, Strategies, Initiatives, Way Forward
About Climate Smart Agriculture
Climate-smart agriculture (CSA) is an approach that helps guide actions to transform agri-food systems towards green and climate resilient practices.
Objectives: CSA aims to tackle three main objectives:
sustainably increasing agricultural productivity and incomes;
adapting and building resilience to climate change;
reducing and/or removing greenhouse gas emissions, where possible.
CSA supports the FAO Strategic Framework 2022-2031 based on the Four Betters:
better production
better nutrition
better environment
better life for all, leaving no one behind.
What constitutes a CSA practice is context-specific, depending on local socio-economic, environmental and climate change factors.
Dimensions of Climate Smart Agriculture
Water-smart: Access to water for production, including:-
increasing the soil’s capacity to absorb and store moisture (green water)
rainwater harvesting and storage
wastewaterreuse
supplementary small-scale irrigation.
Weather-smart:
Growing crops based on agro-ecological conditions
Use science and technology for creating climate resilient crops and seeds.
Example: Drought resistant crops.
Energy-smart:
Integration of renewable energy sources such as solar and wind power to meet the energy needs of farms.
Installation of smart irrigation systems that use sensors to monitor soil moisture levels and weather conditions.
Carbon-smart practices:
Reduced or no-till farming practices help minimize soil disturbance, which can reduce the release of carbon dioxide (CO2) from the soil into the atmosphere.
Planting cover crops during periods when the main cash crop is not growing provides ground cover, prevents soil erosion, and enhances carbon sequestration.
Agroforestry and Organic farming practices, which avoid synthetic fertilizers and pesticides.
Need for Climate Smart Agriculture
Ensuring food security: Agriculture production should be increased by60% to meet the food demand.
Reduce yield loss: In India, crop yield decline owing to climate change (between 2010 and 2039) could be as high as 9%.
Enhance resource efficiency: CSA activity like no-tillage is advantageous for fertilizer management and can boost yield, nutrient usage efficiency, and profitability while lowering GHG emissions.
Meet SDG: UN’s SDG aims to end hunger and enhance environmental management.
CSA helps in achieving these goals through sustainable agriculture and rural development.
Combat climate change: CSA promotes crop diversification, increases water efficiency, and integrates drought-resistant crop types, all of which help lessen the disruptive effects of climate change.
Meet international obligation: Paris Agreement goal of limiting global warming by reducing GHG emissions is tied directly to the success of the CSA.
Agroforestry and carbon sequestration could help India meet its international obligations and contribute to the global fight against climate change.
Strategies to boost Climate-smart Agriculture
Govt. Initiatives to boost Climate Smart Agriculture:
Cooperatives as a vital tool: Leveraging cooperatives in building climate-smart agriculture in rural India.
Role of NABARD: NABARD aims to build a more resilient and sustainable agricultural sector through:
data-driven solutions
new financial mechanisms, such as Agri Fund and the upcoming Carbon Fund
forming strategic partnerships with multilateral agencies and State governments
National Innovation on Climate Resilient Agriculture: aims to enhance resilience of Indian agriculture to climate change and climate vulnerability through strategic research and technology demonstration.
Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana: extending the coverage of irrigation (‘Har Khet ko pani’) and improving water use efficiency (‘More crop per drop’) in a focused manner.
Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana: aims at supporting and promoting organic farming, in turn resulting in improvement of soil health.
Biotech-KISAN:
a scientist-farmer partnership scheme that empowers farmers, especially women farmers for agriculture innovation.
It aims to understand the problems of water, soil, seed and market faced by the farmers and provide simple solutions to them.
Climate Smart Village: It is an institutional approach to test, implement, modify and promote Climate smart agriculture locally and enhance farmers’ abilities to adapt to climate change.
Way Forward
Promote Agro-ecological Practices: Encourage the adoption of biodiversity-enhancing and soil-friendly agro-ecological techniques.
Develop Resilient Crop Varieties: Invest in research and dissemination of climate-resistant crop varieties.
Improve Water Use Efficiency: Implement water-efficient irrigation systems and rainwater harvesting.
Optimise Livestock Management: Promote climate-resilient livestock practices and breeding for heat tolerance.
Enhance Weather Forecasting: Provide farmers with accurate and timely weather information for better planning.
