GS Paper 3

Shahastra Shakti: Laser-Directed Energy Weapon system

Context: Defence Research and Development Organisation has successfully demonstrated a 30-kilowatt (kW) MKII Laser Directed Energy Weapon system (Sahastra Shakti). It masters the technology of disabling missiles, drones and smaller projectiles.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about the Laser-Directed Energy Weapon system.

Sahastra Shakti Laser Weapon System (MK-II)

Indigenously developed by: DRDO
The 30-kilowatt laser weapon system uses six 5 kW high-energy laser beams to damage or destroy enemy targets.
Designed to: counter aerial threats such as drones, swarm UAVs, and helicopters within a range of 5 kilometers. It can be used to destroy enemy surveillance sensors and antennae.
Effective Range: Up to 5 kilometres (under current test conditions)

Key Features

It is equipped with a 360-degree Electro-Optical/Infrared sensor enabling precision targeting of aerial threats.
It offers instantaneous engagement and low per-shot cost, making them ideal for neutralising low-Radar Cross Section threats (like drones and incoming munitions).
It features advanced electronic warfare capabilities, including jamming communication and satellite signals.
It can be adapted for both ground-based and shipborne applications.

Working of Sahastra Shakti Laser Weapon System

The Sahastra Shakti laser weapon system is mounted on two 4×4 vehicles.

The first vehicle carries a Command and Control unit (C2): It is equipped with an electro-optical (EO) targeting and tracking system which ensures real-time 360 degree tracking and targeting of airborne threats.
The second vehicle houses the Beam Control Unit: It directs the powerful laser beam toward the target based on the inputs from C2.

Significance:

The low-cost alternative reduces the reliance on expensive ammunition while also lowering the risk of collateral damage. It significantly enhances India’s counter-drone and air defence capabilities.
The success has put India in the exclusive club of nations (US, Russia and China) which have the high-power Laser-DEW system.

The advancement aligns with global trends emphasising high-power lasers for missile defense and counter-drone operations. It strengthens India's position in modern warfare.

EPR Credit Certificates for Plastic Waste Management

Context: Producers, Importers, Brand owners (PIBOs) are increasingly purchasing Plastic EPR credit certificates to fulfill their extended producer responsibility (EPR).

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: About Extended Producer Responsibility, EPR credit certificates.

Government’s EPR mandate

Producers, Importers, Brand owners (PIBOs) using food-grade plastic packaging are required to ensure that at least 30% of their packaging consists of recycled polyethylene terephthalate (rPET). April 1, 2025 was the deadline for the manufacturers to meet the government’s extended producer responsibility (EPR) mandate.
However, many producers are still struggling to meet this target due to the limited availability of food-grade rPET in the market. Amid this challenge, Producers, Importers, and Brand Owners (PIBOs) are increasingly turning to plastic EPR credit certificates to fulfill their obligations.

EPR Credit Certificates

According to the Plastic Waste Management (Amendment) Rules 2022, PIBOs can meet their obligations by purchasing credit certificates from CPCB-registered waste processors, who have recycled or properly disposed of an equivalent quantity of plastic waste.
EPR Credit Certificates: Proof of recycling or end-of-life disposal of one kilogram of plastic (1 kg of waste plastic constitutes one credit).
The price range for EPR certificates is determined by the CPCB (Central Pollution Control Board), and the price may vary from state to state.
Non-tradable: Plastic waste processors generate and provide a GST e-invoice to the buyer. This invoice is then uploaded to the EPR portal (maintained by CPCB) to get the EPR credit certificate. Unlike carbon credits, these EPR certificates are non-tradable (meant only for statutory compliance).

EcoEx Platform: EcoEx is a private platform that acts as a marketplace or intermediary where registered producers and recyclers can connect, negotiate, and execute trades within the regulatory framework set by CPCB. It does not issue or validate EPR certificates on its own.

What is Extended Producer Responsibility?

Extended Producer Responsibility is a policy approach that holds producers accountable for the environmental impact of their products throughout their entire life cycle, including post-consumption. E-Waste (Management and Handling) Rules, 2011 introduced the concept of EPR for the first time in India, giving boost to the idea of Circular Economy.
Under EPR, producers, importers, and brand owners are responsible for the collection, recycling, and disposal of their products. It is based on the Polluter Pays Principle.
Presently, stringent EPR guidelines cover plastic, e-waste, and battery waste. Textiles, steel and paper are next in line. Plastic Waste Management Rules, 2016, introduced EPR for plastic waste management in India.

ESA’s Biomass Mission

Context: The European Space Agency (ESA) is set to launch its ambitious Biomass Mission on April 29 from the ESA’s Korou spaceport in French Guiana.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about ESA’s Biomass Mission; Carbon Cycle.

ESA’s Biomass Mission

The satellite will be placed in the sun-synchronous orbit at an altitude of ~666 km. (it will always appear in the same position relative to the Sun).
Objective: Map the world’s forests to provide the very first comprehensive measurements of forest biomass at a global scale. Create 3D images of forests — from the top of the forest canopy to the roots of its trees.
Beyond forest monitoring, the mission will also observe the movement of ice sheets in Antarctica, and generate digital models of terrains covered by dense vegetation.

Working

The mission will use a SAR (synthetic aperture radar) to map the Earth’s surface. The satellite is fitted with a massive 12-m antenna, and will be the first satellite in space to use a long-wave P-band SAR.
This will help it penetrate dense forest canopies to assess how much carbon is stored on the floor and in the branches of the trees, and to assess how these levels are changing over time. Longer wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation penetrate matter more than shorter wavelengths.

Significance: Enhance understanding about the role of forest in the carbon cycle. Allow scientists to more accurately measure how the distribution of carbon in the planet is changing, as humans continue to cut down trees, and increase CO2 levels in the atmosphere.

Carbon Cycle:

Carbon cycle is the process that moves carbon between plants, animals, and microbes; minerals in the earth; and the atmosphere. All lifeforms on Earth, including the smallest microbes, are carbon-based. Earth does not gain or lose carbon. The element only moves between the atmosphere, living organisms, Earth’s crust and soil, and the oceans.
Forests are an essential part of the carbon cycle. Forests store massive amounts of carbon (absorb around ~16 billion metric tonnes of carbon dioxide (CO2) per year), and hold 861 gigatonnes of carbon in their soils and vegetation.
Data on forest biomass (mass of organic matter in forests) is severely lacking on a global scale. This fundamentally limits our understanding of the state of the forests, and their impact on the carbon cycle (and climate). The Biomass mission aims to bridge this knowledge gap.

Note: According to a report by the World Resources Institute, in 2023, Earth lost 3.7 million hectares of tropical forests, equivalent to losing around ten football fields worth of forest land every minute. This forest loss produced roughly 6% of estimated global CO2 emissions in 2023.

rt-LAMP assay: Indigenous Molecular TB test

Context: Indian Researchers have developed and tested a novel, indigenous, cost-effective, real-time LAMP (rt-LAMP) assay for early diagnosis of Tuberculosis.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about rt-LAMP assay test.

What is rt-LAMP assay?

rt-LAMP (Real-time Loop-mediated Isothermal Amplification) is a molecular test that allows rapid detection of DNA.
It utilises a one-step DNA amplification method that is able to detect TB DNA, even with as few as 10 copies per microliter in a sample.
The test has received approval from Central Drugs Standard Control Organisation, and is waiting for validation from Indian Council of Medical Research.

Key Features:

Low cost: Utilises inexpensive dyes (uses Syto 16, a fluorescent dye) and primers.
Sensitivity: Detects TB DNA with as few as 10 copies per microliter in a sample.
One-step amplification: rt-LAMP test works at a single temperature; in contrast RT-PCR requires three different temperature settings.
Time-Efficient: With a high rate of amplification, results of positive samples can be obtained in 10-20 minutes.
High Throughput: process up to 96 or 384 patient samples in a single run.
rt-LAMP assay kit is developed as an open platform system which allows existing RT-PCR machines to be reprogrammed for TB diagnosis.

Why is this significant?

As per the WHO Global TB report 2023: India is the highest TB burden accounting for nearly 27% of the global incidence.
The National Strategic Plan for TB Elimination (2017-2025) aims to end TB by 2025 and emphasises shift towards molecular diagnostics.

Limitations of smear microscopy for TB diagnosis:

Presently, India continues to over-rely on smear microscopy for TB diagnosis, despite:
- Low sensitivity, especially in cases with low bacterial load in a specimen.
- Inability to detect drug-resistant TB.

Other Molecular TB Diagnostic tests in India

GeneXpert: cartridge-based polymerase chain reaction (PCR) test to detect Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB), the causative organism of TB. Accurate but expensive.
Truenat: chip-based real time PCR test for the semi-quantitative detection and diagnosis of MTB.

India votes in favour of first global Carbon Tax on Shipping

Context: World’s first-ever global carbon tax has been imposed on the commercial shipping industry.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts related to Global Carbon Tax on Shipping Industry.

Global Carbon Tax on Shipping Industry

India and 62 other countries voted in favour of the world’s first-ever global carbon tax imposed on the shipping industry by the shipping agency (IMO) of the United Nations.
Aim: To reduce maritime greenhouse gas emissions and promote cleaner technologies.

Starting 2028, ships will have to shift to lower emission fuels or pay a fee for the pollution they generate. The tax could generate up to $40 billion by 2030.
The decision was taken at International Maritime Organisation (IMO) headquarters in London.
Significance: Historic step toward decarbonising maritime transport (responsible for nearly 3% of global greenhouse gas emissions). It is expected to help the sector decarbonise and encourage the use of cleaner technologies.

Criticism of the Agreement

The agreement has also drawn criticism due to:

Exclusion of Climate Finance: All revenues raised from the carbon tax will be ring fenced for decarbonising the maritime sector, and will not be allocated to broader climate finance efforts. A group of more than 60 countries, largely from the Pacific, Caribbean, Africa, and Central America, had pushed for a share of the revenues to be directed towards broader climate finance needs.
Inadequate Emissions Reduction: Carbon pricing is expected to reduce shipping emissions by only 10% by 2030, far short of the IMO’s own target of at least 20%.
Lack of Transparency: Nations like Tuvalu, representing Pacific Island countries, criticised the non-transparent negotiation process and the failure of the agreement to promote a just transition.

International Maritime Organisation (IMO):

Specialised agency of the United Nations responsible for regulating maritime transport, ensuring the safety and security of shipping, and preventing marine pollution.

IMO measures cover all aspects of international shipping – including ship design, construction, equipment, manning, operation and disposal.
It sets global standards for shipping, promotes the adoption of conventions and protocols, and works to ensure the effective implementation of its instruments.
Membership: 175 member states, including India. Membership is open to all states, subject to the provisions of the IMO Convention.

Key Functions and Objectives:

Safety and Security: Develops and maintains standards for maritime safety, including navigation, vessel construction, and the training and certification of seafarers.
Environmental Protection: Works to prevent and control pollution from ships, focusing on issues like ballast water management, emissions reduction, and the management of hazardous waste.
Legal Matters: Deals with legal aspects of maritime transport, including liability for damage, salvage, and collisions.
Technical Cooperation: Provides technical assistance to developing countries to improve their maritime capabilities, including training, capacity building, and technology transfer.

The deal was opposed by oil-rich nations such as Saudi Arabia, the UAE, Russia, and Venezuela. The U.S. delegation did not participate in negotiations and was absent during voting.

Marble waste poses long-term risks

Context: Kishangarh in Rajasthan, known for its marble industry, has gained attention for its unique “snow yard”, a landscape formed by marble slurry waste that visually resembles snow. While this site is promoted as a tourist destination, it raises serious environmental and public health concerns.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts related to Marble and impact of unregulated marble slurry dumping on environment and health.

Key Highlights

Kishangarh has Asia’s biggest marble and granite mandi (market). Once it was a princely state in the central Rajputana territory of British India, known for its temples.
Availability of marble, granite, and other stones in Rajasthan has led to the establishment of about 1200 marble cutting and processing units in the region.
Marble slurry, containing 60% water, has been dumped. Spread over 200 acres, the slurry dumping site resembles a snow-covered field due to calcium carbonate deposits.

Environmental and Health Impacts of Marble Slurry Dumping

A study by Central University of Rajasthan revealed high Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) in water sources up to 10x above safe limits within 6 km of the site.

Reduces soil fertility: Fine marble particles (<75 micrometres) reduce soil fertility and pose long-term ecological risks. Marble dust often settles on farm lands and mixes with irrigation water affecting crop production.
Contaminates drinking water: Due to Marble contamination the groundwater is not fit for drinking or irrigation, as it contains fine marble particles.
Air Pollution: Workers suffer from respiratory issues like chronic cough due to constant exposure to marble dust, and locals allege a rise in pollution-related diseases.

Key facts related to Marble:

Marble is a metamorphic rock composed primarily of calcium carbonate (CaCO₃).
It forms through the metamorphism of limestone under high pressure and temperature.
Largest producer: Rajasthan (notably Makrana, Kishangarh, Rajsamand, Chittorgarh).
Also found in Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh.

Centre approves deal to procure 26 Rafale-M jets from France

Context: India and France formally concluded an Inter-Governmental Agreement valued at nearly ₹64,000 crore to procure 26 Rafale-M fighter jets for the Indian Navy in April 2025. Deliveries are set to begin from mid-2028 and likely to be completed by 2030.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Rafale-M fighter jets.

Major Highlights of the deal

The deal includes 22 single-seater jets that can operate from aircraft carriers, and 4 twin-seater trainer jets which are not carrier-compatible.
The delivery of the jets will begin three-and-a-half years after the contract is signed and is expected to be completed in about six- and-a-half years.

Rafale-M Fighter Jet

Dassault Rafale is a French twin-engine, canard delta wing, multirole 4.5th generation fighter aircraft. Designed and built by: Dassault Aviation (France)
Omnirole aircraft, i.e., it can conduct both air-to-air and air-to-ground missions simultaneously.
Designed for: Maritime strike, air defence and reconnaissance missions. Capable of delivering nuclear weapons.
Combat Range: 780 kms - 1850 kms
Armed with:
- Exocet AM39 anti-ship missiles (70 km range)
- MICA air-to-air missiles (70 km range)
- Meteor air-to-air missiles (120-150 km strike range)
- Scalp air-to-ground cruise missile (>300 km range)

Note: Indian Air Force operates 36 Rafale jets, acquired under a ₹60,000-crore deal signed in September 2016. Due to modifications, the Rafale M is slightly heavier than the IAF Rafale.

Significance: 26 Rafale-M fighter jets will operate from INS Vikrant & INS Vikramaditya aircraft carriers and bolster Indian Navy’s capabilities. At present, the INS Vikramaditya and INS Vikrant operate with the Russian Mikoyan MiG-29K fighter aircraft.

Gaurav - Glide Bomb designed by DRDO

Context: The Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) has successfully conducted the release trials of the Long-Range Glide Bomb ‘Gaurav’ from the Sukhoi aircraft. During the trials, Gaurav demonstrated its capabilities by hitting a target at a range close to 100 kms with pin-point accuracy.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Gaurav - Long Range Glide Bomb.

About Gaurav

It is an air-launched one-thousand-kilogram class glide bomb capable of hitting targets at long distances.
After launch, the bomb navigates towards its target using a precise hybrid navigation system that combines Inertial Navigation System (INS) and GPS data.
It has been designed and developed indigenously by the Research Centre Imarat, Hyderabad.

About glide bomb

It is a stand-off bomb/weapon that uses aerodynamic surfaces to extend its range and accuracy compared to a conventional gravity bomb.
It's released from an aircraft at a distance from the target.
It has control surfaces, such as wings or fins, that allow them to glide and adjust their path, following a flatter trajectory than a traditional bomb, often guided by GPS, laser, or other targeting systems.
It allows aircraft to stay out of the range of enemy defences while still delivering a precision strike.

US classifies Coal as a Critical Mineral

Context: The United States has classified coal, especially coking coal, as a critical mineral. This marks a stark departure from previous energy policies and could have far-reaching implications for climate targets and global coal markets.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts related to Critical Minerals.

US classifies Coal as a Critical Mineral:

The US has classified coal as a critical mineral. This classification aims to:
- Revive the declining US coal industry, which peaked in 2008.
- Support domestic manufacturing, especially the steel industry.
- Power AI data centres that require consistent electricity supply, unlike variable renewables.
The US became among the first countries in the world to do so.
- The European Union also includes coal in its list of “critical raw materials,” alongside high-demand minerals such as lithium, cobalt, and rare earth elements.
- Recently, a NITI Aayog report titled ‘Enhanced Domestic Coking Coal Availability to Reduce the import of Coking Coal’ also advocated coking coal to be included in the list of critical minerals.
Concerns: Doubling down on coal without parallel investments in carbon capture or emissions abatement could derail national and global net zero targets.

What are Critical Minerals?

Critical minerals are metallic or non-metallic elements that are:

Essential for modern technologies, economy and national security, such as electronics, renewable energy, and defense.
Subject to disruption of supply chain, often due to limited reserves, geopolitical issues, or complex processing.

Utility of Critical Minerals:

Renewable Energy sector: Graphite, Lithium, Cobalt, and Nickel are key components of batteries for electric vehicles (EVs).
Defence and Aerospace: Tungsten, molybdenum, and REEs are used in advanced weaponry, fighter jets, satellites, and aircraft. E.g., India’s Chandrayaan-3 mission (2023) and the upcoming Gaganyaan mission underscore the strategic significance of beryllium, tungsten, and rare earth elements.
High-Tech Manufacturing: REEs, Indium, and Gallium are used in electronics, semiconductors, and renewable technologies.
Agriculture: Fertiliser minerals like potash and phosphate.

Global Distribution of Critical Minerals:

According to the 2019 USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries report, China is the world’s largest producer of 16 critical minerals. China is responsible for 60% of global production of rare earth elements.

Critical Minerals in India:

Different countries create their own lists of critical minerals based on their individual needs and strategic considerations. In 2023, the Ministry of Mines, India classified 30 minerals as critical minerals.
These are: Antimony, Beryllium, Bismuth, Cobalt, Copper, Gallium, Germanium, Graphite, Hafnium, Indium, Lithium, Molybdenum, Niobium, Nickel, PGE, Phosphorous, Potash, REE,Rhenium, Silicon, Strontium, Tantalum, Tellurium, Tin, Titanium, Tungsten, Vanadium,Zirconium, Selenium and Cadmium.
India is heavily dependent on imports for critical minerals, making its key strategic sectors vulnerable to global supply chain disruptions and geopolitical tensions.

Also Read: China tops list of Critical Mineral suppliers to India

Eden – Edible alternative to Plastic Wrappers

Context: Innovators from Kerala have developed edible food wrappers named ‘Eden Wrap’. The eco-friendly wrapper is a sustainable innovation and can offer promising alternatives to plastic packaging.

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: Key facts related to Eden.

Mains: Can be used as an example in a step towards sustainable development.

Key Facts related to Eden

The base material of the wrapper is derived from cellulose synthesised by specialised bacteria.
Emulsifiers derived from bacteria along with essential oils extracted from specific plants are incorporated into the base material to form the wrapper. The essential oils give it an antimicrobial property, thus extending the shelf life.
Despite its plastic-like appearance, Eden Wrap is fully-edible. If discarded, it naturally decomposes within a month.
Significance: The packaging material will extend the shelf life of food. The edible wrappers will help in reducing plastic waste and promote sustainable living.

Plastic packaging accounts for approximately 40% of global plastic production, with food packaging emerging as the leading end-use sector. This underscores the urgent need for sustainable alternatives to conventional packaging materials.

Pradhan Mantri Urja Ganga Project

Context: GAIL (India) Limited has completed the laying of over 97% of the integrated Jagdishpur-Haldia-Bokaro-Dhamra Pipeline (JHBDPL), under the Pradhan Mantri Urja Ganga Project, which will carry Natural Gas to the eastern and Northern parts of India.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Pradhan Mantri Urja Ganga Project.

Pradhan Mantri Urja Ganga Project

Total length of pipeline under the Project is approx. 3384 km, and its components include:
- Jagdishpur-Haldia-Bokaro-Dhamra Pipeline
- Barauni-Guwahati Pipeline
Aim: To expand India’s natural gas grid, promote cleaner energy solutions and ensure efficient natural gas distribution, including LNG.
States covered: Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, Odisha, West Bengal and Assam.
Implemented by: Gas Agency of India Limited (GAIL).
Utility: The pipeline is currently transporting 12.26 Million Standard Cubic Meters Per Day (MMSCMD) of natural gas including supplies to fertilizer plants, refineries, industrial consumers, and City Gas Distribution networks, along the pipeline route.

Significance of Urja Ganga Project

Spur economic growth in eastern India by providing access to cheapest gas transportation and gas pricing reforms, and regional integration through natural gas grid.
Enhances India’s energy security by diversifying energy mix.
Reduces carbon emissions by providing a cleaner alternative to conventional fossil fuels.

India’s transition to a Gas-based Economy

Natural gas is a fossil fuel energy source. The largest component of natural gas is methane. It also contains smaller amounts of natural gas liquids (hydrocarbon gas liquids), and non hydrocarbon gases, such as carbon dioxide and water vapour. It is processed and converted into cleaner fuel for consumption.
The Indian Government has set a target to increase the share of gas in the energy mix up to 15% in 2030 to make India a gas-based economy, around 7% at present. Presently, India is importing around 50% of its requirement of natural gas.

Arctic Biome rejects more Carbon

Context: The 2024 Arctic Report Card issued by the US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) stated that frequent wildfires are turning the Arctic Boreal Zone from a carbon sink to a carbon source.

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: Key facts about Arctic Boreal Zone.

Mains: Climate change: Key trends.

Arctic Boreal Zone

It is a vast transitional zone, also known as ‘boreal forests’, stretching between Arctic tundra and the temperate forests of the Northern Hemisphere.
It represents 1/3rds of the Earth's forested area- the largest terrestrial biome. Found across: Canada, Alaska (US), Russia, Mongolia and Scandinavian nations (Norway, Finland, Sweden).
It is a significant global carbon sink dominated by coniferous forests, and also comprises tundra, wetlands and permafrost zones.

Why is the Arctic Boreal Zone releasing more carbon dioxide?

Frequent and intense wildfires: A study published in Nature Climate Change reports that more than 30% of the ABZ has shifted from being a carbon sink to a carbon source, largely due to intense and frequent wildfires. Wildfires burn through natural carbon reservoirs like forests and peatlands. This transforms these ecosystems into sources of carbon emissions.
Thawing of tundra permafrost: Permafrost (permanently frozen grounds beneath the tundra) hold 2.5 times the carbon that is currently in the atmosphere. Due to Arctic warming, the permafrost has begun to thaw. This leads to release of carbon dioxide and methane, and thus, has undermined the carbon storage capacity of ABZ.

Increasing intensity and frequency of wildfires:

Multiple regions around the globe including the U.S., Japan, and India — have witnessed a surge in wildfires, dust storms, and extreme weather events.
- According to the Copernicus Air Monitoring Service (CAMS) of the European Union, wildfires in January 2025 alone have released approximately 800,000 tonnes of carbon, nearly four times the emissions from a decade earlier.
India’s wildfires are estimated to emit 69 million tonnes of CO₂ annually. Heat waves are now arriving earlier, lasting longer, and moving slower, creating conditions ripe for forest fires. It has long-term implications for climate change.

Also Read: Forest Fire Incidents in India

Sahastra Shakti Laser Weapon System (MK-II)

Key Features

Working of Sahastra Shakti Laser Weapon System

Significance:

Government’s EPR mandate

EPR Credit Certificates

What is Extended Producer Responsibility?

ESA’s Biomass Mission

Working

What is rt-LAMP assay?

Key Features:

Why is this significant?

Limitations of smear microscopy for TB diagnosis:

Other Molecular TB Diagnostic tests in India

Global Carbon Tax on Shipping Industry

Criticism of the Agreement

Key Highlights

Environmental and Health Impacts of Marble Slurry Dumping

Major Highlights of the deal

Rafale-M Fighter Jet

About Gaurav

About glide bomb

US classifies Coal as a Critical Mineral:

What are Critical Minerals?

Utility of Critical Minerals:

Global Distribution of Critical Minerals:

Critical Minerals in India:

Key Facts related to Eden

Pradhan Mantri Urja Ganga Project

Significance of Urja Ganga Project

India’s transition to a Gas-based Economy

Arctic Boreal Zone

Why is the Arctic Boreal Zone releasing more carbon dioxide?

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