GS Paper 3

Thorium Fuelled Nuclear Reactors 

Context: Recently, China has successfully refuelled a working 2MW Thorium-fuelled molten salt reactor without causing a shutdown.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims & Mains: Thorium fuelled Nuclear reactors; Advantages of Thorium reactors over Uranium reactors. 

Thorium Reactor in China

  • China has developed a small, 2MW experimental Thorium Nuclear Reactor in the Gobi Desert, near the Mongolian border. It is operational from 2024. 
  • China is working towards developing a 10 MW Thorium Nuclear Reactor for commercial use by 2030. 
  • China’s efforts have put it at the forefront of both thorium-based fuel breeding and molten-salt reactors.
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Thorium based Nuclear Reactors

  • Thorium (Th-232) is a fertile material that has to be converted to fissile material Uranium 233. The naturally occurring isotope Th-232 cannot be fissioned, but when irradiated in a reactor it absorbs neutrons and forms uranium-233, a fissile material that generates heat.
  • Coolant: Molten salt. China’s reactors use fluoride-based salts, which melt into a colourless, transparent liquid when heated to about 450 ºC. The salt acts as a coolant to transport heat from the reactor core.
  • Rather than solid fuel rods, molten-salt reactors use the liquid salt as a substrate for the fuel, such as thorium, to be directly dissolved into the core.
  • Compared to light water reactors in conventional nuclear power plants, molten salt reactors work at significantly higher temperatures. The result is that it can generate electricity much more efficiently.

Thorium reactors offer multiple Advantages: 

As the world confronts the twin challenges of climate change and energy security, Thorium is making a comeback. 

  • Less radioactive waste (burning thorium does not create plutonium, a highly toxic chemical element)
  • Cheaper alternative to Uranium and More fuel-efficiency
  • Far safer (because the fuel is already dissolved in liquid and they operate at lower pressures than do conventional nuclear reactors, which reduces the risk of explosive meltdowns)
  • Lower risk of nuclear weapons proliferation (its waste products are less weapons-grade than Uranium)  
  • Does not need to be built near watercourses, since the molten salts serve as a coolant. (Conventional uranium power plants that need huge amounts of water to cool their reactors).

India and its plan to use Thorium Reactors

  • India has the world’s largest reserves of thorium — a million tonnes — particularly in its monazite-rich coastal sands. 
  • As per the three-stage nuclear programme envisioned by nuclear scientist Dr Homi Bhabha, the country would use thorium reactors in the third stage. However, India has only commenced its second stage of nuclear programme in 2024. 

Also Read: Three-stage Nuclear Program of India 

India produces world's 1st Rice varieties using Genome Editing

Context: India has become the first country in the world to develop rice varieties using genome editing technology. Scientists have used Site-Directed Nuclease 1 and Site-Directed Nuclease 2 (SDN-1 and SDN-2) genome editing techniques to develop the seeds

The two new varieties give 25% more yield and use less water, and incorporate no foreign DNA. The new seeds will be available for farmers after the required clearances within six months and large-scale seed production will probably take place during the next three crop seasons.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Regulation of Gene Editing in Agriculture; SDN technology (SDN1, 2, 3 etc.)

New genetically Edited Rice Varieties

  • Scientists have developed two-genome edited, climate resilient, improved rice varieties-  'DRR Dhan 100 (Kamala)' and 'Pusa DST Rice 1' , after receiving appropriate bio-safety clearance under India's simplified regulations for genome edited crops.
  • Developed by scientists from: Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi and the Indian Rice Research Institute, Hyderabad.
  • Benefits of the New Varieties: 
    • Enhance production (25% more yield)
    • Crop needs shorter time, and thus saves water used for irrigation 
    • Reduces greenhouse gas emissions (by 20%)
  • Not GM Crop: The two new varieties incorporate no foreign DNA, so they are not genetically modified (GM). Hence the apprehensions about GM foods does not apply in this case.

India became the first country in the world to develop Genome-Edited (GE) Rice varieties. The new paddy varieties have the potential for revolutionary changes in higher production, climate adaptability, and water conservation.

Push For Genome Editing

  • Under the budget announcement 2023-24, the government of India had allocated Rs 500 crore for genome editing in agricultural crops.
  • ICAR has launched initiatives to harness genome editing for the development of many crops, including oilseeds and pulses, livestock, fish, and microbial varieties.
  • Genome editing, particularly the CRISPR-Cas technology, is being hailed as a breakthrough in precision breeding. It enables scientists to make targeted changes in the native genes of living organisms, creating new and desirable traits without introducing foreign DNA.
  • Two key approaches: Site Directed Nuclease 1 (SDN1) and Site Directed Nuclease 2 (SDN2) - produce genetically edited organisms that are considered indistinguishable from naturally occurring or conventionally bred mutants. They are exempt from the stringent bio-safety regulations under Rules 7-11 of the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.

GE Rice Varieties: (Kamala and Pusa DST Rice 1)

  • Scientists selected two widely cultivated mega rice varieties - Samba Mahsuri (BPT5204) and MTU1010 (Cottondora Sannalu).
  • Samba Mahsuri is known for its fine grain quality and premium market value, but it falls short in terms of climate resilience. It is vulnerable to pests, diseases, and climate stress.
  • MTU1010 is a high yielding early-duration variety (125-130 days) well-suited to Rabi season cultivation in southern India. But it too suffers from sensitivity to drought and soil salinity.
  • Through genome editing, ICAR scientists enhanced these varieties with better stress tolerance, improved yield, and climate adaptability, without compromising their existing strengths, and developed two new varieties 'Kamala' and 'Pusa DST Rice 1'.
  • Developed using the CRISPR-Cas9 system, these crops are free of foreign DNA and showcase impressive traits. 

Note: 

  • Genetically Edited (GE) crops are different from genetically modified (GM) crops. 
  • GE crops involve mere editing of genes naturally present in the host plant, leading to mutation or changes in their DNA sequence. No foreign genes or DNA are incorporated.
  • GM crops involve introduction of genes from unrelated species into host plants. E.g., genes from Bacillus thuringiensis (soil bacterium) in cotton crops.

Regulation of Gene Editing in Agriculture In India

  • Genetically modified organisms (GMOs) are regulated in India by the ‘Rules for the Manufacture, Use, Import, Export and Storage of Hazardous Microorganisms/ Genetically Engineered Organisms or Cells, 1989’. The rules are notified under the Environment Protection Act 1986 to regulate GMOs. 
  • There is no explicit mention of the term gene editing. Recently, an amendment was introduced to the aforesaid regulation in order to encourage gene editing in agriculture.
  • Gene editing techniquesusing native genome are allowed in India. However, gene editing techniques using foreign genomes are not allowed.
    • Gene editing techniques called SDN 1 and 2 (Site-Directed Nuclease) use native genome and hence, are allowed under the Rules under EPA, 1986. 
    • Gene editing techniques using foreign genomes like SDN 3, 4 and 6 are placed under GMO regulation, and therefore not allowed in India.
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Common types of Gene Editing Techniques: 

  • SDN-1: Site-Directed Nuclease (SDN) 1 is a site-directed mutagenesis (production of genetic mutations) without using a DNA sequence template. SDN1 introduces a precise cut in the DNA at the targeted location → the cell’s natural repair mechanisms fix these breaks without introducing any foreign genetic material. 
  • SDN-2: In SDN 2, the edit involves a precise cut in the DNA at a target location → a small template from the same species is provided to guide the repair process. 
  • SDN-3: Involves the insertion of foreign DNA and falls under the category of GMOs. E.g., Bt cotton → gene from the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) → inserted into cotton plants. 

Development of these two varieties using genome-editing technology has paved the way of using this innovative method in other crops too for higher yields, climate resilience and improved quality.

What is a Gig Worker? - Definition & Meaning

Context: As of 2025, India’s gig economy is projected to employ over 12 million workers, a number expected to increase further with urbanisation and digital penetration. The workers often work 10-12 hours daily, six or seven days a week, to meet basic needs. They are devoid of social security (i.e., no provident fund, no health insurance, and no pension). 

Relevance of the Topic: Mains: Gig workers: Challenges faced and government initiatives.

About gig workers

  • Code on Social Security 2020 defines a gig worker as “a person who performs work or participates in a work arrangement and earns from such activities outside of traditional employer-employee relationship. 
  • In this firms hire workers on a part-time flexible basis rather than as full-time employees.
  • They can be broadly classified into platform and non-platform-based workers.
  • Platform workers are individuals whose work is based on online software apps or digital platforms. For example, drivers for cab-hailing services like Uber or Ola, delivery workers of Zomato or Swiggy.
  • While non-platform gig workers are generally casual wage workers and own-account workers in the conventional sectors, working part-time or full time. For example, home-based workers (such as handicrafts, tailoring, etc.) and domestic workers (maids, cooks, etc.)
  • According to the report by NITI Aayog and IBEF, the gig workforce in India is 7.7 million and is expected to expand to 2.35 crore (23.5 million) workers by 2029-30.

Government initiative regrading gig workers

  • Code of social security: Provides for the registration of all the Gig workers. 
    • It calls upon the Central and State Governments to formulate schemes to ensure social security benefits such as Insurance for the Gig workers. 
    • It also empowers the Government to set up Social Security Funds for their benefit. The contribution to these funds may be funded from contributions of Centre, State and aggregator platforms such as Uber, Zomato etc.
    • The National Social Security Board will be responsible for ensuring the well-being of gig economy workers and will consist of representatives from both aggregator companies and gig workers.
  • e-shram portal: A centralised database of Unorganized Workers which will help to implement the social security services to them and share their information with various stakeholders for delivering the welfare schemes.
  • The Rajasthan Platform Based Gig Workers (Registration and Welfare) Act 2023: A board will be set up to make sure gig workers register and receive support, addressing their weaknesses and giving them a way to bargain and negotiate together. The Act also includes a plan to create a social security fund, which will be funded by a fee on each transaction.
  • PMJAY to Gig Workers: The Budget 2025 announced that gig workers will now be eligible for healthcare under the Ayushman Bharat Pradhan Mantri Jan Arogya Yojana (AB-PMJAY). This move addresses gig workers' lack of income security and access to medical services.

Challenges faced by gig workers

  • Social security:  Platform workers in India are predominantly paid a piece rate (i.e., Per task) and are classified by the platforms as “Independent contractors”. As a result, workers do not benefit from labour regulations pertaining to wages, hours, working conditions, and the right to collective bargaining.
  • Safety and health risk: Due to the demanding work hours, drivers are physically exhausted, and exposed to an increased risk of road traffic accidents, especially due to the ‘10-minute delivery at the doorstep’ policy of certain e-commerce platforms.
  • Algorithmic control: Platforms are criticised for having opaque algorithms, imposing excessive control over their workers through “ratings-based reputation systems”, assigning “disproportionate power” to customers over workers, and causing significant risk to workers who are unfairly penalised based on customer feedback.
  • Modest pay: Many app-based cab drivers and delivery workers are having a hard time covering their costs because they're paid too little. For example, Blinkit pays a minimum of only Rs 15 for each delivery.
  • Issues with labour codes: Among the four proposed new labour codes, only the Code on Social Security mentions gig work.
    • Despite receiving the assent of the President, the Labour Codes are still awaiting implementation 4 years on.

Way forward:

According to Niti Aayog: 

  • Platformisation: Platform India initiative can be launched similar to Start-up India, to make platforms simpler and provide support through funding, incentives, skill development, and financial inclusion.
  • Need regulations to ensure that companies establish fair and transparent payment structures to protect gig workers from being underpaid or exploited by companies.
  • Platform-led models for skilling and job creation: In the gig and platform sector need promotion. Platforms can collaborate with the Ministry of Skill Development and Entrepreneurship and the National Skill Development Corporation (NSDC) to nurture skilled workers and micro-entrepreneurship.
  • Gender Sensitisation & Accessibility Awareness Programmes for workers and their families: Platform businesses can undertake partnerships with Civil Society Organizations (CSOs) to enable different sections of workers such as women workers and PwDs to take up employment opportunities in the platform sector through skill development, access to finance and assets.
  • Occupational Disease and Work Accident Insurance: On the lines of Indonesia’s initiatives in offering accident and other insurance to platform workers, may adopt such a model for providing accident insurance to all delivery and driver partners, and other platform workers across India.
  • RAISE Framework for Operationalizing the Code on Social Security (CoSS), 2020: As Central and State governments draw up rules and regulations under CoSS 2020, they could adopt the five-pronged RAISE approach to ensure realisation of full access to social security for all gig and platform workers: 
    • Recognise the varied nature of platform work to design equitable schemes.
    • Allow augmentation of social security through innovative financing mecha- nisms. 
    • Incorporate, while designing schemes, the specific interests of platforms, factoring the impact on job creation, platform businesses and workers.
    • Support workers to subscribe to government schemes and welfare programmes through widespread awareness campaigns. 
    • Ensure benefits are readily accessible to workers.

Global Practices:

  • In 2021, the United Kingdom recognized Uber drivers as ‘workers’ under the UK Employment Rights Act 1996.
  • Germany's Temporary Employment Act ensures gig workers receive equal pay and treatment.

Rising Temperatures and Mango Productivity

Context: Despite rising temperatures and erratic weather affecting mango quality and flowering, India’s mango productivity has grown largely due to the fruit’s genetic diversity, which enhances its resilience to climate change.

Relevance of the Topic: Mains: Impact of rising temperatures on production of crops. 

Rising Temperatures:  

  • According to the India Meteorological Department’s (IMD) Annual Climate Survey of 2024, the year 2024 was the warmest year on record since 1901. 
  • The country’s annual mean land surface air temperature during the year 2024 was +0.65°C above the 1991-2020 average. IMD data also shows that the last 12 years have been warmer than earlier years.

Impacts of rising temperatures on Mango Production

1. Anticipated Impact: 

  • Higher temperatures lead to early maturity, fruit drop, and disorders such as spongy tissue in varieties like Alphonso. 
  • Anecdotal information suggests that mango productivity has been affected due to rising temperatures.

2. Observed Impact: 

  • Empirical evidence and statistical data of the Horticulture Department in India suggest otherwise contradicting the perception of decline. 
  • Data from the Horticulture Department and Agricultural Market Intelligence Centre show that mango productivity and cultivated area in India have both increased.
    • Mango productivity in India has increased from 5.5 metric tonnes per hectare (MT/Ha) in FY2009 to 9.7 MT/Ha in FY2018.
    • India’s productivity in 2024–25 is expected to surpass that of major producers like China and Thailand. 
Impacts of rising temperatures on Mango Production

Reasons behind increased production despite rising temperatures: 

  • Experts explain this resilience is due to the genetic diversity of mangoes. Genetic diversity allows the fruit to adapt to changing conditions, such as high temperatures and irregular rainfall.
  • Indian researchers and horticulture experts suggest that while extreme weather can disrupt flowering and fruiting stages, the physiological mechanisms and genetic variation in mango species help them withstand environmental stress.

Despite climatic stressors like heat waves and erratic rainfall, India’s mango production remains robust, largely due to genetic adaptability. This offers hope for future agricultural resilience in the face of climate change.

Port Economy will drive India’s growth

Context: Recently, the Prime Minister of India commissioned the ₹8800-crore Vizhinjam International Deepwater Multipurpose Seaport, India’s first dedicated container transshipment port, in Kerala.

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: Vizhinjam International Deepwater Multipurpose Seaport.

Mains: Port Economy in India: Significance, challenges and Initiatives. 

Vizhinjam International Deepwater Multipurpose Seaport:

  • India’s first dedicated container transshipment port.
  • Developed by: Adani Ports and Special Economic Zone Ltd, through a public-private partnership with the Kerala government.
  • It has a natural deep draft of nearly 20 metres and is located near one of the world’s busiest sea trade routes.
  • It is expected to strengthen India’s position in global trade, enhancing logistics efficiency, and reducing reliance on foreign ports for cargo transshipment

India’s Ports

  • Port Infrastructure: 13 major ports and over 200 notified minor and intermediate ports. 
  • India is the 16th largest maritime nation in the world. Most cargo ships traveling between East Asia and destinations like America, Europe, and Africa traverse Indian waters, highlighting India’s strategic importance.
  • Major Ports are under the administrative control of the Ministry of Shipping and are governed under the Major Port Authorities Act, 2021. The Government of India appoints a Board of Trustees to oversee each major port. Their responsibilities include port development, management, and operations.
  • All the Non-Major Ports (minor ports) are governed under the Indian Ports Act of 1908. The Act regulates the berths, stations, anchoring, fastening, mooring, and unmooring of vessels. They come under the jurisdiction of respective State Maritime Boards/ State Governments.

Significance of Ports Infrastructure: 

  • Vital gateways for international trade: Enable the movement of goods and commodities between countries. India’s major and minor ports handle about 95% of India’s international trade.
  • Create numerous economic opportunities, generating employment and attracting investments. The government has allowed up to 100% Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) under the automatic route for projects related to the construction and maintenance of ports and harbours. 
  • Critical node in global supply chains: connect different modes of transportation and facilitate the smooth flow of goods from production centres to consumers.
  • Significant source of revenue for governments through tariffs, customs duties, and other fees levied on cargo handling and related services.
  • Connectivity and Regional Integration: They facilitate trade between neighbouring countries, promote cross-border cooperation, and support the development of economic zones and industrial clusters. Well-developed ports enhance a country's competitiveness in global markets.

India's Improvement in the Port Sector

  • Increased Port Capacity:
    • India’s major ports are handling 820 MMT of cargo annually, which is a 47% growth since 2014. 
    • The overall port capacity has doubled to 1,630 MMT during the same period.
    • India’s port capacity is expected to increase six-folds to 10,000 MT per annum by 2047. This would make India one of the top 10 maritime countries in the world.
  • Mega Ports:
    • Jawaharlal Nehru Port, India’s largest shipping facility, has crossed 10 million TEUs (twenty-foot equivalent units) container handling capacity. 
    • Vadhavan Port in Maharashtra is set to become India’s largest container facility.
    • The proposed International Container Transshipment Port at Galathea Bay, Great Nicobar would capture transshipment trade along key global routes.
  • Efficiency Gains:
    • According to the World Bank’s Logistic Performance Index (LPI) Report 2023, India is ranked 22nd in the “International Shipments” category, from the 44th position in 2018.
    • Operational Efficiency: Container dwelling time has now reduced to three days. Vessel turnaround time has improved to 0.9 days.
    • Nine Indian ports feature in the World Bank’s Container Port Performance Index 2023. Visakhapatnam ranks among the top 20 globally.
  • Enhanced Public-Private Partnerships: There has also been a nearly 150% increase in the value of operationalisation of PPP projects in the major ports from about Rs 16,000 crore in 2015 to more than Rs 40,000 crore in 2022-23. 

Associated Challenges

  • Issues with technology and inadequate infrastructure are present in non-major ports, where there aren't enough berths or ones that are long enough for vessels to berth properly.
  • Port Congestion: The number of containers, the lack of equipment for managing them, and ineffective operations all contribute to port congestion, which is a major problem. Consider the port of Nhava Sheva as an illustration.
  • Protracted Inspections and Scrutiny: Despite India’s customs processes rapidly moving towards paperlessness and digitisation, cargo and other maritime activities are nevertheless the subject of protracted inspections and scrutiny.
  • Management Issues: Different administrations are in charge of major and minor ports. Their regulatory framework is also rigid.
  • Dredging: Some Indian ports particularly those on the east coast and near the Gulf of Mannar are prone to excessive siltation which reduces their capacity.

Government Initiatives

  • Harit Sagar Green Port guidelines: It aims to bring about a paradigm shift towards safe, efficient, and sustainable ports while implementing sound environmental practices among all stakeholders.
  • National Logistics Portal (Marine): It is a single-window digital platform for all stakeholders including those engaged in cargo services, carrier services, banking and financial services, and government and regulatory agencies. 
  • Sagar Setu App: It facilitates seamless movement of goods and services in ports while substantially enhancing the ease of doing business.
  • Major Port Authorities Act, 2021 which grants greater autonomy to major ports. 
  • Marine Aids to Navigation Act 2021 that provides for increased safety and efficiency in vessel traffic services and training and certification at par with international standards.
  • Indian Vessels Act 2021 which brings uniformity in law and standardised provisions across all inland waterways in the country. 
  • Maritime India Vision 2030: Accelerate growth of India’s maritime sector by developing world-class Mega Ports, transhipment hubs and infrastructure modernisation of ports. 
  • Sagarmala Project: To promote port-led development in the country through harnessing India’s 7,500 km long coastline, 14,500 km of potentially navigable waterways and strategic location on key international maritime trade routes. The main vision is to reduce logistics cost. 

Way Forward

  • Promoting Private Sector Participation: With the increasing participation of the private sector in the port sector, the share of minor ports has been increasing. In this respect suitable policy changes are needed to the Indian Ports Act of 1908 with present-day requirements.
  • Infrastructure Development: Expansion and modernisation by increasing the capacity of ports to handle larger volumes of cargo, improving berthing facilities, and upgrading storage and handling capabilities. The use of advanced technologies such as automated cranes, robotic systems, and smart port management systems should be explored to optimise operations and improve efficiency.
  • Improve Port Connectivity: Efforts should be made to improve connectivity between ports and the hinterland through efficient road and rail networks.
  • Establishing Coastal Economic Zones (CEZs): To provide a conducive business environment, streamlined regulatory processes, and infrastructure support, which can attract manufacturing units, logistics companies, and other industries to set up operations near ports.
  • Digitisation of Port Operations: Implementing technologies such as blockchain, Internet of Things (IoT), and data analytics can enhance transparency, efficiency, and security in port operations. Automation of processes, such as electronic documentation, container tracking, and cargo clearance, can help reduce paperwork, delays, and human errors.
  • Reducing Regulatory Burden: Simplifying and streamlining regulatory processes, permits, and clearances related to port infrastructure development can attract investments and expedite project implementation. An efficient regulatory framework can provide certainty to investors and promote ease of doing business in the port sector.

The port economy reaches its full potential when infrastructure and the ease of doing business are promoted together. Through public-private partnerships (PPP) over the past 10 years, the government has undertaken efforts through policy reforms and induction of new technologies to upgrade India’s ports to global standards.

Is Natural Hydrogen the fuel of the future?

Context: For India, an economy in growth mode with aspirations to reach net-zero emissions by 2070, the exploitation and use of Natural Hydrogen offers a potentially game-changing opportunity.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims & Mains: Hydrogen as a fuel: advantages; resource distribution; technologies for extraction and harvesting Hydrogen. 

Hydrogen Fuel

  • Hydrogen is the lightest and the most abundant element in the universe.
    • On Earth, it is found in compounds like water or hydrocarbons. It must be created and stored before it tends to be utilised.
    • Natural hydrogen also occurs as a free gas in geology, produced by processes such as serpentinisation (the interaction of water and iron-containing rocks), radiolysis of water by radioactive rocks, and from organic matter at depth.
  • Hydrogen Fuel: Presently, Hydrogen fuel is produced by splitting water (H₂O) into its components: hydrogen (H₂) and oxygen (O₂). The hydrogen gas can be used to power fuel cells, which generate electricity through a chemical reaction between hydrogen and oxygen, releasing only water vapour as a byproduct. 
  • If harvested in a sustainable manner, natural Hydrogen may provide a clean and potentially low-cost fuel to satisfy the world’s increasing energy needs with a considerable reduction in carbon emissions as well. 

How is Hydrogen Extracted?

  • Currently, the majority of hydrogen is manufactured from natural gas through an energy-intensive and polluting process. 
  • Green hydrogen can be made using renewable electricity, however, is still prohibitively expensive and would require vast amounts of wind and solar power to work out at scale.
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Hydrogen Reserves: 

  • The presence of Hydrogen in coal mines points towards generation from underlying organic matter.
  • Active mountain ranges with tectonic activity, such as the Pyrenees, Alps, and Himalayas, are being considered as areas for geological hydrogen production. 
  • The fact that Helium co-exists with Hydrogen in a few reserves points towards some geological processes, such as radiolysis, playing a role in its generation. 

Hydrogen Reserves in the World:

  • Hundreds of hydrogen seeps have been catalogued globally in various countries, including Australia (Eyre Peninsula and Kangaroo Island), the US (Kansas, Nebraska), Spain, France, Albania, Colombia, South Korea, and Canada. 
  • An estimated tens of trillions metric tonnes of Hydrogen may be available in geologic stores. If even just 2% of these reserves are commercially exploitable, they would provide about twice as much energy as all the earth’s provable natural gas reserves —enough to meet projected hydrogen demand (500 million tonnes per year) for around two hundred years. 

Hydrogen Reserves in India

India’s Hydrogen demand is projected to grow from six million tonnes per year (Mt/year) in 2020 to over 50 Mt/year by 2070 to support its net-zero target. The natural hydrogen reserves are likely present in favourable geological structures like:

  • Hard rock formations of diverse ultramafic/mafic and basaltic assemblages
  • Andaman and Himalayan ophiolite complexes
  • Greenstone volcanic-sedimentary sequences in cratons (Dharwar, Singhbhum)
  • Sedimentary basis (for example, in Vindhyan, Cuddapah, Gondwana and Chhattisgarh), basement rocks with fractures
  • Areas where active hydrothermal systems as represented by hot springs exist.

Challenges in Exploration and Excavation of Natural Hydrogen: 

Natural Hydrogen exploitation and exploration is not easy. It has technical, logistical, economical, and safety-related challenges. 

  • Accurately locating and quantifying underground hydrogen reserves is the primary challenge. Unlike oil and gas, for which well-established exploration techniques exist, natural hydrogen exploration is still evolving. 
  • Development of efficient and cost-effective extraction technology for natural hydrogen. While modifying current gas industry practices associated with well drilling and extraction facilities, one must consider hydrogen’s specific properties, including its small molecular size and high diffusivity.
  • Hydrogen extraction also involves specific safety issues as opposed to hydrocarbons because of its high diffusivity and reactivity. 

Approaches under-development for Hydrogen Excavation: 

  • Production of hydrogen by drilling and flowing water into rock and then transporting the hydrogen to the surface for collection. 
  • Injecting water with dissolved carbon dioxide into iron-containing rocks that could potentially lead to carbon sequestration as limestone, while simultaneously producing hydrogen.

Also Read: Hydrogen as an alternative fuel: Explained 

A comprehensive geological study is essential in India, considering critical factors such as the quality, extent, thickness, accessibility, and hydrocarbon generation potential of the source rock; size and viability of hydrocarbon accumulations; potential losses during migration; and the accessibility of the area for exploration and development.

Centre hikes Fair and Remunerative Price for Sugarcane

Context: Cabinet Committee on Economic Affairs (CCEA) has approved a hike of ₹15/quintal in the fair and remunerative price (FRP) of sugarcane to ₹355/quintal, for the next sugar season beginning October (2025-26). 

Relevance of the Topic:Prelims: Key facts about Fair and Remunerative Price. 

Fair and Remunerative Price of Sugarcane:

  • Fair and Remunerative Price (FRP) is the minimum price declared by the central government that sugar mills are legally bound to pay to farmers for the sugarcane procured from them.
  • FRP is fixed under the Sugarcane (Control) Order, 1966. 
  • FRP is determined on the recommendations of Commission for Agricultural Costs and Prices (CACP), by considering factors like:
    • Cost of production
    • Sugar recovery rate
    • Market price of sugar 
    • Reasonable margins for farmers 
  • The FRP system assures timely payment to farmers, irrespective of the profit and loss to sugar mills.
  • Alternatively, the states can set a separate SAP (State Advised Price), often higher than FRP to support local farmers. 

Fair and Remunerative Price of Sugarcane is approved by

  • Cabinet Committee on Economic Affairs: CCEA (chaired by the Prime Minister) gives final approval to the FRP of sugarcane based on the CACP's recommendations.
  • Commission for Agricultural Costs and Prices: CACP recommends FRP after analysing various cost factors involved in sugarcane production. However, it does not have authority to approve the final FRP. 

Note: The Sugar sector is completely controlled by the government (both Centre and States), which decides a host of issues such as location to set up factories, demarcated area to buy sugarcane, minimum cane price, minimum selling price of sugar, monthly allocation of sugar quota to be sold in domestic market, export permit and ethanol quantity to be sold to oil marketing companies.

India’s Urban Future is at Crossroads

Context: India's urban governance needs urgent reform to effectively implement SDG-11, i.e., to make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable. 

Relevance of the Topic: Mains: Limitations in current urban governance and planning frameworks.

Urbanisation: Double-edged sword

  • India is undergoing an unprecedented urban transformation, with more than 30% of its population residing in cities. 
  • However, Urbanisation is a double-edged sword. While it brings economic opportunities and development, it also exacerbates environmental degradation, congestion, pollution, and social inequalities.
  • E.g., the recent crisis in cities like Bengaluru and Hyderabad indicate, water shortages, power deficits, and extreme heat are no longer seasonal anomalies but signs of systemic fragility.
  • The 2023 Annual Survey of Indian City Systems by Janaagraha revealed that only 16 cities had a city sustainability plan, and just 17 had a resilience strategy. This highlights the foundational work still required to align urban governance with SDG-11. 

The 2025 report by the Sustainable Futures Collective titled- ‘Is India Ready for a Warming World?’ notes serious gaps in long-term urban climate planning. 

Limitations in Existing Indices

  • Inadequate SDG-11 Tracking: NITI Aayog’s SDG Urban Index ranks 56 cities on 77 indicators. But its SDG-11 component is limited to four indicators: Swachh Survekshan, road deaths, PMAY-U housing, and waste treatment. It excludes critical aspects like climate resilience, social inclusivity, and urban safety.
  • Fragmented Assessment Tools: Ease of Living Index covers 111 cities but lacks a dedicated SDG-11 framework. International indices (e.g., Mercer, Economist) often fail to capture localised Indian realities.
  • Policy-Research Gap: The absence of city-specific data and disaggregated indicators inhibits targeted policymaking and the identification of urban stress zones.

The absence of a focused SDG-11 index hinders policymakers from identifying genuinely safe, sustainable, and inclusive cities, creating a policy-research gap. To bridge this gap, a new research initiative was undertaken.

The New Research Initiative

  • The research initiative constructed four separate indices aligned with the pillars of SDG-11: safety, inclusivity, sustainability, and resilience.
  • Ten major Indian cities: Hyderabad, Delhi, Bengaluru, Chennai, Mumbai, Pune, Kolkata, Jaipur, Ahmedabad, and Surat were ranked across selected indicators. 
  • These included 9 indicators for safety, 19 for inclusivity, and 15 for sustainability and resilience each.
  • Data sources included Census 2011, the Road Transport Yearbook, Indian Forest Survey, NCRB, PLFS, NFHS-5, RBI statistics, IMD Climatological Tables, and Ola Mobility Institute's 2022 Ease of Moving Index. 
  • A multi-criteria decision-making model, the Shannon Entropy Weighting Technique, was used to ensure objectivity in assigning weights to the indicators.

Key Findings from the Study

  • Many cities regarded as front-runners by NITI Aayog performed poorly in this assessment, exposing the shortcomings of existing indices. For instance, disparities in the inclusivity index underscored uneven access to economic and social opportunities.
  • Safety rankings highlighted differences in law enforcement efficacy and crime prevention.
  • Sustainability scores revealed gaps in pollution control and waste management, while resilience rankings exposed weaknesses in disaster preparedness and recovery planning.

Way Forward

  • Cities must establish better mechanisms for tracking SDG-11 at the urban local body (ULB) level. While some States and Union Territories have adopted district-level monitoring frameworks, urban local bodies must follow suit. 
  • Integrated Command and Control Centres, developed under the Smart Cities Mission, should be leveraged to collect real-time data and enhance urban planning and development processes.
  • As almost one-third of urban residents are poor, addressing their needs is critical. India still relies on Census 2011 data, leading to severe underestimation of urban poverty. A periodic Urban Poor Quality of Living Survey at the State level is necessary to bridge this gap.
  • Each city (small and large) faces unique challenges, requiring localised governance, better planning, and city-specific strategies. 

Addressing these differences through data-backed, city-specific policies is crucial for a more equitable urban future.

Greenhouse Gases Emissions Intensity Target Rules 2025

Context: The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC) notified draft Greenhouse Gases Emissions Intensity (GEI) Target Rules 2025. The rules introduce targets for the reduction of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions by “obligated entities” in energy-intensive sectors and industries.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims & Mains: Greenhouse Gases Emissions Intensity (GEI) Target Rules, 2025. 

  • The draft rules mark a critical development in India’s climate policy and its ongoing commitment to the Paris Agreement. 
  • They lay the foundation for operationalising the Carbon Credit Trading Scheme (CCTS), 2023, by setting specific emission intensity reduction targets for high-emission industries.

What is Greenhouse Gas Emissions Intensity (GEI)?

  • Greenhouse Gas Emissions Intensity refers to the amount of GHG emissions per unit of product output.
  • It is measured in tCO₂e (tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent) per equivalent unit of output, taking into account all major greenhouse gases, such as: Carbon dioxide (CO₂), Methane (CH₄), Nitrous oxide (N₂O), Ozone (O₃), Fluorinated gases like CFCs and HCFCs.
  • The aim is to assess and reduce emissions without necessarily lowering total production, thus enabling sustainable economic growth.

Key Features of the Draft GEI Target Rules, 2025: 

1. Coverage and Scope:

  • GHG intensity reduction targets and benchmarks have been set for the highly energy-intensive aluminium, chlor-alkali, pulp and paper, and cement industries.
  • Applicable to over 280 industrial units across four energy-intensive sectors : Aluminium plants, Cement plants, Pulp and Paper plants, Chlor-alkali plants.
  • Among the large corporations that have been assigned targets under the rules are:  Vedanta, Hindalco, Bharat Aluminium, JSW Cement, Ultratech, Nalco, JK Cement, Dalmia Cement, Shree Cement, Grasim Industries, and JK Paper.

2. Baseline and Targets: 

  • The Rules set forth baseline emissions for 2023-24 and define gradual reduction targets for the years 2025-26 and 2026-27 as part of the mechanism to make India’s Carbon Credits Trading Scheme, 2023, operational.
  • The Rules also lay down the compliance mechanism for industries to comply with these targets, and specify penalties for their failure to do so.

3. Integration with Carbon Credit Trading Scheme (CCTS):

  • GEI targets define the emissions reduction goal for each industry. If an industry reduces its emissions intensity below the target, it earns carbon credits. These credits can be traded on the Indian Carbon Market, offering a financial incentive for industries to adopt clean technology.
  • Industries that fail to meet their targets must either buy carbon credits to offset the shortfall or face penalties imposed by the Central Pollution Control Board.
  • The Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE) oversees this trading process under the Ministry of Power. This system is based on international models like the Kyoto Protocol’s carbon market (Article 17) and similar schemes running in Europe and China.

The draft Rules make carbon trading operational by setting the standards that industries must meet to earn, sell, or buy carbon credits, thus turning climate responsibility into an economic opportunity. Targets have been set for the reduction of GHG emissions intensity for the first time.

image 19

Why are these rules important?

  • Meet India’s climate goals: To push industries towards a low-carbon growth trajectory through reduction, removal or avoidance of GHG emissions. E.g., use of biomass in cement kilns.
  • Meet India’s commitment under the Paris Agreement: To reduce the emissions intensity of its gross domestic product (the amount of energy used per unit of GDP) by 45% by 2030 compared to 2005 levels.

The draft GEI Target Rules, 2025, are a significant move towards operationalising India’s carbon market and achieving its climate goals.  

Changes in Monsoon affect Marine Productivity

Context: A recent study has found that both strong and weak monsoons can influence (disrupt) marine productivity in the Bay of Bengal. This can pose serious ecological and livelihood challenges. 

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Impacts of Climate Change. 

Major Highlights of the Study

The researchers reconstructed the past 22,000 years of monsoon history by comparing ancient patterns (chemical signatures and fossil records) with modern ocean data and climate model projections.

  • Extreme monsoon conditions (abnormally strong or weak monsoons) cause major disruptions in ocean mixing. They interfere with the vertical movement of nutrient-rich waters from the deep ocean to the surface. 
  • Consequences: This can lead to a 50% reduction in food for marine life (like planktons) in the surface waters. This will directly result in decline in the growth of plankton, and thus, impact the entire aquatic food chain. 
image 86

Significance and Impacts on the Bay of Bengal: 

  • Significance: Despite covering less than 1% of the world’s ocean area, the Bay of Bengal accounts for 8% of global fishery production. Its nutrient-rich coastal waters are vital to the densely populated communities along its shores, many of whom rely heavily on fisheries for food and income. 
  • Impacts: If ocean productivity declines, it will powerfully affect the ecosystem, ultimately reducing fish stocks. This in turn will threaten food security for coastal communities and risk their livelihoods. 

The study is significant given that several climate models warn of significant disruption to the monsoon, under the impact of human-caused global warming. 

Urban Spider creates webs to block Noise

Context: Researchers have discovered that spiders can alter how they receive vibratory information in loud environments. Spiders in urban environments can build webs that filter out loud ambient vibrations. 

Relevance of the Topic:Prelims: Key facts about Spiders. 

Spiders and vibratory information

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  • Spiders in urban environments can build webs that filter out loud ambient vibrations. 
  • Conversely, spiders from quieter rural spaces build webs that amplify biologically relevant vibrations they need to pick up in their noisy environment.

Key Facts about Spiders

  • Spiders are not insects, but belong to a group called the arachnids. Spiders differ from insects as they have eight legs not six and six or eight eyes (two in insects).
  • Spiders are known for making silk webs to catch insects. They spin silk from a liquid made by special glands. They are found everywhere in the world, except for Antarctica.
  • Most spider species are carnivorous that capture and eat other insects. However, one species in Central America has been found to be mostly herbivorous. 
  • Spiders digest their food outside their bodies. After capturing its prey, a spider covers it with digestive juices. The juices break down prey’s body into liquid form that the spider sucks up.
  • Spiders are important pest controllers for a habitat, and they are food for other species too.
  • Spider webs are the extensions of the spider’s sensory system. Vibratory information from the web is crucial for spiders because they do not have ears. 
  • Spider silk is an amazing natural material with unique properties. It has inspired researchers to develop materials derived from spider silk with applications in tissue engineering and regenerative medicine.
  • Spiders shed their outer covering, multiple times before becoming adults.

Third United Nations Ocean Conference

Context: Third United Nations Ocean Conference (UNOC3) represents a historic opportunity for the global community to build strong, action-oriented consensus for the protection, sustainable use, and better governance of the oceans. 

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: Key facts related to the third UN Ocean Conference.

Mains: Oceans and Marine Ecosystems: Significance, threats and efforts towards global ocean governance.

Why is protecting the Oceans urgent?

1. Significance of Oceans: 

  • Oceans cover over 70% of the Earth's surface, are a global commons essential for climate regulation, biodiversity, food security, livelihoods, and international trade.
  • Oceans generate 50% of the oxygen we need, absorb 25% of all carbon dioxide emissions and capture 90% of the excess heat generated from global warming. 

2. Present Challenges: 

  • Lack of Governance: High seas which account for more than 60% of the ocean remain largely unregulated, leading to overfishing, illegal activities, and environmental degradation.
  • Rising Pollution: Over 8 million tons of plastic end up in oceans every year (Science journal, 2020).
  • Resource Overexploitation: One-third of global fish stocks are overexploited, threatening marine food security. 
  • Impacts of Climate Change: Ocean acidification, coral bleaching, rising sea levels, and destruction of marine habitats are direct consequences.
  • Livelihood Risk: One in three people rely on the ocean for their livelihood, thus, safeguarding marine ecosystems becomes important. 
world ocean

In this context, UNOC3 represents an unprecedented opportunity to foster multilateral action, develop binding commitments, and implement tangible strategies to safeguard marine ecosystems.

United Nations Ocean Conference

  • High-level United Nations Conference to support the implementation of Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 14: Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources.
  • It provides a platform to mobilise political will, partnership and funding to reverse the decline in the health of our ocean for people, planet and prosperity.
  • First United Nations Ocean Conference (2017): New York, the US. 
  • Second United Nations Ocean Conference (2022): Lisbon, Portugal

3rd United Nations Ocean Conference: 

  • Third United Nations Ocean Conference (UNOC3) is scheduled from June 9-13, 2025 at Nice, France. It will be co-hosted by France and Costa Rica.
  • It is a major global effort to protect oceans, promote sustainable use of marine resources, and advance international cooperation.
  • Theme: Accelerating action and mobilising all actors to conserve and sustainably use the ocean. 

Key Objectives of UNOC3

  • Operationalising BBNJ Agreement: The lack of surveillance and common rules is causing a real social and environmental disaster, with massive hydrocarbon and plastic pollution, illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing, and the capture of protected and endangered mammals. To end this legal vacuum, the BBNJ Agreement needs to be ratified by 60 countries, so that it may come into force.
  • Enhancing Financing for Blue Economy: Mobilising public and private investments in sustainable marine sectors like eco-friendly shipping, fisheries, tourism, and ocean-based renewable energy.
  • Advancing Ocean Knowledge and Innovation: The depths of the ocean which covers 70% of the Earth’s surface remain unknown. There is a need to mobilise science, innovation, and education to better understand the ocean and raise public awareness. Improving ocean mapping, research, and monitoring technologies to fill scientific gaps.
  • Building a Global Pact: Aim to adopt the "Nice Ocean Agreements", setting a global action framework for oceans, aligned with SDG-14 (Life Below Water).

Significance of the Conference

  • Ten years after COP21 and the Paris Agreement, which established a binding global framework to limit climate change, the UNOC3 is a historic opportunity.
  • The “Nice Ocean Agreements” can form an international pact for the conservation and sustainable use of the ocean, fully in line with the Sustainable Development Goals adopted by the UN in 2015. 

Also Read: BBNJ negotiations - Treaty of the High Seas 

UNOC3 can become a historic inflection point if nations rise above narrow interests and work collaboratively for the stewardship of oceans and securing them for future generations. 

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