GS Paper 3

Human Development Report 2025

Context: India has ranked 130 out of 193 countries in the recently released Human Development Report 2025, ‘A Matter of Choice: People and Possibilities in the Age of AI’. India has improved its ranking from 2022, reflecting gradual improvements in key development indicators.

Relevance of the Topic : Prelims: Key facts related to Human Development Report 2025.

Human Development Report

  • Annual report published by: United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). 
  • The first HDR was launched in 1990 by the Pakistani economist Mahbub ul Haq and Indian Nobel laureate Amartya Sen.
  • The report provides Human Development Index (HDI) which measures a country's performance across three dimensions:
    • Health: Life expectancy at birth
    • Education: Mean & expected years of schooling
    • Standard of living: Gross National Income (GNI) per capita. 
  • HDI Score Range: 0 (lowest) to 1 (highest). 
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  • Based on the scores, the countries are classified into: Very High Human Development, High Human Development, Medium Human Development, Low Human Development.
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Key Highlights of Human Development Report 2025

  • Theme: A Matter of Choice: People and Possibilities in the Age of Artificial Intelligence.
  • The report highlights AI's potential to reignite human development, provided that policies are people-centered and focus on enhancing human capabilities.  
  • Ireland secured the first spot in the Index with a score of 0.972. 

India’s Performance:

  • India has ranked 130th out of 193 countries, moving up three places from 133 in 2022.
  • India’s HDI value has increased from 0.676 (2022) to 0.685, showing an improvement in areas like health, education, and income.
  • However, India still falls under the medium human development category (which includes countries with HDI values between 0.550 and 0.699). 
  • However, with a score of 0.685, India is now very close to entering the high human development category, which starts at 0.700.

India’s achievements over the years (as highlighted in the Report):

  • Gross National Income per capita has risen over four times to $9,046.76 in 2023 from $2,167.22 in 1990.
  • 135 million Indians have escaped multidimensional poverty between FY16 and FY21.
  • India’s life expectancy at 72 years in 2023, is the highest level it has reached since the inception of the index in 1990 (58.6 years). 
  • Children are expected to stay in school for 13 years on average, up from 8.2 years in 1990.

It is a result of programmes such as MGNREGA, the Right to Education Act, the National Rural Health Mission and other initiatives.

The report highlights deep-rooted inequalities in India:

  • Income and gender inequalities have pulled down India’s overall HDI by 30.7%, one of the highest losses in the region.
  • Women’s participation in the workforce and politics still remains low.
    • Economic Survey of 2024-25: Female labour participation rate has risen to 41.7% in 2023-24.
    • Recent measures like the constitutional amendment reserving one-third of legislative seats for women offer inclusive political participation.

The report highlights a global slowdown in human development, stating that the rate of progress is the slowest since 1990. India is also affected by this trend. 

DOT notifies new Satellite Internet Service Rules

Context: The Department of Telecommunications (DoT) has issued a fresh set of stringent security guidelines aimed at tightening control over satellite-based internet services in India. 

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Satellite Internet Service Rules. 

New Satellite Internet Service Rules

The Department of Telecommunications has introduced new security requirements for satellite communication/ internet companies in India. The satellite internet operators-

  • Must localise essential functions such as locating the Network Control and Monitoring Centre within Indian territory.
  • Must provide real time monitoring to ensure that no user traffic originating from, or destined for India is being routed through any gateway outside Indian territory. 
  • Prohibited from copying or decrypting Indian telecom data outside the country.
  • Must prevent any unintentional coverage spillover into neighbouring countries using geo-fencing technology and be capable of blocking access to websites banned in India.
  • Required to implement systems that can block, restrict or deny network access to specific users or groups, based on instructions from the authorities.
  • Must have the ability to intercept communications and monitor user activity and share user data with security agencies. 
  • Must share user terminal information with Indian security agencies. All terminals in use must be registered and authenticated in the country, and enable support for NavIC (India’s own satellite navigation system). Indian satellite internet terminals are prohibited from working outside India. 
  • Share a year-wise phased manufacturing plan aiming at indigenisation to a level of at least 20% of their ground segment of the satellite network. The terminals must eventually be manufactured in India, within a five year span. 
  • Ensure that their data centres are based within the geographical boundary of India and shall make provision to provide Domain Name System (DNS) resolution within its territory.

Rationale of the New Rules

  • To prevent cross-border signal spillover, especially in sensitive regions.
  • To ensure that satellite connectivity can be monitored, intercepted, and governed in India.
  • To uphold national security interests while managing the growing complexity of satellite-based communication networks.

The revised conditions will apply not only to current GMPCS (Global Mobile Personal Communications by Satellite Services) license holders such as Eutelsat OneWeb and the Jio-SES alliance, but also to new entrants like Elon Musk’s Starlink and Amazon’s Project Kuiper to operate in India.

The new rules reflect India’s intent to maintain tighter control over digital infrastructure as global satellite internet players seek entry into its high-potential market. 

India and UK conclude Free Trade Agreement

Context: India and the United Kingdom have signed a Free Trade Agreement (FTA) granting zero-duty to 99% of Indian exports and reducing tariffs, expected to create large opportunities for Indian firms, significantly boost bilateral trade, and attract key investments.

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: Key facts related to India-UK trade deal.

Mains: Significance of India-UK trade deal.

India- UK Free Trade Agreement

  • India and the UK have concluded a historic Free Trade Agreement (FTA) that promises to deepen bilateral economic ties, enhance strategic cooperation, and boost trade and investment. It is India's 16th FTA. 
  • India's FTAs: India has inked trade deals with Sri Lanka, Bhutan, Thailand, Singapore, Malaysia, Korea, Japan, Australia, UAE, Mauritius, the 10-nation bloc ASEAN (Association of Southeast Asian Nations), and four European nations' bloc EFTA (Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway, and Switzerland), UK. 

What is a Free Trade Agreement?

  • FTA is a bilateral or multilateral understanding where participating countries consent to eliminate or lower customs duties on the bulk of traded goods. 
  • These agreements also involve reducing non-tariff barriers on substantial imports from partner countries whilst simplifying regulations to enhance services trade and cross-border investments.
  • FTAs enable zero-duty entry into partner country markets, allowing for greater diversification and expansion of export destinations.
  • By securing preferential treatment over non-FTA member competitors, domestic exporters enjoy a level playing field, especially when other nations have already established similar agreements. 
  • FTAs attract foreign investments and help stimulate domestic manufacturing.

Key Highlights of the India–UK FTA

The India-UK free trade agreement and Double Contribution Convention pact is expected to lead to significant economic benefits for both the countries.

  • 99% of Indian exports will receive duty-free access to UK markets. India stands to gain substantial advantages from tariff elimination on approximately 99% of tariff lines, which covers nearly 100% of trade value.
  • India will reduce import tariffs on 90% of UK tariff lines, with 85% becoming fully tariff-free  within 10 years.
  • India will receive advantages from the UK's FTA commitments in various service sectors, including IT/ITeS, financial, professional, and educational services.
  • India agrees to lower tariffs on various products, including whisky, medical devices, advanced machinery, and lamb, enhancing the competitiveness of UK exports.
    • Automotive tariffs will be significantly reduced from over 100% to 10% under a specified quota system.
    • Whisky and gin tariffs are to be halved from the current 150% to 75% before reducing to 40% by year ten of the deal.
  • Double Contribution Convention: Indian professionals working temporarily in the U.K. will be exempt from paying social security for up to three years, reducing the financial burden on both employees and employers.
  • It will facilitate easier movement for skilled workers, including contractual service suppliers, business visitors, investors, intra-corporate transferees, family members of transferees with work authorization, and Independent Professionals such as yoga instructors, musicians and chefs.
  • Sectoral Boost: Sectors which are set to benefit in India include textiles and apparel, leather and footwear, gems and jewellery, pharmaceuticals, agriculture and processed foods etc.  
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major gains for Indian

Significance of INDIA-UK FTA

  • Strengthening Strategic Economic Partnership: It aligns with the shared ambition to scale bilateral trade to USD 100 billion by 2030. Thus, fostering deeper economic interdependence between the world’s fifth and sixth largest economies.
  • Tariff Reductions and Economic Efficiency: Tariff reduction on goods like cosmetics, medical devices, aerospace parts, food items (lamb, salmon, chocolate, biscuits, soft drinks) and electrical machinery will: 
  • Open new market access for UK exporters in India.
  • Reduce input costs for Indian businesses using these goods.
  • Provide Indian consumers with more affordable and diverse products.
  • Strengthen value chains, especially in high-tech and FMCG sectors.
  • Expansion of Market Access: It creates large opportunities for Indian companies to expand further and access new markets. By unlocking new export opportunities, reducing trade barriers, and enabling greater access to the U.K. market.
  • Strengthen Indian textile and apparel sector: It will strengthen the labour-intensive Indian textile and apparel sector, positioning India as a major textile hub. Knitwear exports, which currently constitute 9% of total exports to the UK, are expected to rise to 20% post-FTA. 

The India-UK Free Trade Agreement is not just a trade fact, it is a bridge to shared prosperity. Amid global trade wars, rising protectionism, and economic decoupling, the agreement offers certainty and stability to bilateral economic relations. 

Civil Defence Mock Drills in India

Context: Amid rising tensions between India and Pakistan following the Pahalgam attack, the central government has directed all States and Union Territories to conduct mock drills on May 7, and strengthen civil defence mechanisms across Civil Defence Districts in the event of a hostile attack.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about the Civil Defence Act of 1968. 

What are Civil Defence Districts?

  • Demarcated areas or regions, including towns and districts, which the government designates for implementation of civil defence programmes. 
  • These are demarcated on the recommendation of the Ministry of Defence. There are in all 259 Civil Defence Districts notified in 2010. These are spread across all states and UTs and divided into three categories.
    • Category I districts require full implementation of civil defence programmes.
    • Category II and Category III require partial implementation in varying degrees.
  • These demarcations are made based on the location of the towns or districts (such as near the borders), vulnerability to attacks, location of vital installations (such as defence installations, nuclear plants, thermal power plants, key government buildings, etc) and critical infrastructure (such as key highways, railways, ports etc.).
  • The maximum number of such districts are in West Bengal, followed by Rajasthan, Assam, Punjab and J&K. 

Civil Defence Mock Drills

The civil drills will ensure: 

  • Operationalisation of Air Raid Warning Sirens
  • Operationalisation of Hotline/Radio Communication Links with the Indian Air Force;
  • Activation and Manning of Control Rooms/ Shadow Control Rooms
  • Training of civilians, students, etc. on the Civil Defence aspects to protect themselves in the event of hostile attack
  • Activation of Civil Defence Services, especially, warden services, firefighting, rescue service, depot, etc.
  • Provision of crash black out measures (a sudden switching off of lights to reduce a potential target’s visibility)
  • Provision for early camouflaging of vital plants / installations
  • Updation of Civil Defence Plan and its rehearsal
  • Updation of evacuation plan and its rehearsal and cleaning of bunkers, trenches, etc.

Civil Defence Act of 1968: 

The mock drills would be conducted under the Civil Defence Act of 1968. 

  • The Act empowers the government to restrict movement, impose curfews, control assemblies or gatherings, close roads, ports, and transport services as needed, in times of emergencies. 
  • The government may detain or arrest a person without the usual legal processes and even order killing of animals.
  • It allows the government compulsory acquisition of property, requisitioning services, and controlling the supply and distribution of goods (especially essentials).
  • The government can direct individuals or classes of persons to perform certain work or duties, and control industries crucial to national security. 
  • It empowers the government to regulate or censor communications, publications, and broadcasts.

The last time such elaborate drills were conducted in the country were during the build-up of the 1971 war.  

One Day One Genome Initiative

Context: The Department of Biotechnology (DBT) has released detailed graphical summaries, infographics, and other details of over 100 bacterial genomes as part of the ‘One Day One Genome’ initiative launched to harness the microbial potential of India. 

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: One Day One Genome Initiative; Beneficial use cases of Bacteria. 

One Day One Genome Initiative

  • Initiative of: Department of Biotechnology (DBT) and Biotechnology Research and Innovation Council (BRIC), launched in 2024. 
  • Aim: To highlight the unique bacterial species found in India and emphasise their critical roles in the environment, agriculture, and human health.
  • It aims to make genomic data more accessible to researchers, students and the general public.

Some unique bacterial species under research include: 

  • The genome of microbeMethylophaga lonarensis found at Lonar lake, Maharashtra has shown a high degree of specialisation that includes the production of ectoine, a valuable molecule with promising applications in skincare.
    • Formed by a meteorite impact, Lonar Lake is one of the rare soda lakes. Its extreme conditions—high salinity, elevated pH, and limited nutrients—make survival difficult for most life forms.
  • Lactiplantibacillus plantarum (ILSF15) is a novel probiotic bacterial strain isolated and characterised from the gut samples of tribes of Odisha. Genomic studies discovered genes linked to probiotic features, survival traits, and, importantly, how it can resist acid/bile and lower cholesterol in vitro.

The study of genomes of these diverse bacterial species can support important sustainable research.

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Key facts about Bacteria

  • Microscopic, single-celled organisms (prokaryotic microorganisms).
  • Bacteria inhabit the air, soil, water, acidic hot springs, radioactive waste, and the deep biosphere of Earth's crust.

Beneficial use cases of Bacteria

  • Soil fertility: Convert atmospheric nitrogen into plant-usable form; aid in nutrient uptake, especially phosphorus.
  • Food Industry: Fermentation of various food products (curd, cheese), preservation of food; development of distinct flavours and textures; probiotics. 
  • Biomedical use: Used as a host organism in genetic engineering to produce various proteins, enzymes, and other products (like insulin, growth hormones etc). Used as vectors (vehicles) to carry therapeutic genes into human tissues.
  • Biofuel production: GM bacteria and cyanobacteria can be used for biofuel production. 
  • Biogas production: Break down organic matter in the absence of oxygen, producing biogas (methane and carbon dioxide) as a byproduct. 
  • Bioremediation: Can break down a range of pollutants, including hydrocarbons and toxic chemicals to clean up contaminated environments.

SMRs can bridge rising Energy demand of AI 

Context: Generative Artificial Intelligence (AI) has eased access to art and reduced the time and the effort required to complete certain tasks. But this ease comes at a significant energy cost. Small modular nuclear reactors could be the energy answer to support booming AI and data infrastructure. 

Relevance of the Topic: Mains: Artificial Intelligence: Challenges 

Energy cost of Artificial Intelligence: 

  • Data centres (the backbone of AI operations) consume enormous electricity and contribute 1% of global greenhouse gas emissions. 
  • A simple search request made through ChatGPT (an AI-based virtual assistant) consumes 10 times the electricity consumed by a Google Search. 
  • Training advanced AI models can emit up to 552 tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent which is comparable to the annual emissions of dozens of cars. 
  • Projections indicate that these data centres could account for 10% of the world’s total electricity usage by 2030. The majority of this electricity comes from fossil fuel sources. 
  • India currently has sufficient capacity to generate electricity for its own domestic AI needs. Yet, with increasing adoption and ambitions, proactive planning is imperative.

Potential of SMRs is bridging the Energy demand

Leveraging nuclear energy, specifically Small Modular Reactors (SMR), could be a possible alternative to support booming AI and data infrastructure. This is possible as: 

  • SMRs are designed to be compact and scalable. Their flexibility allows them to be deployed closer to high-energy-demand facilities, such as data centres, which require consistent and reliable power to manage vast amounts of computational workloads. In contrast, traditional large-scale nuclear power plants demand extensive land, water, and infrastructure.
  • SMR can provide 24X7, zero-carbon, baseload electricity making it an ideal alternative to renewable sources such as solar and wind by ensuring a stable energy supply regardless of weather conditions.
  • Their modular construction reduces construction time and costs when compared to conventional nuclear plants, enabling faster deployment to meet the rapidly growing demands of AI and data-driven industries. 
  • SMRs offer enhanced safety features, with passive safety systems that rely on natural phenomena to cool the reactor core and safely shut down, reducing the risk of accidents. This makes them more acceptable and easier to integrate into regions where large-scale nuclear facilities would face opposition. 
  • SMR’s ability to operate in diverse environments, from urban areas to remote locations, also supports the decentralisation of energy production, reducing transmission losses and enhancing grid resilience.

In India's case, the cost of electricity from SMRs is predicted to fall from ₹10.3 to ₹5 per kWh after the reactors are functional, which is less than the average cost of electricity.

Challenges in adoption of SMRs: 

  • Significant policy shifts are required to create a robust regulatory framework that addresses safety, waste management and public perception. 
  • Adoption requires substantial upfront investment, as the technology is still maturing and may face issues of cost competitiveness when compared to established energy sources. 
  • Coordinating SMR deployment with existing renewable energy initiatives will require careful planning to maximise synergies while minimising redundancy. 

Sustainable AI Adoption

  • AI companies need to be transparent about their energy consumption, i.e., disclose their environmental impact. 
  • Such data would provide further insights on where energy is being used the most, and encourage R&D to create a more sustainable model of AI development.

Also Read: Environmental Impacts of Artificial Intelligence 

The public-private partnership model presents a realistic solution to the challenges of sustainable AI development. By leveraging the strengths of both sectors, this model can facilitate the efficient development of SMRs alongside other forms of renewable energy to support advancements in AI. 

US questions India’s PLI Scheme for Speciality Steel at WTO    

Context: The US has raised concerns at the World Trade Organisation (WTO) over India’s PLI scheme for specialty steel, citing global overcapacity. India defends the scheme as essential for reducing import dependence and achieving self-sufficiency in high-grade steel.

Relevance of the Topic : Prelims: Key facts related to the PLI scheme. Mains: Issues related to industrial policy, subsidies, WTO obligations.

Product Linked Incentive Scheme: 

  • Objective: To incentivise domestic manufacturing in key sectors by offering financial incentives linked to increased production and sales.
  • For example, earlier a company was selling goods worth Rs. 1 lakh in a year and now its sales increased to Rs. 1.2 lakh. Then the company will get an incentive of 4% on Rs. 20,000 = Rs. 800.
  • Launched in March 2020, the scheme initially targeted three industries- Mobile and allied Component Manufacturing; Electrical Component Manufacturing; and Medical Devices. Later, it was extended to 14 sectors.
  • India’s PLI scheme is designed to be compliant with WTO norms. It does not include export obligations or link subsidies to export performance, which are not allowed under WTO rules. It only incentivises investment and sales growth within India. 

Also Read: Production Linked Incentive Scheme 

PLI Scheme for Speciality Steel

  • The first round of India’s PLI scheme for specialty steel was notified in 2021 by the Ministry of Steel with a budgetary outlay of ₹6322 crore.
  • Objective: 
    • To promote manufacturing of value-added steel grades in the country and help reduce imports of these grades.
    • To help the industry mature in terms of technology as well as move up the value chain.
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India’s Response: 

  • The U.S.’ linking of the PLI scheme for speciality steel with global overcapacity does not hold much merit as India was a net importer of steel in FY25 for the second consecutive year despite being the world’s second-largest steel producer.
  • The PLI scheme aims to boost domestic manufacturing of value-added, high-end steel, reduce import dependence, and enhance self-sufficiency.
  • The scheme is compliant with WTO rules, as it does not link subsidies to exports and only incentivises domestic production and investment.
  • Moreover, compared with countries like China with estimated steel subsidies of $50 billion, India’s subsidies are miniscule. 

Vizhinjam International Seaport

Context: India’s first deep water and container transshipment port at Vizhinjam, Kerala has been officially inaugurated. The port is of immense significance to India’s global maritime trade. 

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Vizhinjam International Seaport.

Vizhinjam International Seaport

  • India’s first dedicated container transshipment port.
  • It is an all-weather deep water port. Its natural draft of about 20 metres requires minimal capital dredging.
  • It is the first semi-automated port in India and the first greenfield port project. 
  • Developed by: Adani Ports and Special Economic Zone Ltd (APSEZ) under a public-private partnership model with the Kerala government. 
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Need for the Port: 

  • India relies heavily on foreign ports (like Colombo, Singapore and Klang) for handling around 75% of its inbound and outbound transshipment cargo. This results in an annual revenue loss of approximately $200 million-$220 million. 
  • India’s container throughput capacity last year was approximately 20 million TEUs (twenty-foot equivalent units), contrasting with China’s 330 million TEUs. This highlights the need for modern ports such as Vizhinjam.

Historical Importance of Vizhinjam: 

The town of Vizhinjam in Kerala has played a crucial role in the history of global maritime trade. 

  • Inscriptions from the Pandya-Chola era (1129 AD) records Vizhinjam as Rajendra Chola Pattinam, a port of Kerala. 
  • Historians claim that Balita, a port with considerable commercial importance which finds mention in the first century AD historical travelogue ‘The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea’, is Vizhinjam’s old name. 

However, this historical significance faded away after colonisers of India prioritised ports in other places like Cochin and Madras.

Significance of Vizhinjam International Seaport:

  • Proximity to international shipping routes: Amongst all existing Indian ports, Vizhinjam is the closest to international shipping routes. It is strategically located just 10 nautical miles from international shipping routes linking Europe, West Asia and the Far East, the east-west shipping axis. Ultra-large container vessels can berth without deviating from their route, thereby saving costs. 
  • Efficiency with Modern Infrastructure: As India’s first semi-automated port equipped with remote-controlled quay cranes and an AI-powered vessel traffic management system, Vizhinjam will significantly reduce vessel turnaround times. 
  • Boost to local economy: The start of import-export operations at Vizhinjam would fast-track the development of associated infrastructure like industrial corridor, allied businesses including ship building, ship repair, logistics, warehousing and direct and indirect employment opportunities.

Also Read: Port Economy will drive India’s growth 

The Centre and the State must ensure the timely completion of rail and road connectivity, which is crucial for leveraging the port’s full potential. Warehousing, logistics, and industrial facilities are essential for the port to evolve into a thriving commercial maritime hub.

India begins boosting Reservoir Capacity in Indus River System 

Context: Following the suspension of the Indus Waters Treaty, India has commenced reservoir flushing and maintenance work at the Baglihar and Salal hydroelectric projects on the Chenab River in Jammu and Kashmir. 

These operations aim to boost reservoir holding capacity and improve power generation efficiency. This has resulted in reduction of downstream water flow to Pakistan by nearly 90%.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Indus river system and its tributaries; River Valley Projects on Indus river system. 

Indus River System

  • Nature: Antecedent
  • Source: near Mansarovar lake in Tibet.
  • Flow direction: First north-west in India, and then sharp bend towards south-west into Pakistan. 
  • Important locations: Enters India near Damchok Forms deep gorge by cutting Ladakh range at Bunzi, north of Nanga Parbat. Enters Pakistan near Chillas. 
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Tributaries of Indus River

  • Panjnad refers to five rivers of Punjab which are tributaries of the Indus – Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas and Satluj. Jhelum and Ravi join Chenab, Beas joins Sutlej, and then Sutlej and Chenab join to form Panjnad.
JhelumOrigin from Sheshnag lake near Verinag (SE Kashmir).

Flows through Wular lake. 

Joins Chenab near Jhang in Pakistan. 
ChenabFormed by the confluence of two rivers- Chandra and Bhaga at Tandi near Keylong in Himachal Pradesh. 

Largest tributary of Indus river. 
RaviIt originates from Rohtang pass in Kullu hills of Himachal Pradesh. Flows between the Dhauladhar and Pirpanjal ranges.
BeasIt originates from Beas kund near Rohtang pass in Himachal Pradesh. Joins Satluj within India at a place called Harike in Punjab.
SatlujIt originates in the ‘Rakshas tal’ near Mansarovar in Tibet, where it is known as Langchen Khambab. 

Antecedent river which cuts through the Himalayas at Shipki La and enters India. Feeds the canal system of the Bhakra Nangal project.

River Valley Projects on Indus System

Bhakra Nangal projectOn river Satluj India’s largest multipurpose project Reservoir–Gobind Sagar
Naptha Jhakri projectOn Satluj in Himachal Pradesh
Indira Gandhi ProjectAlso known as Rajasthan canal. Drawn out from Harike barrage. Goes up to Jaisalmer and Barmer.
Pong projectOn Beas Reservoir- Maharana Pratap Sagar
Pandoh projectOn Beas
Chamera projectOn Ravi in Himachal Pradesh
Thein projectOn Ravi in Punjab
Salal projectOn Chenab in Jammu & Kashmir
Baglihar projectOn Chenab in Jammu & Kashmir
Dulhasti projectOn Chenab in Jammu & Kashmir
Tulbul projectOn Jhelum in Jammu & Kashmir Dam is built on Wular lake Also known as Wular barrage. 
Uri projectOn Jhelum in Jammu & Kashmir

Kaleshwaram Lift Irrigation Project

Context: Kaleshwaram Lift Irrigation Project in Telangana is under scrutiny due to structural failures and design flaws, raising concerns over dam safety, governance, and financial viability.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Location of Kaleshwaram Lift Irrigation Project.

Kaleshwaram Lift Irrigation Project

Kaleshwaram Lift Irrigation Project
  • World’s largest multi-stage lift irrigation project.
  • Built on: Godavari River in Telangana.
  • Purpose: To ensure irrigation, drinking water, and industrial water supply to drought-prone and water-scarce areas of Telangana by lifting water from the Godavari River and distributing it across districts.
  • Lift irrigation: Unlike traditional gravity-based irrigation systems, water does not rely on gravity to flow in canals from higher ground to lower; rather pumps or surge pools are used to lift water to a higher elevation, from where it is distributed to fields via a canal system.
  • The project sprawls over approximately 500 km in 13 districts, with a canal network of 1800 km. The project started in 2019.
  • As per the project master plan, of the 240 thousand million cubic feet (TMC) of water- 169 TMC (>70%, is meant for irrigation); 30 TMC is for Hyderabad municipal area; 16 TMC for miscellaneous industrial uses, and 10 TMC to provide drinking water to nearby villages.
  • The vast bulk of this water (195 TMC) will come from the Medigadda Barrage. 20 TMC will from Sripada Yellampalli project, and another 25 TMC will be groundwater.
kaleshwaram project

Crisis at Medigadda Barrage

  • In 2023, a pillar at the Medigadda Barrage sank which led to partial submergence and flooding. The National Dam Safety Authority (NDSA) visited the site for a technical assessment. 
  • Subsequently, the state government requested a thorough inspection of all three barrages: Medigadda, Annaram, and Sundilla.

NDSA Findings

  • NDSA had found a lack of proper geo-technical investigations, design deficiencies, construction defects, failure of modelling studies, structural distress, absence of robust quality control, operation and maintenance failures and dam safety aspects  ignored.

NDSA Recommendations

NDSA has recommended a full suite of actions from structural rehabilitation to strengthening of the barrages.

  • Rehabilitation of the design, and a comprehensive assessment of health and safety of the entire barrage.
  • Immediate stabilisation measures to arrest the ongoing distress.
  • Comprehensive geotechnical studies and advanced geophysical assessments to establish a reliable baseline of the ground conditions and structures for future interventions.
  • Hydraulic design aided by appropriate hydraulic model studies and structural design through appropriate mathematical modelling software. 

Ethanol production from Maize: Fuel vs Feed debate

Context: Ethanol production from Maize has raised its prices, making livestock feed costlier and hurting soybean farmers due to cheaper feed substitutes. Thus, it has triggered a broader fuel vs. feed debate.

Relevance of the Topic: Mains: Biofuels: Food vs fuel debate. 

Agriculture is a source of food, feed, fibre and fuel. Traditionally, crops like cotton were used for multiple purposes (lint, oil, cattle feed).  Now, maize (corn) is being diverted increasingly toward making ethanol, a biofuel. This has brought the Fuel vs. Feed dilemma to the centre of India’s agricultural and energy policy.

Why is Maize used in Ethanol Production?

  • Maize grains contain 68-72% starch and 1-3% of other carbohydrates (sucrose, glucose and fructose). Its high starch content (68–72%) makes it ideal for fermentation into ethanol, which is then blended with petrol to reduce India’s fuel import bill.
  • One tonne of maize gives ~380 litres of ethanol, a 99.9% pure alcohol that can be blended with petrol.
  • In FY23, sugar mills/distilleries supplied ~31 crore litres of ethanol produced from 0.8 MT of maize. In FY24, this rose to ~286 crore litres, consuming 7.5 MT of maize.
  • For the FY25 supply year (November-October), oil marketing companies have contracted over 480 crore litres of maize ethanol. The corresponding maize requirement would be over 12.7 MT. 
image 11

Impact of diverting Maize for Ethanol Production: 

The large-scale use of maize for ethanol production has created significant ripple effects across multiple sectors: 

  • Price Surge: The diversion of maize for biofuel has completely upset the demand-supply balance. The surge in demand from it has led to a shortage of grain and pushed up prices. All-India average prices of maize have surged from Rs 14,000-15,000 to Rs 24,000-25,000 per tonne in the last four years.
  • Feed Shortage: Reduced availability of maize for livestock feed (especially poultry and cattle). Poultry and dairy industries face rising production costs, affecting consumer prices and margins.
  • Pressure on Soybean Farmers: Ethanol byproduct DDGS (Distillers Dried Grains with Solubles) is now used as a cheaper protein substitute in animal feed. This has reduced demand for soyabean DOC, leading to a 30% drop in soyabean prices. Farmers are selling below MSP causing income distress.
  • Export Decline: Earlier maize surplus allowed exports (3.7 MT in FY22). With 12.7 MT maize now being diverted for ethanol, exportable surplus has vanished.

Stakeholder Demands:  

  • India now allows up to 0.5 mt of maize imports annually at 15% customs duty, with quantities beyond that attracting 50% duty. Also, it does not permit imports of genetically modified (GM) maize. 
  • The feed industry is urging the government to ensure affordable maize availability for livestock feed to control rising input costs. They are also demanding duty-free import of genetically modified (GM) maize, strictly for ethanol production only, not for food or feed.
  • Soyabean Farmers demand price support interventions, higher procurement, and promotion of soy-based feed to protect income.

Way Forward

The government should adopt a balanced approach: 

  • Boost domestic maize productivity through better seeds, irrigation, and technology.
  • Diversify ethanol feedstocks instead of over-relying on maize.
  • Allow limited imports of GM maize exclusively for industrial ethanol use, with strict regulatory checks.
  • Support soyabean farmers with MSP enforcement and encourage soy-based feed innovation.

Maize-Ethanol debate underscores the challenge of balancing energy security with food and feed needs. While ethanol production supports India’s green energy goals and offers price benefits to maize farmers, it must not come at the cost of livestock industries or other crop growers like soyabean farmers.

Also Read: What are biofuels? 

What are Agri Photovoltaics?

Context: Agri Photovoltaics (APVs) offer a sustainable solution to boost farmers’ income by combining solar energy generation with crop cultivation. To scale effectively in India, APVs need supportive policies, standardised norms and strong financial incentives.

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: Key facts related to Agri Photovoltaics.

Mains: How Agri Photovoltaics can transform Indian Agriculture. 

Agri Photovoltaics

  • APV is a system that allows solar panels to be installed above farmland, enabling both electricity generation and crop cultivation on the same land.
  • Two common designs in APVs include:
    • Growing crops between rows of solar panels
    • Solar panels raised about 2 metres above the ground, allowing crops to grow underneath.
  • First proposed in 1981 by German scientists. APVs aim to maximise land-use efficiency and create dual income streams for farmers - from agriculture and solar energy.

Benefits of Agri Photovoltaics

  • Dual Revenue stream for Farmers: Farmers can earn both from crop cultivation and solar energy - either through lease income or direct energy sales to the grid. Ensures stable and diversified income, reducing dependence on unpredictable crop yields.
  • Efficient Land Use: Allows simultaneous food and energy production on the same land. Increases productivity per unit of land, vital for a country with just 2.4% of global land and 18% of population.
  • Improved Microclimate for crops: APVs may also create favourable microclimatic conditions that reduce water loss from and heat stress on plants.
  • Energy security: Supports India's solar mission and rural electrification by decentralising energy production. Contributes to India’s solar energy targets and aids to commitment to Net Zero emissions by 2070.
challenges in APVs Adoption

Challenges to Adoption of Agri Photovoltaics 

  • High Capital Expenditure: While a typical 1-MW ground-mounted solar plant in 5 acres of land would cost around Rs 2.7 crore, an APV system will incur an additional 11% due to the specialised infrastructure it requires.
  • Lack of Standardised Guidelines: India currently lacks standardised norms for APVs, leading to ambiguity in project design and implementation. In contrast, countries like Japan and Germany have clear regulatory frameworks regarding panel height, crop yield loss, and land-use criteria for APV projects.

Japan mandates that:

  • APV structures must be temporary and removable.
  • Panel height must be at least 2 meters.
  • Crop yield loss must not exceed 20%.
  • Projects are reviewed every 3 years to assess their agricultural impact.

Germany, through its framework DIN SPEC 91434, requires:

  • At least 66% of the original agricultural yield (reference yield) must be maintained.
  • Only up to 15% of arable land can be used for solar infrastructure.

This ensures that agriculture remains the central focus, even with high energy output.

  • Low Feed-in Tariff (FiT) reducing project viability: Feed-in Tariff (FiT) is the fixed price at which power producers like farmers or solar developers can sell electricity back to the grid. FiT is often too low, reducing project viability. E.g., Under the PM-KUSUM scheme in Rajasthan, the FiT is ₹3.04/unit. At this rate, the payback period for a 1-MW ground-mounted solar plant is 15 years, which discourages investors due to the long return period.
  • Land Availability and Size: In India, over 86% of farmers are small and marginal, owning less than 2 hectares of land. Implementing APVs on smaller farms may not always be economically feasible due to land constraints and high initial costs.
  • Lack of farmer training and technical knowledge. 
image

Way Forward

  • Learn lessons from Germany and Japan to develop national APV guidelines, incorporating clear specifications on panel height, permissible crop yield loss, and land-use norms.
  • Introduce a higher Feed-in Tariff (FiT), aligned with the thermal average power purchasing cost for State DISCOMs (₹4.52/unit), to reduce the payback period to just four years. This would make APV systems more economically attractive.
  • Expanding institutional support through grants or NABARD’s credit guarantee for APV investments candidates also lower financial barriers to smallholders.
  • Leveraging farmer institutions such as FPOs and cooperatives which can help farmers pool resources and provide stronger market linkages. 
  • Capacity-building programmes training and equipping farmers with the expertise to manage APV systems.
  • Revamp PM KUSUM scheme on agricultural solarisation to accommodate APVs in its delivery system could help scale the innovation across the country.

Agri Photovoltaics hold great promise for transformation. However, success depends on two pillars: economic incentives and a robust policy framework that ensures farming remains central. 

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