Context: A collection of 349 gemstones, part of the sacred Piprahwa Buddhist relics, was repatriated to India, 127 years after they were taken during colonial times.
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: About Piprahwa Relics.
These relics had appeared for auction at Sotheby’s Hong Kong, but were acquired and brought back to India through a private initiative led by Pirojsha Godrej of Godrej Industries.
What are the Piprahwa Relics?
The Piprahwa relics were discovered in 1898 during a British-era excavation at Piprahwa, near the India-Nepal border in Uttar Pradesh. Piprahwa is believed to be the part of ancient Kapilavastu, the homeland of Lord Buddha
The excavation uncovered a Buddhist stupa containing:
Bone fragments believed to be of Lord Buddha.
Jewel-encrusted reliquaries (349 gemstones).
Caskets made of soapstone and crystal, and a sandstone coffer.
Most relics were placed in the Indian Museum, Kolkata, but the jewels ultimately went to auction houses.
Why is the Repatriation Significant?
Cultural and Religious Value: The relics are deeply sacred to the Buddhist community worldwide. Their discovery and preservation strengthen India’s identity as the cradle of Buddhism.
Geopolitical Messaging: By reclaiming Buddhist heritage from Hong Kong (under Chinese influence), India reinforces its Buddhist soft power against China’s attempts to project itself as a guardian of Buddhist legacy.
A large portion of the collection will be displayed at the National Museum Delhi.
Context:The President of India, Droupadi Murmu visited Udayagiri caves, situated in Bhubaneswar, Odisha.
About Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves:
The caves are situated on two adjacent hills, Udayagiri and Khandagiri mentioned as Kumari Parvata in the Hathigumpha inscription.
They have a number of finely carved caves built during the 1st century BCE.
Most of these caves were carved out as residential blocks for Jain ascetics during the reign of King Kharavela.
Kharavela was a monarch of Kalinga in present-day Odisha, who ruled during the second or first century BCE.
The kingdom of Kalinga was invaded by Ashoka in 262-261 BCE.
The Hathigumpha inscription implies that Kalinga regained its independence from the Maurya Empire sometime after Ashoka's death.
Kharavela was born in an independent Kalinga.
The rock cutting activities continued till the time of the Somavamsis of tenth-eleventh century A.D.
Most of the caves consist of a row of cells with portions opening into the courtyard. The doorway of cells has pilasters on either side with crowning animal figures and arches, decorated with flowers, creepers and animal motifs.
Udayagiri means 18 caves while Khandagiri has 15 caves.
The caves of Udayagiri and Khandagiri are called called lena or leṇa in the inscriptions.
The most important was Ranigumpha in Udayagiri which is a double storeyed monastery.
Other important caves include Hathi Gumpha, Ananta Gumpha, Ganesha Gumpha, Jaya Vijaya Gumpha, Mancapuri Gumpha, Bagha/ Vyaghra Gumpha and Sarpa Gumpha.
The Caves are also listed as one of the Adarsh Smarak Monument by Archaeological Survey of India.
Under the Adarsh Smarak initiative, the selected places are provided with additional facilities like wi-fi, cafeteria, interpretation centre, Braille signages and illumination among other things.
The scheme was launched in 2014 for providing improved visitor amenities, especially for the physically challenged.
Some important Caves at Udayagiri:
Rani Gumpha ‘Cave of the Queen’:
(Rani Gumpha)
Rani Gumpha is the largest and most popular cave among the caves of Udayagiri and Khandagiri.
This cave is double storeyed.
The upper portion of the central wing has relief images depicting the victory march of a king.
Many of the cells have carved Dwara Pala images.
Mancapuri and Swargapuri Gumpha:
(Mancapuri and Swargapuri)
Mancapuri and Swargapuri Gumpha are double storeyed.
Manchapuri cave depicts two male and two female figures worshipping the Kalinga Jina that Kharavela brought back from Magadha.
Kalinga Jina had been taken away from Kalinga by Mahapadmananda and its restoration was considered to be a great achievement of Kharavela.
There are three inscriptions: one inscription talks about the chief queen of Kharavela, and the other two refer to Kudepasiri, the successor of Kharavela and Badukha, the son or brother of Kudepasiri.
Ganesha Gumpha:
(Ganesha Gumpha)
The cave is named for the carved figure of Ganesha on the back of its right cell. It would have been carved in the later period.
The carved figures of Dwara Palas are found at the entrances.
Hathigumpha:
(Hathigumpha-1st image; Inscription-2nd Image)
It is a large natural cave with an inscription carved out in Brahmi Script by King Kharavela which is the main source of information about him.
The cave is known as Hathi Gumpha due to its exquisite carvings of elephants.
Context:‘Abhaya Mudra’, the gesture depicted with raised open palm that is commonly understood as conveying reassurance and a freedom from fear was invoked by the Leader of Opposition in his speech in Lok Sabha. The Abhaya Mudra is commonly associated with Buddhism, Jainism and Hinduism.
Introduction
It is one of the major religions of the world that originated from the Indian subcontinent and has now spread to large parts of South-east Asia.
The origin of Buddhism is attached to the story of Siddhartha who came to be known as Buddha.
Gautam Buddha was born at Lumbini (in present Nepal) in 563 BC as Siddhartha Gautam.
At the age of 29, he left his house to find the truth of life and he wandered as an ascetic.
At Gaya (Bihar), he attained enlightenment (Nirvana) under a pipal tree and became the Buddha, the Enlightened One.
After attaining Nirvana, he gave his first sermon to his five companions at the Deer Park in Sarnath near Varanasi. This event was called Dharma-chakra-pravartana (Turning the wheel of Law).
Buddha attained Mahaparinirvana at Kushinagar (Malla Mahajanapada) in Uttar Pradesh in 483 BC.
Mudras in Buddhism
In the Buddhist context, it refers to “hand and arm gestures made during the course of ritual practice or depicted in images of buddhas, bodhisattvas, tantric deities, and other Buddhist images”.
Mudras are most commonly associated with visual depictions of the Buddha with different gestures conveying different moods and meanings, signifying the subtle manifestations of the Buddha’s states of realisation.
The earliest depictions of the Buddha in physical form date to roughly around the turn of the first millennium.
Depictions started appearing in the Gandhara art from the northwestern edge of the Indian subcontinent (present day Pakistan and Afghanistan), which drew on Hellenistic influences (Greek) and later in the art of the Gupta period, in the Gangetic plains.
In the earliest depictions of Buddha, four mudras can be found:
Abhaya mudra (gesture of fearlessness)
Bhumisparsha mudra (Earth-touching gesture)
Dharmachakra mudra (gesture of the wheel of dharma)
Dhyana mudra (gesture of meditation).
With the evolution of Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism, and the proliferation of Buddhist artwork outside India, hundreds of mudras entered Buddhist iconography.
About Abhaya Mudra
The Abhaya mudra is typically formed with the palm of the right-hand facing outward at shoulder height and the fingers pointing up and the index, second, or third finger touches the thumb, with the remaining fingers extended upward.
In Buddhist tradition, the Abhaya mudra is associated with the Buddha immediately after he attained Enlightenment, ‘portraying a sense of the security, serenity, and compassion that derive from enlightenment’
This gesture identifies the moment when Shakyamuni (the Buddha) tamed the mad elephant, thus illustrating the Buddha’s ability to grant fearlessness to his followers. The elephant calmed down immediately, went down on her knees, and bowed her head to the Buddha.
This is why the Abhaya mudra is also seen as a ‘gesture of protection’ or ‘gesture of granting refuge’.
Other Mudras in Buddhism:
Dharmachakra Mudra
It is also called as the gesture of 'Teaching of the Wheel of Dharma' that describes one of the most important moments in the Buddha's life as he performed the Dharmachakra mudra in his first sermon in Sarnath after he attained enlightenment.
It is shown with the help of both the hands which are held against the chest, the left-facing inward, covering the right facing outward.
Dhyan Mudra
It is also known as Samadhi or Yoga mudra.
It is shown with the help of two hands which are placed on the lap and place the right hand on the left hand with stretched fingers (thumbs facing upwards and other fingers of both the hands resting on each other.)
Bhumisparsa Mudra
This gesture is also known as ‘touching the Earth’ which represents the moment of the Buddha's awakening as he claims the earth as the witness of his enlightenment
It is shown with the help of the right hand, which is held above the right knee, reaching toward the ground with the palm inward while touching the lotus throne.
Varada Mudra
This mudra represents the offering, welcome, charity, giving, compassion and sincerity.
It is shown with the help of both the hands with the palm of the right hand facing forward and fingers extended and the left-hand palm placed near omphalos with extended fingers.
Karana Mudra
This gesture signifies the warding off evil which is performed by raising the index and the little finger and folding the other fingers.
The karana mudra expels demons and removes obstacles such as sickness or negative thoughts.
Vajra Mudra
This gesture denotes the fiery thunderbolt that symbolizes the five elements of nature, i.e. air, water, fire, earth, and metal.
It is shown with the help of the right fist, left-hand forefinger, which is placed by enclosing the erect forefinger of the left hand in the right fist with the tip of the right forefinger touching (or curled around) the tip of the left forefinger.
It is shown by joining the tips of the thumb and the index fingers together while keeping the other fingers straight, which is just like to Abhaya Mudra and varada mudra but in this Mudra the thumbs touching the index fingers.
Abhaya mudra in Hindu religion:
Over time, the Abhaya mudra appeared in depictions of Hindu deities, and the Buddha himself was absorbed into the Hindu pantheon as the ninth avatar of the Puranic god Vishnu.
Hindus came to regard the Buddha as an avatar of Vishnu between AD 450 and the sixth century.
The first mention of the Buddha avatar came in the Vishnu Purana (400-500 CE).
As multiple traditions, practices, and cultural influences mingled in the great melting pot of the Hindu religion, manifestations were seen in art and visual depiction of gods.
The Abhaya mudra was seen in the depictions, most commonly of Lord Shiva, Lord Vishnu, and Lord Ganesha.
Context: India will be holding an exposition of some of the relics of Lord Buddha in Thailand in February. The relics will be kept at the National Museum, Bangkok at first and then would be exhibited at different venues in Thailand.
(Fig.: Case containing four pieces of the Holy relics of Lord Buddha)
More about the news:
Relics of Lord Buddha along with the relics of two of his disciples, Sariputta and Maudgalyayana (or Maha Moggallana) preserved in Madhya Pradesh’s Sanchi are being sent.
These relics (known as Kapilavastu relics) are under the protection of the National Museum, India, were excavated from Piprahwa in Siddharthnagar, Uttar Pradesh.
Siddharthnagar, is an ancient city of Kapilavastu region.
Kapilavastu, where Buddha is believed to be born in 563 BC (in the Sakya Kshatriya clan).
In 1952, the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) took ownership of Piprahwa and this enabled further excavations at the site.
The collection of sacred relics has been earlier taken to Sri Lanka in 1976 and 2012, Mongolia in 1993 and 2022, Singapore in 1994 and 2007, South Korea in 1995 and Thailand also in 1995.
These relics are categorised as ‘AA’ (rare) antiquities, which means they are not meant to be lent for exhibitions, within India or in foreign nations.
However, the exposition in Thailand was being held upon a ‘special request’ by the Thai Government.
The event will be organised by the Ministry of External Affairs in collaboration with the Indian Embassy in Thailand, the International Buddhist Confederation and the Madhya Pradesh government.
About Buddhism:
Buddhism belongs to the Shramana school of religious movements (means one who performs acts of austerity and ascetic).
Mahabhiraskramana or the Great Going Forth is the event when Gautam Buddha left his home and discarded worldly life.
Buddha died in 483 BC near Kushinara (Kushinagar, UP) and the event is known as Mahaparinirvana.
Religious teachings of Buddha:
Buddhism is based upon triratnas i.e., Buddha(the enlightened), Dhamma(doctrine) and Sangha(commune).
The core of his doctrine is expressed in the Ariya-sachchani (Four Noble Truths):
there is suffering (dukkha);
it has a cause (dukh samudaya);
it can be removed (nirodha); and
There is a path leading to the cessation of sorrow (dukh nirodha gamini pratipada)
The way to achieve this is following the Atthanga-magga (Eight-fold Path)/ Ashtangik marga/ Madhya Marga (one between extreme indulgence and extreme asceticism. It consists of right view, intention, speech, action, livelihood, effort, mindfulness, and concentration.
Buddha was against caste system and opened the gates of Buddhism for all castes.
Buddha suggested that when desires are conquered, nirvana will be attained (free from the cycle of birth and rebirth).
Relics associated with Buddha
Mahaparinibbaṇa Sutta (in Digha Nikaya) mentions that after attaining Parinirvana, the body of Buddha was cremated and the ashes divided among his lay followers.
First it was considered that ashes should go to the Sakya clan, to which the Buddha belonged.
However, a Brahmin named Drona divided the ashes of the Buddha into eight portions, for erecting stupa over the sacred relics.
to Ajatasattu, king of Magadha;
to the Licchavis of Vaishali;
to the Sakyas of Kapilavastu;
to the Bullis of Allakappa;
to the Koliyas of Ramagama;
to the Brahmana of Veṭhadipa;
to the Mallas of Pava;
to the Mallas of Kushinagara.
Stupas erected over the bodily relics of Buddha (Saririka stupas) are the earliest surviving Buddhist shrines.
Two other important relics were distributed:
Drona (the Brahmin who distributed the relics) received the vessel in which the body had been cremated;
Moriyas of Pipphalivana received the remaining ashes of the funeral pyre.
Research and excavations support the authenticity of the stupa at Piprahwa,as well as the Relic Stupa of Vaishaliand the Ramabhar Stupa at Kushinagar.
But the archaeological investigations to date have not definitively identified other remaining stupas.
Mahavaṃsa and Ashokavadana mentions that Mauryan emperor, Ashoka, collected seven of the eight relics of Gautama Buddha, and redistributed them across 84,000 stupas. These stupas were constructed around the world.
As per the 5th century scholar, Buddhaghosha, the Theravada tradition of Buddhism, believes that a proper Buddhist monastery was that which possessed the relics.
Relics of Buddha's noble disciples, Sariputta and Maudgalyayana (or Maha Moggallana) are preserved in Sanchi, Madhya Pradesh.
Some of the sacred Relics in India:
Kapilavastu relics:
During an excavation in 1898, five small vases was found containing bone fragments, ashes, and jewels in a stupa in Piprahwa. (the Archaeological Survey of India has identified Piprahwa as Kapilavastu)
The inscription on the lid, refers to the relics of Buddha and his community, the Sakya: ‘Sukiti bhatinam sa-bhaginikanam sa-puta-dalanam iyam salila nidhare Bhaddhasa bhagavate sakiyanam.’
Means: ‘this shrine for relics of the Buddha, is that of the Sakyas. The brethren of the distinguished One, in association with their sisters and with their children and their wives.’
Buddha Relic Stupa was built by Lichhavis in Vaishali (Bihar) as a mud stupa in the 5th century BCE.
Devni Mori, Gujarat (a Buddhist archaeological site): Mortal remains of the Buddha belonging to the third or fourth century were found during an excavation in 1962–1963.
Dhamma Vinaya Monastery Pune, Maharashtra, was constructed and relics of Gautam Buddha's and Arhant’s were enshrined.
An Arhant is one who has gained insight into the true nature of existence and has achieved nirvana (spiritual enlightenment).
Global Vipassana Pagoda was constructed in October 2006 in Mumbai, and the relics of the Buddha were enshrined in the central locking stone of the dome, making it the world's largest structure containing relics of the Buddha.
Lalitgiri, Odisha: A casket was discovered, believed to contain bones of Buddha.
Context: The Jain community celebrates Mahavir Jayanti, one of their most important festivals, throughout India. The celebration honours the birth of Lord Mahavira, the 24th Tirthankara of Jainism.
History Of Mahavir Jayanti
Lord Mahavira was born in Kundalgrama, Bihar, in the Chaitra month, according to Jain traditions and religious writings.
The cleansing of the Mahavir effigy with fragrant oil by the people symbolises the purity of the Lord.
People go to pilgrimage locations that are associated with the Jain community.
Gomateshwara is a well-known place to visit during the festival.
Emergence of Heterodox Thinkers
In the sixth and fifth centuries BCE, North India had a remarkable awakening as a result of a number of heterodox philosophies challenging the pre-existing philosophy.
In order to reflect on the social and cultural climate of their times, philosophers like Gosala, Gautama Buddha, Mahavira, Ajita Kesakambalin, and others renounced the world and wandered across the Gangetic plains.
Causes of Intellectual Awakening
The rigidity of the Vedic religion and state creation limited people's freedom of thinking and behaviour.
In heterodox sects, a revolt against the practise of accepting dogmas as truthwas articulated.
The process of socio-political and economic change was expedited by the creation of territorial identities.
Disenchanted with the existing order, the wealthy class (thriving in Magadha or the mid-gangetic plains) started to act in opposition to the Orthodox faiths.
Since the Vedic religion was not yet fully organised, its influence on society was limited, making it easy for individuals to adhere to the newly forming religious sects.
New classes of merchants and bankers like sethis sought higher social status in line with their economic standing as a result of urbanisation and the rise of trade.
Kshatriyas were upset because the Vedic writings only allowed Brahmins to live a staged life in ashramas.
Jainism
Vardhamana Mahavira's sect, which Buddhist writings refer to as Nigantha Nataputta
grew into the religion known as Jainism.
Before, it was known as Nirgranthas (free from bonds).
Risabha is credited as the sect's founder in Jaina mythology.
He is regarded as the original Tirthankara.
Three of the Tirthankaras: Risabha, Ajitanatha, and Aristanemi, are mentioned in the Yajur veda.
Mahavira, also known as Jina, the conqueror of the soul, organised his followers into secular and monastic groups.
Life of Mahavira
About 540 BCE, Mahavir was born in Vajji, a democratic kingdom (Ganarajya)
where the ruler was chosen through popular vote.
He was son of the King Siddharth of Kundagrama and Queen Trishala belonging to the Ikshvaku dynasty.
Mahavir was given the name Vardhaman, which means "One who grows."
His mother was a princess of the Lichchavi and Chetaka's (chief of Lichchavi) sister.
Mahavira was closely related to the rulers of Magadha, Anga, and Videha through his mother.
At the age of 30, he left his home and spent 12 years wandering as a mendicant in search of the truth.
He abandoned his clothes and engaged in strict penance.
He met Gosala while wandering, but they later parted ways because of their differences.
Vardhamana gained Nirvana, or enlightenment, in the thirteenth year of his wandering, when he was 42 years old. He attained Tirthankara status and came to be known as Jina or Mahavira (the Great Conqueror).
He passed away at the age of 72 in Pavapuri, close to Rajgriha, around 468 BCE. He fasted unto death (Sallekhana) according to Jaina ideals.
Sects of Jainism
A split in Jainism happened roughly 500 years after Mahavira's departure, in or around 79 or 82 CE.
Because of the severe famine in Magadha.
some of Jaina monks under Bhadrabahu left for south to maintain their rigorous discipline.
They remained without garments and were known as ‘Digambaras’ (space-clad or naked).
Others who remained behind under Sthulabhadra's leadership, chose a white clothing, and came to be known as ‘Svetambaras’ (white-clad).
Jainism was weakened in Magadha as a result of the schism, but it flourished in Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, and Karnataka.
Jaina Councils
Jaina Council
Year
Venue
Chairman
Patron
Result
First
300 BC
Patliputra
Sthulabhadra
Chandragupta Maurya
Compilation of 12 Angas
Second
512 AD
Vallabhi
Devardhi-Kshmasramana
---
Final Compilation of 12 Angas and 12 Upangas
Tenets of Jainism
Jainism places a strong emphasis on nonviolence.
Jainism rejects the idea of a creator. Jainism did not initially worship any deities.
Mahavira disapproved of Vedic rule.
It holds that there is no beginning or end to the world.
Jainism promoted dualism:
According to which the universe is composed of everlasting souls (jivas) and substance (ajivas).
When jiva and ajiva combine, karma (action) is produced, which causes a never-ending cycle of birth and reincarnation.
Severe penance and austerity must be practised in order to release oneself from karma.
As a result, only monks in Jainism were able to break free from the cycle of rebirth and birth.
It does not support any form of inequality based on birth.
Birth does not determine one's social standing; rather, one's actions do.
Birth-based status is regarded as a sin.
The monastic order accepted women.
Nevertheless, a woman to find salvation need to be reborn as a man and then pursue redemption by accruing merit through good deeds.
Three Gems
Jains are required to follow three principles called Triratnas
(1) Right faith (samyag-darshana/samyak-shadha);
(2) Right knowledge (samyag-jnana);
(3) Right conduct (samyag-mahavrata/ samyak-karma/samyak-acharana)
Five Great Vows/Pancha Mahavratas
The monks have to undertake the five great vows
(1) Not to kill or injure (ahimsa);
(2) Not to steal (asteya);
(3) Not to lie (satya);
(4) Celibacy (brahmacharya);
(5) Not to possess property (aparigraha)
The first four vows were laid down by Parshwanath and the fifth one was added by Mahavira.
Types of Knowledge
There are five types of Knowledge:
(1) Mati jnana: Perception through activity of sense organs, including mind
(2) Shruta jnana: Knowledge revealed by scriptures
(3) Avadhi jnana: Clairvoyant perception
(4) Manahparyaya jnana: Telepathic knowledge
(5) Keval jnana: Temporal knowledge
Syadvada theory in Jainism
The "theory of perhaps" holds that all of our judgements must necessarily be conditional and relative.
Seven different types of prediction are conceivable, according to Syadvada (Saptabhangi Nayavad).
Both absolute affirmation and negation are incorrect.
Anekantvada, or the philosophy of plurality, is another name for Syadvada.
Jaina Literature
The sacred literature of the Svetambaras is written in a type of Prakrit called Ardhamagadhi Prakrit (language of the common people) and can be classified as follows: 12 Angas, 12 upangas, 10 parikarnas, Chhedasutras, Mulasutras and Sutra-Granthas.
14 purvas/parvas- It is the part of 12 Angas and the oldest text of Mahavira’s preachings.
Besides this, the important Jain texts are:
Kalpasutra (Sanskrit)- Bhadrabahu
Parishishta Parvan (an appendix of Trishashthishalaka Purusha)- Hemachandra.
