Ancient Indian History

Why have scholars struggled to decipher Harappan Script?

Context: India will host its first-ever international conference on Manuscript Heritage from 11 to 13 September at Bharat Mandapam in New Delhi. The scholars from around the world will also present their work on the Harappan Script.

Relevance of the Topic:Prelims: Key facts about Indus Valley Civilisation and Indus Valley Script. 

First Global Conference on Manuscript Heritage

  • Hosted by: Ministry of Culture
  • Title: Reclaiming India's Knowledge Legacy Through Manuscript Heritage 
  • The event aims to bring global attention to India’s vast and diverse manuscript tradition.

India is home to more than 10 million manuscripts in various languages and subjects such as philosophy, science, mathematics, medicine, rituals, and literature. 

Why have scholars struggled to decipher Harappan Script?

  • In 1924, Sir John Marshall announced the discovery of the Bronze Age culture or Harappan Civilization that thrived in the Indus Valley between c. 3300 BCE and 1300 BCE. 
  • The Harappan script, and the underlying language spoken by Harappans spoke are still undeciphered more than a century after the discovery. 
  • Various interpretations exist about the underlying language represented by the Harappan script. It has been claimed to be Sanskrit; a form of proto-Dravidian; and even Ho and Santali. However, such claims are often made with scant evidence. 

The Challenge to Decipher a Script: 

To decipher a script, the following subproblems have to be solved in order.

  • Deciding if a set of symbols actually represent a writing system
  • Devising appropriate procedures to isolate or segment the stream of symbols into a sequence of single signs 
  • Reducing the set of signs to the minimal set for the writing system forming (its alphabet, syllabary, or inventory of signs) by identifying all allographs (the same sign written in a variant form, for example a printed ‘a’ and a cursive ‘a’) 
  • Assigning to each symbol their specified value, whether phonetic or otherwise
  • Trying to match these values to a specific language.

Associated Challenges in Indus Script: 

In the case of the Indus script, many of these problems remain unsolved due to three main reasons.

  • Absence of Multilingual Inscriptions: The most helpful tool to decipher an unknown script is parallel or bilingual inscription (by direct comparison with other known scripts). Though the Indus Valley Civilisation had robust trade links with the contemporary Mesopotamian Civilisation, no multilingual inscriptions have been discovered so far.
  • Language Not Known: Harappan script falls in the category of “unknown script written in an unknown language”. This makes it the most challenging to decipher as there are no familiar points of reference, unlike Egyptian hieroglyphs (unknown script but known language family). 
  • Limited Knowledge of Civilisation: In comparison to contemporaneous ancient civilisations in Mesopotamia and Egypt, much less is known in general about the Harappan civilisation. Although some 3500 Harappan seals have been identified, as each seal has on average only 5 characters inscribed, there is not enough material to analyse.  
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Key features of Indus Valley Script: 

  • Short inscriptions: Indus inscriptions are very short with only about 5 characters on average, with the longest having only 26 characters.
  • Boustrophedon script i.e., it is written from right to left on one line and then from left to right in the next line. 
  • Pictographic script: The script is not alphabetical. There are about 250 to 400 pictographs in the form of a picture; each letter stands for some sound, idea, or object. 

Also Read: Gyan Bharatam Mission: Mission for Manuscript Conservation

Kudavolai System: Chola Ballot Pots 

Context: In a recent address at Gangaikonda Cholapuram, the Prime Minister of India highlighted Chola empire's indigenous democratic tradition, contrasting it with the often-cited Magna Carta of 1215 CE in Britain.

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: About Chola Empire, Kudavolai System.

Mains: Features, relevance, and limitations of Cholas governance system.

Chola Empire

  • The Chola Empire (9th to 13th centuries CE) is one of the longest-ruling dynasties in South India. It is known for its maritime power, temple architecture, and democratic administrative systems. 
  • Long before the enlightenment in Europe birthed the ideals of representative governance, the Cholas had rules for local self-rule, literally inscribed into stone. 

Chola Democratic System

  • The Chola model of statecraft relied heavily on decentralised administrative systems. It was built on two core village-level institutions:
    • Sabha: Found in Brahmadeya villages (settlements gifted to Brahmins). Composed exclusively of Brahmin male members. Functioned through various committees (variyams) like garden committee, tank committee, justice committee, etc. Selection to these committees was often through the Kudavolai system.
    • Ur: For non-Brahmin villages. Peasant (Vellvangai) settlements were called Ur. Landholders of Ur (peasant village) acted as members of assembly Urar. Urar were entrusted with upkeep of temples, maintenance of tanks and managing water, and oversaw administrative functions like collection of revenue, maintenance of law & order. Less formal structure than Sabha, but still crucial to village-level decentralisation.
  • These were not symbolic councils, but functioning elected bodies with substantial powers over revenue, irrigation, temple management, and even justice.
  • The ‘Uttaramerur Inscription’ issued by Prantaka Chola offers detailed information about the world’s earliest surviving evidence of a formal electoral system called Kudavolai System.

Kudavolai System: Ballot Pot Elections

  • The Kudavolai system, meaning “ballot pot”, was an early electoral method used in Chola village assemblies.
  • Under this method:  
    • The names of eligible candidates were inscribed on palm leaves and placed inside a pot. 
    • A young boy, typically chosen for his impartiality, would draw the lot in full public view. 
    • The selected individual would assume a position in the village assembly.
  • This randomised draw was not a game of chance, but a civic ritual rooted in transparency, fairness, and collective consent. 
  • To ensure that power was not monopolised by dynastic elites, eligibility criteria under the system were strict. 

Eligibility & Disqualification Criteria:

  • Candidates had to own tax-paying land, be between 35 and 70 years old,
  • Possess knowledge of Vedic texts or administration, and 
  • Have no record of crime or domestic abuse. 
  • Debt defaulters, alcoholics, and close relatives of sitting members were disqualified. 

Accountability Mechanism

  • Annual audits were mandatory.
  • Misappropriation of funds or dereliction of duty could lead to disqualification from future office, a radical mechanism even by modern standards.
  • Inscription no. 24 from Epigraphia Indica details the dismissal of a treasury officer over embezzlement, followed by a fine.
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Trade:

  • By empowering merchant guilds such as the Manigramam and Ayyavole, and sustaining local assemblies, the Cholas expanded both trade and legitimacy. 

Limitation of Cholas Administration:

  • However, the Chola system was far from egalitarian in the modern sense. It excluded women, labourers, and landless groups. 

Also Read: Imperial Chola 

Keeladi Archaeological Site

Context: Findings from excavation at Keeladi village in Tamil Nadu's Sivaganga district provide compelling evidence of urban civilisation that existed in Tamil Nadu during the Sangam age.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Keeladi.

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About Keeladi

  • Keeladi is a small village in the Sivaganga district in Tamil Nadu. 
  • It is about 12 km south-east to the temple city of Madurai and is located along the Vaigai river. 

Keeladi Findings: 

  • The excavations here from 2015 prove that an urban civilisation existed in Tamil Nadu in the Sangam Age on the banks of the Vaigai river. 
  • Carbon dating of charcoal discovered at the site in February 2017 established that the settlement dates back to 6th century BCE.
  • Houses built with burnt bricks, well-laid drainage systems, water tanks, and deep wells reflect urban planning and engineering skills.
  • Evidence of industries such as pottery, weaving, dyeing, and bead-making.
  • Square-shaped trenches reveal remnants of furnaces containing soot and ash, confirming that Keeladi was a centre for manufacturing beads made from quartz, carnelian, glass, agate, and other materials. 
  • Discovery of spindle whorls, terracotta beads, and tools points to organised economic activity.
  • The findings also indicate trade and cultural exchange with the Indus Valley Civilisation.
  • Over 120 potsherds containing Tamil Brahmi inscriptions have been found. There are Tamil words engraved on the potteries that mention the names of individuals like 'Aathan', 'Uthiran' and 'Thiesan'.  

How is Keeladi linked to the Sangam Age?

  • The Sangam age is a period of history in ancient Tamil Nadu which was believed to be from the third century BCE to the third century CE. The name is derived from the renowned Sangam poets of Madurai from that time. 
  • Excavations by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) and Tamil Nadu State Archaeology Department (TNSDA) have pushed the Sangam age further back.  
    • In 2019, a TNSDA report dated the unearthed artefacts from Keeladi to a period between sixth century BCE and first century BCE. 
    • One of the six samples collected at a depth of 353 cm, sent for carbon dating in the US, dated back to 580 BCE. 
  • Keeladi could provide crucial evidence for understanding the missing links of the Iron Age (12th century BCE to sixth century BCE) to the Early Historic Period (sixth century BCE to fourth century BCE) and subsequent cultural developments. 

What is the controversy surrounding Keeladi?

  • After reports of possible links with the Indus Valley Civilisation, the third round (2017) of diggings by the ASI saw a delayed start. 
  • Superintending Archaeologist Amarnath Ramakrishna was transferred to Assam, allegedly in a perceived attempt to play down the excavation findings. 
  • Keeladi almost faded from public memory as there was no “significant finding” in the third round. This led to criticism that the excavation had been deliberately restricted to 400 metres. 

Are there Links to Indus Valley?  

  • The unearthed Keeladi artefacts have led academics to describe the site as part of the Vaigai Valley Civilisation. 
  • The findings have also invited comparisons with the Indus Valley Civilisation while acknowledging the cultural gap of 1000 years between the two places.
    • Till now, the gap is filled with Iron Age material in south India, which serve as residual links.  
    • However, some of the symbols found in pot sherds of Keeladi bear a close resemblance to Indus Valley signs. 
  • TNSDA affirms that Keeladi has all the characteristics of an urban civilisation, with brick structures, luxury items and proof of internal and external trade. Keeladi has also added to the credibility of Sangam Literature. 

Nalanda University

Context: The Nalanda University was established under the Nalanda University Act 2010, by the Ministry of External Affairs. The new campus of Nalanda University was inaugurated in 2024 and is located close to the ruins of the ancient university in Bihar’s Rajgir town. The University now has over 1200 students.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Nalanda University.

About Nalanda Mahavihara: 

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Introduction:

  • Nalanda Mahavihara, the 5th-12th Century AD (in ancient and medieval Magadha) university is considered to be one of the greatest centres of learning in ancient India.
  • The ruins of ancient Nalanda University in Bihar was declared as the World Cultural Heritage by UNESCO in 2016.
  • The details of the university can be found in the writings of the famous Chinese traveller Huang Tsang. According to him, there were 10,000 monks and 2000 teachers at Nalanda at that time.
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Foundation of the Mahavihara: 

  • Nalanda was established during the Gupta Empire period (3rd–6th century CE), and was supported by numerous Indian and Javanese patrons, both Buddhists and non-Buddhists.
  • The numismatic evidence discovered at Nalanda suggests that Kumaragupta I was the founder patron of Nalanda. 
  • Kumaragupta’s successors, Budhagupta, Tathagatagupta, Baladitya, and Vajra, later extended and expanded the institution by building additional monasteries and temples. Nalanda, thus flourished through the 5th and 6th centuries under the Guptas.
  • It was also patronized by King Harshavardhana of Kannauj (7th century CE) and the Pala rulers (8th-12th century CE). 
  • After the fall of the Palas, the monks of Nalanda were patronised by the Pithipatis of Bodh Gaya.

Curriculum and associated scholars: 

  • The curriculum at Nalanda was a skill full of secular and religious knowledge, of the theoretical and the practical.
  • Curriculum of Nalanda included major Buddhist philosophies like Mahayana, Madhyamaka, Yogachara, Sarvastivada, Hinayana, Samkhya
  • The curriculum also included other subjects like the Vedas, Sanskrit grammar, medicine, logic, mathematics, astronomy, arts, medicine and even metal casting technique. 
  • The mahavihara had a renowned library that was a key source for the Sanskrit texts that were transmitted to East Asia by pilgrims like Huang Tsang. 
  • Many texts composed at Nalanda played an important role in the development of Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism.
    • Examples: Works of Dharmakirti, the Bodhisattvacharyavatara of Shantideva and the Mahavairocana Tantra. 
  • One of the things that set Nalanda apart from other schools of the time was that it took international students from countries like Korea, Japan, China, Tibet and other parts of Asia.
  • Part of Nalanda’s mission was to bring Buddhism to the world. 
    • Nalanda was famed for its learned professors, or Upajjhaya (Upadhaya). 
  • Famous scholars associated with the Mahavihara: Nagarjuna, Aryadeva, Vasubandhu, and Asanga. 
  • In the 1190s, the university was destroyed by a marauding troop of invaders led by Turko-Afghan military general Bakhtiyar Khilji, who sought to extinguish the Buddhist centre of knowledge during his conquest of northern and eastern India. 

Mudumal Megalithic Menhirs

Context: Mudumal Megalithic Menhirs in Narayanpet district, Telangana have been added to India’s Tentative List of UNESCO World Heritage Sites. If granted full UNESCO status, it would be Telangana’s second such site after the Ramappa Temple, which was inscribed in 2021.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Menhirs. 

What are Menhirs?

  • A menhir is a large, upright standing stone, usually tapered at the top and manually placed by humans. 
  • The term Menhir is derived from the Brittonic words  "Maen" (stone), "Hîr" (long).
  • The Grand Menhir Brisé (Great Broken Menhir) in Brittany, France, is the largest Menhir, originally 20.6 m tall. 
  • Pop Culture Reference: Featured in the Asterix comic series – Obelix is often seen carrying menhirs. 
Menhirs

Age and Purpose of Menhirs: 

1. European Menhirs:

  • Linked to the Beaker Culture (Late Neolithic – Early Bronze Age).
  • Oldest European menhirs date back 7,000 BP. 

2. Indian Menhirs (Mudumal):

  • They are the oldest known menhirs in India, dating back to 3,500–4,000 BP (Before Present).
  • Spread across 80 acres, there are close to 80 towering menhirs, some reaching heights of 10 to 14 feet, along with nearly 3,000 smaller alignment stones.
  • They are believed to be part of a megalithic astronomical observatory.

Purpose of Menhirs : 

  • Often part of megalithic complexes (large prehistoric stone structures). 
  • Likely used for ceremonial, funerary, or astronomical purposes. Some functioned as grave markers, others aligned with celestial events.
  • Mudumal Menhirs align with the summer and winter solstices, suggesting their role as an ancient observatory. One particular menhir is worshipped as Goddess Yellamma by locals.

Why do Menhirs Deserve UNESCO Recognition?

  • The Mehirs showcase ancient ingenuity, prehistoric engineering, astronomy, and societal structures. 
  • They help in reconstructing the belief systems, rituals, and societal structures of pre-historic humans. 

Their UNESCO recognition will enhance global awareness and conservation efforts for India’s ancient heritage.

Iron Age in Indian Subcontinent

Context: Releasing a report on the antiquity of iron, the Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu M.K. Stalin proclaimed that the iron age began on “Tamil soil”, placing the date 5,300-odd years ago (4th millennium BCE). He asserted that the history of the Indian subcontinent could no longer overlook Tamil Nadu.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about the Iron Age. 

About Iron Age

  • The iron age is the period of human history (pre-history) where iron became a regular metal to be used by the masses. 

1. North India: 

  • For North India, the early evidence suggests iron use around 1800 BCE. The Iron age likely began from the 1200 BCE i.e., after the Bronze Age. (Rakesh Tiwari, 2003)
    • Iron artefacts, furnaces, and tuyeres, carbon-dated between 1800 BCE and 1000 BCE, were found during the excavations conducted at Raja Nala-ka-tila , Malhar, and Dadupur archaeological sites in Uttar Pradesh. 
    • In Malhar, especially, the presence of tuyeres, slags, and finished iron artefacts, hinted at a large-scale manufacturing of iron tools.
    • Technical studies on materials found at several places suggested that iron smelting in India could have begun as early as the 16th century BCE.
  • Iron age in North India co-existed with Painted Grey Ware (1300-300 BCE) and Northern Black Polished Ware (700-200 BCE) civilisations. It also coincided with the Later Vedic Period and period of Mahajanapadas. 

2. South India: 

  • The recently released report by the Tamil Nadu State Archaeology Department, ‘Antiquity of Iron: Recent radiometric dates from Tamil Nadu’, has placed the introduction of the iron age at 3,345 BCE to 2,953 BCE (fourth millennium BCE) in the State.
  • The report suggests that when cultural zones to the north of Vindhyas experienced the copper age, the south might have already entered into the iron age, owing to the limited availability of commercially exploitable copper ore. 
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Significance of the discovery of Iron: 

  • The presence of Iron helped in the development and expansion of 2nd phase of urbanisation in India (1st phase was Indus Valley civilisation). 
  • Iron helped in clearing forest and iron plough boosted agricultural productivity and surplus crops were produced.
  • Iron age is also characterised by social stratification, polity diversification, literary developments, Economic expansion and Trade and craft specialisation. 

Mystery of the Indus Valley Script

Context: The Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu has announced a $1 million prize for deciphering the script of the Indus Valley Civilisation. 

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Indus Valley Civilisation and Indus Valley Script. 

About Indus Valley Civilisation

  • In 1924, Sir John Marshall announced the discovery of the Bronze Age culture  or Harappan Civilization in the valley of the Indus between c. 3300 BCE and 1300 BCE.
  • IVC flourished in the northwestern regions of South Asia, primarily in present-day Pakistan and northwest India. Key archaeological sites include:
    • Harappa (Punjab, Pakistan): One of the first sites to be excavated, giving its name to the civilisation.
    • Mohenjo-daro (Sindh, Pakistan): Known for its advanced urban planning and the Great Bath.
    • Dholavira (Gujarat, India): Notable for its unique water conservation system.
    • Lothal (Gujarat, India): An important port city with a dockyard.
    • Rakhigarhi (Haryana, India): One of the largest Harappan sites.
Indus Valley Civilisation

Indus Valley Script: 

  • Harappan script is largely undeciphered. Attempts have been made to compare it with the contemporary scripts of Mesopotamia and Egypt, but it is the indigenous product of the Indus region and does not indicate any connection with the scripts of western Asia. 
  • Key Features: 
    • Short inscriptions: Indus inscriptions are very short – with only about five characters on average – with the longest having only 26 characters.
    • Boustrophedon script: Harappan script is boustrophedon, i.e., it is written from right to left on one line and then from left to right in the next line. 
    • Pictographic script: The Harappan script is not alphabetical but largely pictographic. There are about 250 to 400 pictographs in the form of a picture; each letter stands for some sound, idea, or object. 
  • There are nearly 4000 specimens of Harappan writing on stone seals and other objects.
    • Unlike the Egyptians and Mesopotamians, the Harappans did not write long inscriptions. 
    • Most inscriptions were recorded on seals and contain only a few words. These seals may have been used by the proprietors to mark and identify their private property. 
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Harappan Civilization will be called ‘Sindhu-Sarasvati’ in new textbooks

Context: Michel Danino, visiting professor at IIT Gandhinagar and chair of the NCERT committee for new social science textbooks, recently supervised the release of the Class 6 textbook ‘Exploring Society: India and Beyond’. In an interview, he addressed concerns about the use of alternative names like ‘Sindhu-Saraswati’ and ‘Indus-Sarasvati’ for the Harappan Civilization, stating that these terms are based on established archaeological research rather than political agendas.

More information: 

  • In contrast to previous editions, the new Class 6 social science textbook ‘Exploring Society: India and Beyond features’ extensive references to the 'Sarasvati' river in its chapter on the origins of Indian civilization. The earlier textbook, Our Past I, briefly mentioned the Sarasvati only in the context of Rig Vedic hymns.
  • The updated textbook highlights the Sarasvati river's significance in the chapter on the 'Beginnings of Indian Civilization,' identifying the Harappan Civilization as the 'Indus-Sarasvati' or 'Sindhu-Sarasvati' Civilization.
  • It describes how the Sarasvati basin, which included major sites like Rakhigarhi and Ganweriwala, was integral to this ancient civilization. The river, now known as the 'Ghaggar' in India and 'Hakra' in Pakistan, is depicted as seasonal in the new textbook. 
  • The textbook also discusses the role of the Sarasvati-river in the decline of the Harappan Civilization. It cites two primary factors:
    • climate change leading to reduced rainfall; and
    • the drying up of the Sarasvati-river in its central basin, resulting in the abandonment of cities such as Kalibangan and Banawali.
  • In contrast, the old textbook did not specifically attribute the river's decline to the downfall of Harappan cities. It mentioned various theories including river drying, deforestation, and flooding, but did not conclusively link these factors to the collapse of all cities, suggesting instead a loss of control by the rulers.

Harappan Civilisation

Harappan Civilisation
  • The Harappan civilization, also known as the Indus Valley Civilization, is considered the beginning of Indian history. It can be divided into three phases:
    • Early Harappan Phase from 3200 to 2600 BCE.
    • Mature Harappan Phase from 2600 to 1900 BCE.
    • Late Harappan Phase from 1900 to 1700 BCE.
  • The early Harappan phase marked the transition towards the mature Harappan period. 
  • During this phase, farmers from the highlands gradually migrated between their mountain residences and the lowland river valleys. 
  • The earliest specimens of the Indus script date back to the third millennium BCE, and trade networks connected this civilization to other regional cultures and distant sources of raw materials.
  • By this time, the villagers had successfully cultivated a diverse range of crops such as peas, sesame seeds, dates, and cotton. Additionally, they also domesticated animals like the water buffalo.
  • By 2600 BCE, early Harappan villages had developed into major urban centres, signalling the beginning of the mature Harappan phase.
Indus Valley Civilization map

Geographical setting of the Harappan Civilization: 

1. Geographic extent: The Harappan Civilization's geographic reach encompassed:

  • Northern Extent: From Mandu in Jammu
  • Southern Extent: To Daimabad in Maharashtra
  • Western Extent: From Sutkagendor in Balochistan, Pakistan
  • Eastern Extent: To Alamgirpur in Western Uttar Pradesh

2. The civilization covered regions including: Punjab, Sindh, Balochistan, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Western Uttar Pradesh. Notably, Harappan sites have also been discovered in parts of Afghanistan and Turkmenistan.

3. The Pre-Harappan site of Mehrgarh in Pakistan provides evidence of early cotton cultivation, indicating the region's agricultural development prior to the rise of the Harappan Civilization.

Important sites of the Civilization

1. Harappa:

  • Location: Situated on the banks of the Ravi River in Punjab, Pakistan.
  • Findings: Significant discoveries include Cemetery-37, Two sandstone statues depicting human anatomy, Two rows of six Granaries, workmen quarters, red sandstone male torso. 

2. Mohenjo-Daro: 

  • Location: Located on the banks of the Indus River in Punjab, Pakistan.
  • Findings: Notable structures such as the Great Bath and Assembly Hall were found. Additionally, a seal depicting Pashupati Mahadeva (Proto-Shiva) and a fragment of woven cotton were unearthed.

3. Chanhudaro: 

  • Location: Situated on the banks of the Indus River in Sindh, Pakistan.
  • Findings: This site is unique for lacking a citadel. Discoveries include bronze figurines of a bullock cart and ekkas (two-wheeled carts), along with a small pot that suggests the presence of a kink well.

4. Lothal: 

  • Location: Located on the banks of the Bhogva River near Gulf of Cambay, in Gujarat, India.
  • Findings: The city was divided into a citadel and a lower town, with a notable dockyard. Evidence of rice cultivation was also found.

5. Kalibangan:

  • Location: Situated on the banks of the Ghaggar River in Rajasthan, India.
  • Findings: Discoveries include evidence of a ploughed field, a wooden furrow, seven fire-altars, camel bones, and two types of burials—circular and rectangular graves.

6. Dholavira: 

7. Surkotada: 

  • Location: Located between the Sabarmati and Bhogavo rivers in Gujarat, India.
  • Findings: Important finds include evidence of horses, an oval grave, and pit burial practices.

8. Banawali: 

  • Location: Situated on the banks of the Saraswati River in Haryana, India.
  • Findings: The site shows evidence of both pre-Harappan and Harappan cultures. Noteworthy discoveries include high-quality barley remains.

‘Moidams’ to be considered for World Heritage List

Context: The 700-year-old mound-burial system of the Ahom dynasty, the Moidams from Assam, will be considered for nomination on the World Heritage List during the 46th session of the World Heritage Committee (WHC) in New Delhi. If it gets nominated, it will become the first cultural site on the prestigious list from the northeastern region.

More about the news: 

  • The Prime Minister will inaugurate the 46th session of WHC, which is being held in India for the first time.
  • The event brings together culture ministers, representatives and stakeholders from around the world to discuss the preservation of shared cultural, natural and mixed heritage.
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About Moidams: 

Introduction: 

  • The nomination dossier for the Moidams was sent more than a decade ago and is presently on the tentative list of UNESCO World Heritage Site, which is the first step towards the monument becoming a part of the final list.
  • The Tai-Ahom clan upon their migration from China established their capital in different parts of the Brahmaputra River Valley between 12th to 18th CE.
    • The Ahom or Tai-Ahom is an ethnic group, presently in Indian states of Assam and Arunachal Pradesh.
  • Siukapha/Sukaphaa, established the first capital of the Ahoms at the foothill of Patkai hills and named it Cheraidoi or Charaideo.
  • While the clan moved from city to city, the landscape of Cheraideo continued to retain its position as the most sacred, where the Royals used to be buried after death.
  • Their unique system of vaulted mounds continued for 700 years, till many Tai-Ahoms converted to Buddhism while others adopted the Hindu system of cremation.
  • The property and Buffer zones around Cheraideo are jointly protected and managed jointly by the Archaeological Survey of India and the State Department of Archaeology under the Ancient Monuments and Sites Remains Act 1958 (Amended in 2010) and by the Assam Ancient Monuments and Records Act 1959 respectively. 
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Significant features of Moidams: 

  • The Mound-Burial System of the Ahom Dynasty is a sacred landscape in eastern Assam, with more than ninety burial mounds established by the Tai-Ahom over 700 years ago.
  • The moidams of Charaideo contain the remains of the Tai-Ahom kings. They are set within a sculpted landscape that reflects Tai cosmologies. 
  • Moidams are vaulted chambers (chow-chali), often double stories entered through an arched passage.
  • On the top of the hemispherical mud-mound, layers of bricks and earth are laid, where the base of the mound is reinforced. 
  • Excavation shows that each vaulted chamber has a centrally raised platform where the body was laid.
  • Several objects used by the deceased during his life, like royal insignia, objects made in wood or ivory or iron, gold pendants, ceramic ware, weapons were also buried.  
  • The crematory rituals of the Royal Ahoms were conducted with grandeur, reflecting their hierarchy.
  • The Changrung Phukan (canonical text developed by the Ahoms) records the materials used to construct a Moidam.
    • There is a great variety in materials and systems of construction used in building a moidam.
    • From the period between 13th CE to 17th CE, wood was used as the primary material for construction whereas in the 18th CE onwards stone and burnt bricks of various sizes were used for the inner chambers. 
    • Boulders of different sizes, broken stones, bricks, and broken brick were used to construct the superstructure, whereas large stone slabs were used for the sub-substructure.

The Mound-Burial System of the Ahom Dynasty is an outstanding example of a Tai-Ahom necropolis (an extensive and elaborate burial place) that represents tangibly the Tai-Ahom funerary traditions and associated cosmologies.

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About Tai-Ahom Kingdom: 

  • The Ahom kingdom (1228–1826) was a late medieval kingdom in the Brahmaputra Valley (present-day Assam). 
  • Established by Sukaphaa, a Tai prince from present-day Yunnan Province, China.
  • The Ahom dynasty created a new state by overpowering the older political system of the bhuiyans (landlords).
  • By the 16th century, the Ahom empire expanded their influence and built a large state.
  • The Ahom empire followed a monarchical system of governance.
  • The kingdom became weaker with the rise of the Moamoria rebellion, and subsequently fell to repeated Burmese invasions of Assam.
  • With the defeat of the Burmese after the First Anglo-Burmese War and the Treaty of Yandabo in 1826, control of the kingdom passed into East India Company hands.

Centre set to tweak criteria for according classical language status

Context: With many languages seeking classical status, the Central government has decided to change the criteria for classical status to any language.

About classical language

  • The term ‘Indian classical languages,’ or Shastriya Bhasha, encompasses languages in India with a rich history, significant antiquity, and a distinct literary heritage.
  • India has six classical languages as of now: Tamil, Sanskrit, Telugu, Kannada, Malayalam and Odia. The government last granted the special tag to Odia in 2014.
  • The Indian government established criteria for conferring the status of a ‘Classical Language,’ a decision implemented by the Ministry of Culture in collaboration with the Linguistic Experts’ Committee. This committee, formed by the government, evaluates requests for classifying languages as Classical Languages.
  • All the Classical Languages are listed in the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution.

To be recognized as a ‘Classical Language,’ a language must satisfy the following criteria:

  • Demonstrated high antiquity of its early texts or a recorded history spanning 1500–2000 years.
  • Possession of a body of ancient literature or texts considered valuable heritage by successive generations of speakers.
  • Originality of the literary tradition, not borrowed from another speech community.
  • Distinctiveness between the classical language and literature from its modern counterparts, potentially involving a discontinuity.

Benefits of Classical Status: 

  • Two major international awards annually for distinguished scholars in Classical Indian Languages.
  • Establishment of a ‘Centre of Excellence for Studies in Classical Languages.’
  • Requesting the University Grants Commission to initiate, initially in Central Universities, a designated number of Professional Chairs for Classical Languages for eminent scholars in Classical Indian Languages. 

CM Stalin releases books on folk deities, forts of Tamil Nadu

Context: Tamil Nadu Chief Minister M.K. Stalin on Tuesday released two books titled, ‘Folk Deities of Tamil Nadu: Worship, Tradition and Custom’ and ‘Forts of Tamil Nadu: A Walk-Through’.

Folk Deities of Tamil Nadu- Worship, Tradition and Custom

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  • The book on folk deities, focuses on the innumerable folk deities of Tamil Nadu.
  • Some of these have a pan-regional appeal, while others are worshipped in a particular area or by certain communities and families.
  • Tamil society worshipped heroes who laid down their lives for a common cause. ‘Nadu Kal’ (hero stones ) were erected to honour those heroes.
  • Madurai Veeran, Kaathavarayan, and Muthupattan were raised to the status of deities for questioning existing norms of society and achieved martyrdom.
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About Hero Stones: 

  • A hero stone (Veeragallu in Kannada and Nadukal in Tamil) is a memorial commemorating the honourable death of a hero. 
  • Creating hero stones had been prevalent since the Sangam period dating back 2600 years, and continuing until the Nayaka and post-Nayaka period to about 19th century. 
    • A vast majority were erected between the 4th century BCE to 13th centuries CE in Tamil Nadu.  
    • The earliest and oldest of such memorial hero stones is found in Tamil Nadu. These hero stones are more than 2400 years old, i.e., 4th century BCE.
    • A hero stone dating to the 8th century Pandya kingdom, with a Tamil inscription in the Vatteluttu script was discovered in Tamil Nadu. 
  • Usually they are in the form of a stone monument and may have an inscription at the bottom with a narrative of the battle. 
  • Literary works of ancient Tamil Nadu like the Tolkappiyam, Ahananuru, Purananuru, Malaipadukadam and Pattinappalai, specifically describe the hero stones which were planted in honour of men who performed some daring acts to protect their community or village.
    • The four primitive hero-stones with Tamil Brahmi inscriptions, dated to third to second centuries BCE found in the upper part of the Vaigai valley, support the authenticity of the hero stone tradition described in the Sangam Tamil literature in the context of cattle raids.

Forts of Tamil Nadu-A Walk Through: 

  • The book documents the past glory of several forts in Tamil Nadu through essays. 
  • Many such structures have existed in the State for centuries.
  • These forts have been the site of political discourse, military prowess, foreign diplomacy and global trade.
  • The book features forts such as, St. George in Chennai, Gingee, Vellore, Dindigul etc. 

Searching for Indraprastha

Context: Under the Ministry of Tourism’s ‘Adopt a Heritage scheme’, the Dalmia Group’s Sabhyata Foundation has adopted the Purana Qila for maintenance and operations and to promote sustainable tourism at the site. For Purana Qila, the foundation has a vision monument, i.e., ‘Indraprastha and the Mahabharata’. 

 More about the news: 

The Purana Qila was built by the Mughal Emperor Humayun. The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) is set to begin the seventh round of excavations at the site to find evidence about the link of the fort to the ancient site of Indraprastha and the Mahabharata. 

Findings in 2014: 

  • In 1954, archaeologist B B Lal, first dug up the site.
  • In 2014, Grey pottery, rolled up inside a piece of soft white cotton cloth was found. 
  • Painted Grey Ware (PGW) pottery suggests links of the site to the ancient city Indraprastha. 
  • Painted Grey Ware:
    • PGW is a fine, smooth, grey coloured pottery that’s produced by firing techniques. 
    • They contain mostly geometric patterns in black or deep chocolate brown and usually occur in shapes such as open-mouthed bowls and dishes.
    • Mostly found in the Indo-Gangetic divide, the Sutlej Basin and the Upper Ganga plains, PGW is dated between approximately 1100 BCE and 500/400 BCE.
    • 1100 BCE and 500/400 BCE: This is the timeframe that matches some of the wide estimates of when the Mahabharata was composed.
    • Also, as ASI’s findings, in each of the other Mahabharata-related sites excavated by Lal, such as Hastinapur, Tilpat and Kurukshetra, PGW formed the lowest cultural deposit. So its presence at Purana Qila suggests its Mahabharata link. 
    • It was well established by B B Lal that PGW is associated with the Mahabharata period. 
    • The Purana Qila excavation proves that there has been continuous habitation in Delhi from 1200 BCE till today.
  • However, other archaeologists, have different views and suggest that it is hard to connect PGW with Mahabharata there is lack of evidence proving whether the events in the Mahabharata actually happened and the occurrence of PGW in itself does not necessarily mean that a site is connected with the Mahabharata story.
  • As per Historian Upinder Singh the presence of PGW in sites related to the story in the Mahabharata simply suggests that these sites were inhabited from about 1000 BCE onwards and that people who lived there shared a similar material culture.
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About Indraprastha 

  • Indraprastha is mentioned in ancient Indian literature as a city of the Kuru Kingdom.
  • During the Mauryan period, Indraprastha was known as Indapatta in Buddhist Pali literature, as the capital of the Kuru Mahajanapada. 
  • Modern historians cite its location in the region of present-day New Delhi, particularly the Old Fort (Purana Qila).
  • About Kuru kingdom: 
    • The Kuru kingdom appeared in the Middle Vedic period (1200 BCE), encompassing parts of the modern-day states of Haryana, Delhi, and some parts of western Uttar Pradesh.
    • It declined in importance during the late Vedic period (900-500 BCE).
    • It corresponds with the archaeological Painted Grey Ware culture.


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