The Indian Express

ISRO’s Experiments in Axiom-4 Mission 

Context: The Axiom-4 Mission to the International Space Station (ISS) was launched on June 25, 2025 to conduct scientific research, outreach and commercial activities in space. Shubhanshu Shukla, an Indian Air Force (IAF) officer and ISRO astronaut piloted the Mission.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Axiom-4 Mission; ISRO’s Experiments in Axiom-4 Mission.

Axiom-4 Mission is a private spaceflight organised by Axiom Space. The crew will spend about 14 days aboard the International Space Station (ISS) and conduct various experiments in the microgravity environment. 

Key ISRO’s Experiments in Axiom-4 Mission

1. Myogenesis Study:

  • Shukla performed operations in Life Sciences Glovebox (LSG) for the Myogenesis study.
  • Aim: To uncover the molecular mechanisms driving muscle loss in space.
  • Significance: These findings could also pave the way for:
    • Targeted treatments to prevent muscle atrophy during prolonged space missions. 
    • New therapies to address muscle-wasting conditions on Earth such as those related to ageing or immobility.

Myogenesis: 

  • Myogenesis is the biological process through which muscle tissue is formed during early stages of embryonic development from stem cells. These stem cells gradually differentiate into muscle precursor cells, which then multiply and fuse together to form muscle fibres. 
  • Myogenesis is crucial for the growth of the body, repair of muscle tissue, and regeneration of the musculoskeletal system (which includes bones, muscles and connective tissues).

2. Growing Sprouts and Moong Beans: 

  • The Sprouts-ISRO experiment focuses on the growth of green gram (moong) and fenugreek (methi) seeds in space. These are staple, nutrient-rich foods in India. 
  • Aim: To study how microgravity affects their germination, genetics, and nutritional content. 
  • Significance: Understanding these changes can help in:
    • Developing reliable plant-based food systems for future space missions. 
    • Supporting agricultural advancements on Earth, particularly in resource-constrained or extreme environments where conventional farming is difficult. 

3. Microalgae Experiment:  

  • Aim: To study how Microalgae grow and evolve in the absence of gravity. 
  • Microalgae are highly efficient organisms known for producing oxygen, absorbing carbon dioxide, and providing dense nutrition. 
  • Significance:
    • If successful, microalgae could become a sustainable food source for long-duration space missions. 
    • Open up possibilities for using them in Earth-based environmental and food solutions, especially in areas with limited access to resources. 

4. Survival of Tardigrades in Space:

  • The Voyager Tardigrade-ISRO experiment aims to observe how tardigrades survive and reproduce in extreme space conditions and compare their gene expression with Earth-based samples. 
  • Tardigrades are tiny aquatic creatures that can survive radiation, vacuum, and freezing temperatures.
  • Significance: The research will decode the biology behind their resilience, which could lead to innovations in radiation protection for astronauts, and even new materials or therapies for use in harsh environments on Earth.

5. Human interaction with Technology in Microgravity: 

  • Voyager Displays-ISRO explores how spaceflight alters human interaction with electronic interfaces like touchscreens. Tasks involving gaze, touch, and eye movement will be analysed to understand cognitive and motor changes caused by microgravity. 
  • Significance: 
    • To improve the design of control systems for spacecraft and future space habitats.
    • The results may also benefit high-stress environments on Earth, such as aviation or emergency response, where quick, intuitive interaction with digital systems is crucial for safety and performance.

6. Cerebral Hemodynamics Study:

  • Using Ultrasound technology, ISRO and NASA will explore how blood circulates in the brain under microgravity conditions. 
  • Significance: The findings could improve our understanding of cardiovascular adaptation in space and inform medical diagnostics and treatments for conditions like stroke and hypertension on Earth.

The experience gained through the experiments is expected to nurture a microgravity research ecosystem in India resulting in the induction of advanced microgravity experiments in various disciplines in the Indian space programme.

Also Read: Indian Astronaut to pilot Axiom Mission 4 

INS Nistar: India’s first Indigenous Diving Support Ship

Context: INS Nistar, India’s first indigenously designed and built Diving Support Vessel (DSV), was delivered by Hindustan Shipyard Limited to the Indian Navy.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about INS Nistar. 

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INS Nistar

  • INS Nistar is a highly specialised Diving Support Vessel that can undertake Deep Sea Diving and Rescue Operations- a capability with select Navies across the globe.
  • It measures 118 m with a tonnage of nearly 10,000 tonnes.
  • It is equipped with state-of-the-art Diving Equipment and can undertake Deep Sea Saturation Diving up to a depth of 300 metres. 
  • The ship will also serve as the ‘Mother Ship’ for the Deep Submergence Rescue Vessel (DSRV), to rescue and evacuate personnel, in case of an emergency in a submarine underwater. 

The induction of INS Nistar with nearly 75% indigenous content is another milestone in the Indian Navy’s quest for indigenous construction.

Vera C. Rubin Observatory 

Context: The Vera C. Rubin Observatory is set to become fully operational by the end of 2025.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Vera C. Rubin Observatory. 

About Vera C. Rubin Observatory: 

  • Formerly known as the Large Synoptic Survey Telescope (LSST), it is a large astronomical observatory designed to conduct a ten-year survey of the entire visible southern sky. 
  • Location: 8,684 feet above sea level on Cerro Pachón mountain in Chile. 
  • It is named after Vera C. Rubin who provided the first evidence of dark matter in the 1970s.
  • It is a joint project of the US National Science Foundation (NSF) and the US Department of Energy's Office of Science.
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Key Features: 

The centerpiece of the Rubin Observatory is the Simonyi Survey Telescope. This device is unique for three main reasons: 

  • Wide Field of View: 
    • Most telescopes observe only tiny portions of the sky (E.g., Hubble sees just 1% of the full Moon’s disc).
    • The Simonyi Survey telescope can observe an area equivalent to 40 full moons at once, due to its distinct design comprising three differently curved mirrors.
  • Largest Digital Camera: 
    • The telescope has the world's largest digital camera, which is the size of a small car, weighs 2,800 kg, and boasts a staggering resolution of 3,200 megapixels. 
    • It can detect objects 100 million times dimmer than visible to the naked eye.
    • The camera has six filters designed to capture light from different parts of the electromagnetic spectrum. This will help astronomers gather information about various celestial objects based on the type of light they emit. 
  • Fastest-Slewing Telescope:
    • The Simonyi Survey Telescope is the fastest-slewing telescope in the world, and takes just five seconds to move and settle from one target to another.
    • This speed is due to the telescope’s compact structure (owing to the three-mirror design), and its mount which floats on a film of oil.
    • Such speed will allow the telescope to snap up to 1,000 images a night, meaning it can capture the whole sky in just three days. 
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Why is Rubin Observatory Revolutionary?

  • The Vera Rubin Observatory will constantly scan the sky of the southern hemisphere for 10 years, this continuous scanning helps detect even small or sudden changes in the universe.
  • It captures 20 terabytes of data each night. This massive data pool will help solve some of the biggest mysteries of the universe, and discover numerous celestial objects such as comets and asteroids.
  • It took 225 years of astronomical observations to detect the first 1.5 million asteroids, Rubin will double that number in less than a year.
  • On June 23, when the first test images of the observatory were released, astronomers at the Rubin Observatory said that its software had identified 2,104 brand-new asteroids- including seven near-Earth objects with merely 10 hours of engineering data.

The observatory will expand our knowledge about the nature of dark matter and dark energy. While galaxies, stars, and planets make up 5% of the universe, dark energy makes up about 68%, and dark matter about 27%. 

Need for Climate-Smart Fabrics  in Heat Action Plans 

Context: India needs climate-smart fabrics to cope with intensifying heatwaves, as traditional clothing offers limited protection against extreme heat and humidity.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Climate Smart Fabrics.

What are Climate Smart Fabrics?

  • Climate Smart Fabrics, also known as Smart textiles, are textiles designed to adapt to environment conditions.
  • These fabrics integrate technologies like- sensors, microchips, and conductive fibres which enables them to monitor, react to, and even change their properties in response to stimuli like temperature, moisture etc. 
  • Examples:  
    • New Phase Change Materials (PCMs) integrated into fabrics can absorb excess heat and release it when things cool down. 
    • Scientists at Stanford University developed a textile that is transparent to infrared wavelengths and radiates heat away from the body. 

Key Features: 

  • Thermal Regulation: Absorb and release heat to maintain optimal body temperature.
  • Moisture-Wicking: Pull sweat away from the skin and enable faster evaporation. 
  • UV Protection: Shield against harmful ultraviolet rays.

Smart Fabrics use Important Technologies to function: 

  • Nanotechnology: Developments in nanotechnology allow fabrics to be treated or engineered at a molecular level to give them unique properties like water resistance or enhanced durability. E.g., Graphene Modified Protective Clothing. 
  • Miniaturised Electronics enable the embedding of sensors and circuits directly into textiles without affecting their flexibility or comfort.
  • Wireless Technologies like Bluetooth and NFC (Near Field Communication) facilitate the communication of smart textiles with smartphones and other devices, enabling real-time data tracking and interaction.
  • Thin and flexible batteries or solar cells: Improvements in energy harvesting and storage technologies are crucial to power these smart textiles.
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Why India Needs Climate-Smart Fabrics?

  • India is experiencing record-breaking heatwaves. For instance, Delhi's heat index touched 54°C, Ooty witnessed its warmest day in 73 years and Kashmir had its hottest June in five decades.
  • As heatwaves intensify and humidity levels rise across India, especially in the Indo-Gangetic plain, traditional cotton clothing is proving inadequate.
    • In high humidity, cotton dries slowly, sticks to the body, traps heat, and raises the risk of skin infections.
    • Natural fibres like cotton offer little protection against harmful UV rays, increasing the risk of skin-related illnesses, including cancer.
  • Over 50% of India’s workforce is engaged in outdoor occupations such as farming, construction, and street vending, making them highly vulnerable to extreme heat exposure.
  • Vulnerable groups often lack access to appropriate protective clothing. For instance, in Varanasi, Blinkit delivery partners recently went on strike, demanding cotton uniforms to cope with the summer heat.
  • An analysis from Down to Earth estimates that a single five-day heat wave leads to 30,000 excess deaths in summer.

Despite growing threats, India's Heat Wave Action Plan lacks longterm, science-backed interventions such as climate-smart clothing. 

It relies only on a combination of early warning systems, public awareness campaigns, emergency medical response, and structural interventions like cool roofs and shaded public spaces.

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Way Forward

  • Integrate smart fabrics into Heat Action Plans.
  • India’s new Research, Development and Innovation (RDI) Scheme (₹1 lakh crore outlay) should prioritise affordable wearable technologies and mass production of climate-adaptive fabrics.

AI in Warfare and India’s Preparedness

Context: According to a research report by Delhi-based Centre for Joint Warfare Studies, an autonomous think tank, Artificial Intelligence (AI) is set to rapidly transform the landscape of warfare with deeptech being deployed for tasks ranging from autonomous weapons systems to intelligence gathering and cybersecurity. 

Relevance of the Topic: Mains: How AI is transforming the landscape of warfare and India’s Preparedness.

Use case of AI in Warfare includes

  • Development of autonomous weapons systems that can select and engage targets without human intervention.
  • Analysing vast amounts of data to identify potential threats. 
  • Tracking enemy movements, and forecasting future attacks.
  • Creating realistic battlefield simulations to enable field evaluation trials as well as allowing soldiers to train in virtual environments to prepare for real-world combat scenarios.
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Countries around the world have started integrating AI in Warfare

China 

  • China is using the AI models to improve artillery systems by reducing the time between shots and increasing accuracy.
  • Chinese military drones are equipped with generative AI that allows them to detect and destroy enemy radars automatically.
  • China combines AI across land, air, sea, space, cyberspace, and electromagnetic spectrum. This gives it a strong edge in multi-domain operations.

Pakistan

  • Pakistan’s Air Force set up a Centre of Artificial Intelligence and Computing (CAIC) in 2020.
  • During Operation Sindoor, Pakistan likely received LIVE satellite images and data from China. AI may have been used to quickly process this data, helping Pakistan track Indian troop movements in real-time.

Ukraine

  • Ukraine has equipped its long-range drones with AI that can autonomously identify terrain and military targets, using them to launch successful attacks against Russian refineries. 

Israel

  • Israel has also used its Lavender AI system in the conflict in Gaza to identify 37,000 Hamas targets. As a result, the current conflict between Israel and Hamas has been dubbed the first “AI war”.

India

  • The Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) established the Centre for Artificial Intelligence and Robotics (CAIR) in 1986, with the aim of developing autonomous technologies for military use.
  • CAIR has worked on a wide range of applications including combat systems, path planning, sensor integration, target identification, underwater mine detection, patrolling, logistics, and localisation.

However, despite this early start, India faces several key challenges in effectively harnessing AI for modern warfare.

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Challenges for India in AI Warfare

  • Lack of Energy Infrastructure
    • AI technologies need continuous, high-power electricity for data centres and simulations. India has low nuclear power capacity (around 7.5 GW), much less than countries like South Korea.
    • Overdependence on solar and wind energy without backup storage makes the power grid unstable.
  • Inadequate AI Infrastructure: India lacks large-scale, defence-specific AI data centres. Limited access to high-performance computing for real-time battlefield analysis and decision-making.
  • Fragmented Research & Development: Agencies like DRDO’s CAIR have been working since 1986, but progress has been slow. No large-scale, coordinated national mission focused on AI for defence.
  • Weak Civil-Military Fusion: Unlike China or the U.S., India does not have strong collaboration between private tech firms, startups, academia, and the military. Defence R&D is mostly government-driven, limiting innovation speed.
  • Lag in C4ISR, Space, Cyber, and Electromagnetic Domains: India lags behind China in C4ISR capabilities- Command, Control, Communication, Computers, Intelligence, Surveillance, and Reconnaissance, particularly in the domains of space, cyberspace, and the electromagnetic spectrum.
  • Lack of National Policy or defence doctrine on AI integration: No clear national policy or defence doctrine on AI integration in military strategy. Regulatory and bureaucratic delays slow down tech adoption in defence forces.
  • Limited Private Sector Participation: Private sector involvement in nuclear energy and AI defence systems is limited. Without private innovation and investment, India cannot scale up AI infrastructure quickly.

AI is transforming modern warfare into an “agentic” battlefield, where autonomous systems, rapid decision-making, and multi-domain dominance decide outcomes.

EU’s New Climate Goal and Carbon Credits 

Context: The European Union (EU) includes International CO2 credits in the climate goal for the first time.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: About Carbon credit and EU’s climate targets. 

EU’s New Climate Goal and Carbon Credits

  • The European Union has proposed a legally-binding climate target to cut net greenhouse gas emissions by 90% by 2040 from 1990 levels. 
  • This proposal introduces a notable flexibility to member states which will allow them to use carbon credits purchased from developing nations to meet a limited portion of their emissions offsetting target.
  • The EU is allowing up to 3% of its target to be met using carbon credits purchased from developing countries, via a UN-backed market from 2036 onwards.

The EU’s existing climate targets require countries to meet the goals entirely by cutting emissions at home. 

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This also raises questions over the effectiveness of carbon-credits: if they are a verifiable tool to drive global emission reductions, or do they risk becoming another form of greenwashing, allowing wealthier nations to offset rather than truly transform their domestic economies.  

RBI proposes Daily Financial Conditions Index 

 Context: The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) has proposed a daily Financial Conditions Index (FCI) to enhance real-time monitoring of India’s financial health.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Financial Conditions Index.

Daily Financial Conditions Index

  • The FCI is a composite index proposed by the RBI to track real-time financial market conditions in India on a daily basis.
  • It is designed to capture and reflect the prevailing conditions across key segments of the financial system including-
    • Money market
    • Government securities (G-sec)
    • Corporate bonds
    • Equities
    • Foreign exchange market
  • The index aims to provide a high-frequency measure of how tight or easy financial market conditions are, relative to their historical average since 2012.

Features of Financial Conditions Index

  • The FCI is built using 20 market-based indicators.
  • The FCI is standardised- meaning values are shown in standard deviations from the average (since 2012).
  • The proposed FCI traces movements in financial conditions in India across both periods of relative calm as well as crisis episodes.
    • Higher positive FCI indicates tight financial conditions.
    • Lower negative FCI indicates easy financial conditions.

Objective of daily Financial Conditions Index

  • To provide a real-time, daily assessment of India’s financial environment.
  • To help policymakers, analysts, and market participants understand how monetary and financial conditions evolve.
  • To track stress or buoyancy in different financial market segments.
  • To improve timely policy responses during periods of financial turbulence or boom.

Implications

  • Helps RBI assess how financial markets respond to interest rate or liquidity changes.
  • Works as an early warning system for economic stress.
  • Supports data-driven decision-making in fiscal and monetary policy.

Key Events Tracked by the Financial Conditions Index

The FCI has effectively captured major episodes of financial stress and easing in India:

  • Taper Tantrum (2013): Financial conditions tightened significantly due to fears of the US Federal Reserve reducing its bond purchases. This led to capital outflows, a falling rupee, and rising bond yields.
  • IL&FS Crisis (2018): The default by IL&FS caused panic in the bond market, increased credit risk premiums, and led to tighter financial conditions.
  • COVID-19 Outbreak (2020): The onset of the pandemic triggered a severe tightening of financial conditions due to a sharp sell-off in equity and corporate bond markets.
  • Post-COVID Period (2021-2022 ): The index suggests that in the aftermath of the pandemic, exceptionally easy financial conditions were driven by the combined impact of amiable conditions across all market segments.
  • Mid-2023 to Early 2025: Conditions remained largely easy, backed by buoyant equity markets and surplus liquidity, before tightening from November 2024 due to global policy shifts.
  • March 2025: FCI peaked again briefly but later normalised, indicating a return to near-neutral financial conditions.

King Cobra 

Context: The Chief Minister of Madhya Pradesh is keen on reintroducing king cobras in the state as an antidote to spiralling snakebite deaths. He also wants snakes in the state counted in order to assess numbers of the venomous ones.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about King Cobra.

About King Cobra: 

  • The king cobra is the world’s longest venomous snake, it can grow to 15 feet in length.
  • In India, its range include- Western Ghats, North Indian terai belt, Northeast India, mangrove coastlines of West Bengal and Odisha, Andaman and Nicobar, and parts of the Eastern Ghats.
  • Found across diverse habitats- from highland evergreen and semi-evergreen forests to estuarine mangroves with high rainfall.
  • It prefers humid, dark forests with thick undergrowth, cool swamps, and bamboo patches. There is no reliable historical record of its presence in the dry deciduous forests of central India. 
  • It is the only snake species that builds nests for its eggs. It tends to stay away from human habitations. It does not breed well in captivity. 
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Threats and Conservation Status:

  • Threats: Deforestation, urban expansion, habitat encroachment, hunting for skin and meat. 
  • IUCN status: Vulnerable
  • CITES: Appendix II 
  • Wildlife Protection Act 1972: Schedule-II. Regarded as the national reptile of India. 

Distinct lineages of Cobras: 

A study using genetic and morphometric data found that king cobras are not one species, but a complex of at least four distinct lineages:

  • Western Ghats Lineage - Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Goa, Maharashtra.
  • Asian Mainland Lineage - Northern and Eastern India, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, China, Thailand.
  • Malay Peninsula Lineage - Malaysia and parts of Southern Thailand.
  • Greater Sunda and Philippines Lineage - Indonesia, Philippines. 

Concerns: Different lineages are genetically distinct, adapted to specific ecosystems. Transferring one to another area can cause hybridisation (mixing of genes), ecological disruption and loss of unique evolutionary identity. 

Any captive breeding and reintroduction efforts must ensure that species are not allowed to hybridise, and that only the appropriate local species is released in any reintroduction programme.  

Delhi Fuel Ban for Old Vehicles 

Context: To curb vehicular emissions, Delhi government began denying fuel to overage petrol and diesel vehicles from July 1, 2025, as directed by the Commission for Air Quality Management (CAQM). However, faced with public outrage, the Delhi government has put on hold the order denying fuel to 'end of life' cars.

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: About End-of-Life Vehicle (ELV) Rules, Bharat Stage Emission Norm, VAHAN database and ANPR technology.

Mains: Pollution control measures.

What is Delhi’s ‘fuel ban’ for old vehicles?

  • From July 1, 2025, diesel vehicles older than 10 years and petrol vehicles older than 15 years are prohibited from refueling at Delhi fuel stations.
  • In April, the Commission for Air Quality and Management (CAQM) directed a phased denial of fuel to end-of- life vehicles (ELVs) at fuel stations in the Delhi from July 1, in high-density NCR districts from November 1, and in the rest of the NCR from April 1, 2026.
  • Delhi has installed Automatic Number Plate Recognition (ANPR) cameras at 498 fuel stations and three inter-state bus terminuses (ISBTs) to scan vehicle number plates and check them against the VAHAN database, India’s national vehicle registry, in real time.

Reasons behind Delhi fuel ban for older vehicles: 

  • Older vehicles emit more air pollutants. E.g., BS-IV vehicles emit 4.5 to 5.5 times more particulate matter than BS-VI vehicles. 
  • Transport emissions account for 28% of PM2.5, 41% of sulphur dioxide (SO2), and 78% of nitrogen oxide (NOx) emissions in the NCR.
  • Although legal mandates have existed since 2015, enforcement was delayed due to the absence of necessary technological infrastructure.
  • The liquidation of such (overage) vehicles can only be done by adopting strict steps like denying fuel. 

What is the legal mandate for the CAQM’s fuel ban?

  • GT Order (2015): Banned diesel vehicles older than 10 years (heavy or light) from operating in Delhi NCR. Prohibited registration of Petrol vehicles which are more than 15 years old and diesel vehicles that are more than 10 years old in Delhi NCR.
  • Supreme Court Ruling (2018): The NGT’s directive was upheld and reinforced by the Supreme Court in 2018. It said that vehicles violating the order should be impounded.
  • Delhi Government Guidelines (2024): Issued under the Motor Vehicles Act and Registered Vehicle Scrapping Facilities (RVSF) Rules. Set procedures for identifying and scrapping End-of-Life Vehicles (ELVs).
  • Environment Protection (End-of-Life Vehicles) Rules, 2025: Came into force on April 1, 2025. Mandates scrapping within 180 days of expiry of a vehicle’s registration.
  • Motor Vehicles Act, 1988: States that for non-transport vehicles, registration is valid for 15 years, and renewable thereafter.
  • Central Motor Vehicles Rules, 1999: After the expiry of the registration certificate, the vehicle shall not be deemed validly registered.

Can measures such as these resolve Delhi’s bad air problem?

  • As per no single measure (like banning old vehicles) can comprehensively solve Delhi’s air pollution crisis.
  • As per the Centre for Science and Environment (CSE) age-based bans are not scalable across India. Even newer vehicles can be gross polluters due to poor maintenance or technical faults.
  • A coordinated planning and action on multiple fronts, involving a wide range of stakeholders, is required. 

Recommendations by Centre for Science and Environment (CSE): 

  • Improve fuel quality and vehicle emission standards (E.g., BS-VI and beyond).
  • Enforce a stringent Pollution-under-Control (PUC) regime.
  • Invest in the massive expansion of public transport infrastructure to reduce private vehicle dependency.

HAM Radio

Context: Indian Astronaut Shubhanshu Shukla interacted with the country’s students using a HAM radio from the International Space Station (ISS).

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: About HAM Radio and its working; Uses of HAM Radio. 

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What is a HAM Radio?

  • Amateur radio, popularly known as ham radio, is a licensed radio service that relies on radio waves for establishing communication.
  • Ham radio service is largely deployed for educational and knowledge purposes, for emergency or SOS communication. 
  • Using a dedicated frequency, a transceiver and an antenna, communication can be set up between two licensed hams by trained ham operators. The communication can be hyper-local, global, and in space. 
  • In India, any individual above the age of 12 is permitted to operate a ham radio. The Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology issues these licences.

How has HAM Radio been used in space?

  • Amateur radio was first used on a space shuttle to establish communication between space and Earth in 1983.
  • The ISS also has a ham radio, known as the Amateur Radio on the International Space Station (ARISS), which is often used to organise astronaut-student interactions.
  • The objective of such interactions is to inspire the young generation.
  • Typically, there is a nine minute window to make contact with the ISS while it revolves around the planet. 
  • Note that for safety purposes, the ARISS schedules radio outages at the ISS at the time of docking or such important activities. This is done to ensure that the radio does not interfere with any signals.
  • The Axiom-4 mission’s astronauts from India, Poland and Hungary will contact their respective countries using the ham radio twice during their 14-day stay at the ISS.
  • Whenever the ISS is cruising past the horizon for a short period, an attempt to establish ham communication will be performed. 

Why is HAM Radio an alternate mode of communication?

  • Ham radio is a reliable alternative communication mode, especially during emergencies.
  • Despite advances in technology, it remains effective when traditional networks fail, such as during wars or natural disasters.
  • In India, it proved vital during the Bhuj earthquake (2001), Indian Ocean tsunami (2004), and Uttarakhand floods (2013), among others.

Five-nation tour to deepen India’s Global South Outreach

Context: The Prime Minister of India is on a five-nation diplomatic tour from July 2 to 9 in Ghana, Trinidad & Tobago, Argentina, Brazil and Namibia aimed at deepening India's bilateral ties and strengthening India’s leadership role in the Global South. 

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key Highlights of the visits; Location of the countries. Mains: Significance of the Global South Outreach 

This tour is significant for enhancing cooperation in areas like energy, economy, defence, healthcare, and capacity building. 

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Countries in the Tour: Purpose and Significance 

1. Ghana:  

  • First visit by an Indian PM to Ghana in the last three decades.
  • Ghana is one of West Africa’s fastest-growing economies, its relationship with India is marked by robust and expanding trade and investment.
  • Ghana is a valued partner in the Global South and plays an important role in the African Union and the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS).
  • India is the largest destination for Ghanaian exports; gold accounts for more than 70% of India’s imports from Ghana. 
  • India and Ghana have elevated their ties to the level of comprehensive partnership with the resolve to expand bilateral ties in food security, pharmaceuticals, and development cooperation. Ghana plans to emerge as the vaccine hub for Africa.
  • India-Ghana cooperation will be enhanced in areas- such as training of armed forces, maritime security, defence supply and cyber security. 
  • Indian companies will cooperate with Ghana in the exploration and mining of critical minerals. India would share its experience of UPI digital payments with Ghana. 
  • Prime Minister Modi was conferred with the country’s highest state honour, the Companion of the Order of the Star of Ghana during the visit for his distinguished statesmanship and influential global leadership.

2. Trinidad & Tobago: 

  • First bilateral visit by an Indian PM after 1999.
  • 40-45% of the Indian diaspora in the Caribbean lives in Trinidad and Tobago.
  • Both Prime Minister Kamla Persad-Bissessar and President Christine Carla Kangaloo are of Indian origin.
  • The visit will mark 180 years of the arrival of Indian immigrants in T&T.
  • The bilateral economic relationship has witnessed steady growth, with total trade reaching $341.61 million in FY 2024-25.

3. Argentina: 

  • First bilateral visit by an Indian PM in 57 years. 
  • Both countries will review ongoing cooperation and discuss ways to enhance defence, agriculture, mining, oil and gas, energy, etc. partnerships. 
  • Argentina is a key economic partner in Latin America and a G20 member.
  • India and Argentina have significantly advanced bilateral cooperation in the mineral resources sector, particularly in lithium, a critical input for India’s green energy transition.
  • Argentina is a major supplier of soybean and sunflower oil to India.
  • In 2024, India was Argentina’s fifth-largest trading partner and export destination.

4. Brazil: 

  • Brazil is India’s largest trading partner in South America.
  • Indian PM will meet Brazilian President during the BRICS Leaders’ Summit in Rio de Janeiro, which will be followed by a State Visit. 
  • At BRICS, the PM will discuss the reform of global governance, peace and security, strengthening multilateralism, responsible use of AI, climate action, global health, etc.
  • For the State Visit, the PM will travel to Brasilia where he will hold bilateral discussions on broadening the Strategic Partnership in areas of mutual interest, including trade, defence, energy, space, technology, agriculture, and health. 

5. Namibia: 

  • Bilateral trade has grown from less than $3 million in 2000 to almost $600 million now. 
  • Indian companies have invested in mining, manufacturing, diamond processing and services in Namibia.
  • Eight cheetahs from Namibia were released by the PM at Kuno National Park in Madhya Pradesh in 2022, the world’s first intercontinental translocation of a major carnivore species.
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Significance of India's Global South Outreach

  • Reinforces India’s leadership role in the Global South. 
  • Focus on South-South cooperation.
  • Strengthens India's economic diplomacy and strategic alliances.
  • Enhances cultural and diaspora linkages.
  • Counter China’s influence with democratic and transparent partnerships.
  • India reasserting itself as a voice of emerging economies.

Also Read: The Global South: origins and significance 

The diplomatic trip aims to reinforce partnerships on both sides of the Atlantic and strengthen India’s collaboration with regional and multilateral platforms including BRICS, the African Union, the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), and the Caribbean Community, or CARICOM. 

INS Udaygiri: Navy inducts second Indigenous Stealth Frigate

Context: Recently, INS Udaygiri, the second ship of Project 17A’s stealth frigates, was delivered to the Indian Navy.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about INS Udaygiri; Project 17A. 

About INS Udaygiri

  • INS Udaygiri is the second of seven frigates in Project 17A. INS Nilgiri is the lead ship of the Project 17A stealth-guided frigate class.  
  • Built indigenously by: Mazagon Dock Shipbuilders Limited (MDL) and Garden Reach Shipbuilders and Engineers (GRSE). 
  • The Nilgiri-class frigate or Project 17A class is the successor of the currently-operational Project 17 or the Shivalik-class stealth frigates. 

Key Features of INS Udaygiri:

  • Length: 142 metres.
  • The multi-mission frigate is capable of dealing with both conventional and non-conventional threats. 
  • The ship is fitted with:
    • Supersonic Surface-to-Surface Missile system
    • Medium Range Surface-to-Air Missiles (MRSAM) system
    • 76 millimetre upgraded gun
    • Combination of rapid-fire close-in weapon systems.
    • Enhanced stealth features
  • Significance: With its versatile weapons and capabilities, the ships can play a crucial role in anti-surface, anti-air, and anti-submarine warfare.
  • Note: Other five ships of this class- Himgiri, Taragiri, Dunagiri, Vindhyagiri and Mahendragiri are at various stages of construction at MDL and GRSE.
image 7

Significance: 

  • Project 17A class frigates represent a ‘quantum leap’ in the Indian Navy’s in-house design and military manufacturing capabilities.  
  • Enhance India’s naval power by its capability to operate in the open ocean dealing with both conventional and non-conventional threats.  

What are Stealth Frigates?

  • A frigate is a medium-sized warship used by the Navy for escorting larger vessels, patrolling, and combat operations.
  • Stealth frigate is designed with advanced stealth technology to minimise its radar cross-section and overall visibility to enemy detection systems, making it harder to detect by radar, visual, sonar, and infrared methods. 

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