The Indian Express

India’s first integrated E-Waste Eco Park to be set in Delhi 

Context: The Delhi government has announced plans to develop India’s first integrated E-Waste Eco Park at Holambi Kalan in north-west Delhi. A global tender (RFQ-cum-RFP) would soon be floated to attract leading green technology partners.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about integrated E-Waste Eco Park; e-waste. 

India’s first integrated E-Waste Eco Park

  • Location: Holambi Kalan in north-west Delhi.
  • Spread across 11.4 acres, the state-of-the-art facility will be built under a Public-Private Partnership (PPP) model.
  • Expected to process up to 51,000 metric tonnes of e-waste annually. 
  • The park will be developed by the Delhi State Industrial and Infrastructure Development Corporation (DSIIDC) under the Design, Build, Finance, Operate and Transfer model. 
  • The project is estimated to cost Rs 150 crore expenditure and Rs 325 crore in operational costs, and is expected to generate over Rs 350 crore in revenue. Construction of the park is expected to be completed within 18 months.
  • It aims to position Delhi as a national leader in e-waste management, green jobs and resource recovery.
  • Apart from recycling e-waste, the park will include zones for dismantling, refurbishing, component testing, plastic recovery, and a second-hand electronics market.
  • It will also host training centres to upskill informal sector workers engaged in unsafe e-waste handling. 

What is E-Waste?

  • As per the E-Waste (Management) Rules, 2022, e-waste is defined as: electrical and electronic equipment, including solar photovoltaic modules or panels or cells, whole or in part, discarded or rejected from manufacturing, refurbishment and repair processes.
  • Examples: Large household appliances like Refrigerators, air conditioners, washing machines ; Consumer electronics like Televisions, computers, laptops, smartphones etc. 
  • E-waste can contain material of economic benefit such as plastics, iron, glass, aluminum, copper, silver, gold, platinum, palladium, lithium, indium etc. and rare earth elements.
  • E-Waste contains hazardous substances such as Lead, Cadmium, Mercury, Hexavalent Chromium, Polychlorinated Bi-phenyls (PCBs), Brominated Flame Retardants (BFR), etc. 
  • Management of E-Waste in India is regulated under E-Waste (Management) Rules, 2022 under the Environment Protection Act, 1986. 

India's E-Waste Emergency: 

  • India stands as the third-largest producer of e-waste in the world after China and the US. In FY24, the country generated 1.7 million tonnes of e-waste. Delhi contributes nearly 9.5% of that staggering total. 
  • Unfortunately, only 17% of global e-waste is recycled in a scientifically sound manner. Presently, only 43% of the country's e-waste is recycled. Further, at least 80% of the sector comprises informal scrap dealers. 
  • Toxins from crude e-waste handling contaminate air, soil, and water and pose serious health risks, especially to vulnerable groups like children.

Significance: 

  • By encouraging the safe and scientific recovery of essential materials, it will reduce pollution and conserve resources.
  • Bring order to the informal sector, create thousands of green jobs and empower local dismantlers, recyclers, and refurbishers. 

Delhi's E-Waste Eco Park is the first of four such facilities planned across the country and a step towards sustainable development and a circular economy. 

Drone Warfare and India                 

Context: Ukraine's Op Spider's Web and recent India-Pakistan military hostilities during Op Sindoor underlines the rising threat of Drone warfare.

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: Defence technologies: UAVs, Swarm Drones, Directed Energy Weapons, Electronic Warfare

Mains: Drone warfare- evolution, threat, counter measures.

According to Fortune Business Insights, the global military drone market was valued at $14.14 billion in 2023 and is projected to reach $47.16 billion by 2032, reflecting the rapid militarisation of drone technology. 

Evolution of Drone Warfare

  • While unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) date back to World War II, their strategic utility surged post-1991 Gulf War.
  • In a watershed moment in the 2020 Nagorno-Karabakh conflict, Azerbaijan’s drones overwhelmed Armenian defences. Since then, drones have redefined warfare: from Houthi strikes on Saudi oil sites and Hamas’s use in Gaza. 
  • Recently, in Ukraine's bold Operation Spider’s Web in 2025, over 100 First-person view (FPV) drones hit deep into Russia, damaging 40+ aircraft and causing $7 billion in losses. In retaliation, Russia launched the world’s biggest drone attack till date, with almost 500 drones hitting Ukraine overnight.   

This evolution has led to the rise of swarm drones, which work together in large numbers to overwhelm enemy defences.

Swarm Drones

  • Swarm drones are autonomous or semi-autonomous UAVs that operate in coordinated groups, much like swarms of birds or fish. They communicate via wireless networks and adjust in real time to achieve shared objectives.
  • Swarms are more resilient than traditional drones due to in-built redundancy, i.e., even if one drone is intercepted, others can continue on the mission.
  • Drone swarms are thus used to saturate air defences, gather intelligence, and attack high-value targets.

Countries are developing advanced AI-driven swarm drones that can make real-time decisions, adapt tactics mid-mission, and coordinate complex manoeuvres- set to play a key role in future combined arms warfare alongside infantry, armour, and cyber units.

image 16

What Makes Drone Swarms a Strategic Threat?

  • Low Cost, High Impact: A $500-$1,000 drone can damage a $200 million aircraft.
  • Difficult to intercept due to their small size, and ability to overwhelm defences- cluttering radars, exhausting ammunition, and slipping through even robust air defence systems.
  • High Agility and Mobility: Swarm drone attacks can be launched anytime, anywhere even from a truck near an airbase, as seen in Op Spider’s Web. In a country like India, with porous borders and diverse populations, this threat is both real and pressing.

Traditional military bases, aircrafts, and infrastructure, previously considered secure, are now vulnerable to drone attacks and demand new defence strategies.

image 24

Countering Drone Threats

  • Detection of Drones: Defence against drones begins with detection. Modern systems employ a combination of: AESA radars; Electro-optical and infrared sensors; Acoustic detectors; AI-powered fusion systems
  • Neutralisation of Drones: Once detected, drones can be neutralised by kinetic means such as:
    • Missiles and anti-aircraft guns, though these are expensive and less effective against swarms.
    • Automated gun systems like C-RAM and Phalanx, which autonomously track and fire at targets, offer a more practical solution.

Some cost-effective alternatives include:

  • Directed Energy Weapons (DEWs): Lasers and microwave pulses that disable drones by damaging sensors or frying electronics.
  • Electronic Warfare (EW):  Jamming GPS signals or communication links.
  • Spoofing: Misleading drones about their location or issuing false commands.
  • Cyber Attacks: Taking control of drones and crashing them by exploiting software vulnerabilities.
  • Interceptor drones & nets: For close-range neutralisation, protecting critical assets.

The ideal defence is a layered system, integrating multiple modes of interception for redundancy and cost-efficiency purposes. Examples include Israel’s Iron Dome and the US’s Directed Energy M-SHORAD.

India’s Counter-Drone Infrastructure: 

Since 2020, India has ramped up its counter-drone infrastructure, deploying a layered defence that blends indigenous technology, EW, and air defence systems. Key systems include:

  • Akashteer Air Defence Control System : Developed by Bharat Electronics Ltd, it integrates with the Indian Air Force’s integrated command network for real-time tracking.
  • Bhargavastra : Solar Defence and Aerospace Ltd’s weapon system fires 64 micro-rockets in salvos to eliminate drone swarms.
  • DRDO’s Anti-Drone System: It offers 360-degree radar coverage, with both jamming (soft kill) and laser (hard kill) capabilities. Drones can be detected up to 4 km away, and neutralised within a 1 km radius.
  • Indrajaal: An AI-powered grid from a Hyderabad startup that combines jammers, spoofers, and intelligence to protect areas up to 4,000 sq km. Already deployed at naval sites in Gujarat and Karnataka.

During the May 2025 swarm attacks, the IAF activated its Integrated Counter-UAS Grid, alongside conventional radars, guns, and missiles, neutralising attempted strikes on 15 military bases and several urban targets. 

Drone warfare has ushered in a new age of asymmetric, AI-driven conflict and transformed the dynamics of the battlefield. As CDS General Chauhan aptly stated- We are at a cusp where war may be between humans and machines- and tomorrow, between machines themselves.

Centre Caps MGNREGS Spending at 60% 

Context: The Union Finance Ministry has capped spending under the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (MGNREGS) at 60% of its annual allocation for the first half of Financial Year (FY) 2025-26. 

Until now, the rural jobs guarantee scheme has operated as a demand-driven programme with no such spending limit.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key features of MGNREGS.

Centre Caps MGNREGS Spending: Rationale of Govt

  • The Finance Ministry has placed MGNREGS under the Monthly/Quarterly Expenditure Plan (MEP/QEP), a cash management framework used to control government spending. This restricts the spending to 60% till September 2025 (Second quarter of FY). MGNREGS was thus far exempt from MEP/QEP on account of being demand-driven.
  • MGNREGS has long been plagued with financial troubles, which the government hopes to address by implementing the MEP/QEP mechanisms.

MGNREGS plagued with Financial Troubles: 

  • Data from the Ministry of Rural Development shows that more than 70% of the budget is frequently exhausted by the second quarter of the financial year (FY). While supplementary allocations are often made in the third quarter, even these run out by January. This leaves significant pending dues by the end of the FY.
  • Over the last five FYs, pending dues have ranged between Rs 15,000 crore to Rs 25,000 crore. On average, 20% of the subsequent FY’s budget is spent in clearing the pending dues.
  • Implementing an expenditure cap may likely ensure an adequate budget will remain for the latter half of the FY, so that no supplementary allocation will have to be made.

MGNREGS acts as a buffer for rural citizens, especially during times of lean harvests, freak weather events, and rural distress. Work demand under the scheme fluctuates throughout the year due to a number of reasons, primarily agricultural activities and weather patterns.

Criticism of the Spending Cap on MGNREGS: 

  • Constitutional courts have held that financial inability cannot be a reason to disregard statutory or constitutional duties, including in various judgements like- Swaraj Abhiyan v Union of India (2016), Municipal Council, Ratlam vs Shri Vardhichand (1980) etc.
  • The 60% spending cap makes it virtually impossible to realise an entitlement that is legally guaranteed under the Act, once the ceiling is reached.
  • Further, there is currently no clarity on what will happen once the ceiling is reached. States could be forced to deny employment even when there is demand, or workers may have to work without timely payment.
  • In both scenarios, statutory rights of the workers may be violated:
    • Right to receive employment within 15 days of raising the demand, as provided under MGNREGA.
    • Right to receive wages within 15 days of closure of work, as mandated under the Act.

About MGNREGS:  

  • MGNREGS provides up to 100 days of guaranteed employment in a financial year to any rural household willing to do unskilled manual work on demand. 
  • Launched in 2006 by the Ministry of Rural Development.
  • Employment must be provided within 15 days of a work demand, if not, the applicant is entitled to an unemployment allowance.
  • MGNREGA Act, 2005 mandates that wages must be paid within 15 days of work completion.
  • At least one-third of beneficiaries have to be women. Implementation is done by Gram Panchayats.
  • The MGNREGA recognises employment as a statutory right. The Act signified a critical shift from employment being a negative right under Article 21 of the Constitution (which mandated that the state must not interfere with your livelihood unreasonably), to a positive statutory obligation on the government to provide employment on demand.

What is Black Box? 

Context: In the aftermath of the deadly plane crash in Ahmedabad, Gujarat, officials have confirmed the recovery of the Cockpit Voice Recorder (CVR) and Flight Data Recorder (FDR) from the plane crash site.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Black Box.

What is Black Box?

  • A black box is a flight recording device used in aircraft to record flight data and cockpit conversations.
  • It consists of two main components:
    • Cockpit Voice Recorder (CVR): record radio transmissions and other sounds in the cockpit such as the pilot conversations and engine noises. 
    • Flight Data Recorder (FDR): record crucial flight information like altitude, speed, heading, engine performance, and more.
  • These devices help investigators reconstruct the sequence of events before a crash and determine its causes.
  • Modern black boxes are actually orange in colour to make them easier to spot in wreckage. The term "black box" comes from early versions of data recorders that were kept in light proof boxes, making them appear "black" from the outside.
  • The recording devices are stored inside a unit generally made out of strong substances such as steel or titanium and are also insulated from factors such as extreme heat, cold or wetness. They are placed at the back of the plane, where damage is usually less in a crash.
  • For crashes over water bodies, Black Boxes are equipped with beacons that send out ultrasound signals for 30 days, although this does not guarantee their discovery.
image 22

History: 

  • Black boxes were the brainchild of Dr. David Warren, an Australian jet fuel expert.
  • In 1963, Australia became the first country to make black boxes mandatory on all aircraft.

Reframing Religious Freedom: USCIRF Annual Report 

Context: The recently released USCIRF annual report has placed India on its list of “Countries of Particular Concern (CPC)” which highlights a Eurocentric bias.

Relevance of the Topic: Mains: Religious Freedom.  

United States Commission on International Religious Freedom (USCIRF) Controversial Annual Report:

  • USCIRF's annual report recently placed India on its list of “Countries of Particular Concern (CPC)”.
  • The commission was created under the International Religious Freedom Act passed by US Congress in 1998. It monitors, analyses,and reports on violations of religious freedom worldwide.
  • India strongly rejected this, calling the body an “entity of concern” and refusing to acknowledge its findings.

Freedom of Religion in India

  • Freedom of Religion is a Fundamental Right enshrined in Articles 25 to 28 of the Indian Constitution.
  • Articles 25 to 30 of the Indian Constitution offer various freedoms to religions including the freedom of conscience, the right to freely profess, practice, and propagate, and the freedom to manage their affairs without state intervention.
  • India ensures religious freedom while allowing the state to impose reasonable restrictions to protect public order, health, and morality.
  • Minority religions enjoy positive discrimination by way of special rights to run educational and cultural institutions. The same rights are not available to the majority Hindu religion.
  • India is the only country where people of all religions, including several Christian denominations and Muslim sects, coexist in harmony.
  • Despite its vast diversity and historical religious strife, India has largely succeeded in maintaining religious harmony, showcasing its strong commitment to religious freedom.  

Freedom of Religion in India

  • Article 25: Grants all individuals the right to freely profess, practice, and propagate their religion, subject to public order, morality, and health.
    • However forced religious conversions are not allowed. 
    • In a landmark judgment in Rev. Stainislaus vs State of Madhya Pradesh (1977), the Supreme Court held that the right to “propagate” does not include the right to proselytise, and hence there is no fundamental right to convert another person.
  • Article 26: Allows every religious group to establish and manage religious institutions, own property, and handle religious affairs independently.
  • Article 27: No person can be forced to pay taxes that are used specifically for the promotion of any religion.
  • Article 28: Prohibits religious teaching in state-funded educational institutions, but allows it in privately managed or trust-based institutions, with certain conditions.
  • Article 29: Protects the right of any group with a distinct language, script, or culture to conserve it; also prohibits discrimination in state-funded educational institutions.
  • Article 30: Gives religious and linguistic minorities the right to establish and administer their own educational institutions, with protection from state discrimination in aid.

India’s Response: 

  • Despite India's constitutional commitment to religious freedom, it continues to face criticism from USCIRF due to its Eurocentric lens and reliance on allegedly biased scholars, ignoring India’s unique cultural and societal context.
  • Global bodies like USCIRF need to reassess their approach to religious freedom by moving beyond Eurocentric frameworks and embracing culturally rooted models like the concept of Integral Humanism. USCIRF must adopt a more nuanced, locally sensitive perspective when evaluating religious freedom in a pluralistic democracy like India.

Integral Humanism: 

  • Inspired by thinkers like Jacques Maritain and Deendayal Upadhyaya. It emphasises rising above religious divisions to ensure the material, ethical, moral, and spiritual well-being of all, rooted in India’s pluralistic and civilisational ethos.

Navy to Commission up to 10 Naval warships in 2025

Context: Indian Navy is set to commission up to 10 domestically built warships by December 2025. This move marks one of the largest single-phase inductions in recent years, and highlights India’s growing emphasis on indigenous defence manufacturing and strategic autonomy in naval strength.  

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about recent naval inductions, ship classes, and defence manufacturing initiatives, Indigenisation efforts.

image 13

Key details of the Induction: 

  • The commissioning phase will begin with the induction of INS Arnala, the first of sixteen Anti-Submarine Warfare Shallow-Water Craft (ASW-SWC). 
  • Alongside Arnala, the Navy is expected to induct INS Tamal, the second Talwar-class stealth frigate. 
  • A second Nilgiri-class frigate may also be commissioned before the year-end.

INS Arnala

  • Built by: Garden Reach Shipbuilders & Engineers (GRSE) Kolkata in partnership with L&T Shipbuilders.
  • It is designed to perform critical roles such as subsurface surveillance, search-and-rescue missions, and anti-submarine operations in coastal and shallow waters.
  • Arnala is the largest Indian naval warship propelled by a diesel-engine and waterjet combination.

INS Tamal: Krivak-class Frigates

  • Krivak-class frigates are a series of multi-role warships originally designed by Russia. India operates its variant called the Talwar-class frigates, customised for the Indian Navy. 
  • In 2016, under Project 1135.6 (Talwar-class) Follow-on Frigates, India and Russia signed an Inter-Governmental Agreement to procure four additional Krivak-class frigates.
    • Two were to be imported from Russia, while two were to be built in India at GSL, Goa under technology transfer. 
    • Built in Russia: INS Tushil (commissioned 2024), INS Tamal (to be commissioned in 2025)
    • Built in India: INS Triput (launched 2024), INS Tavasya (launched 2025). 

With the aim to become a 175-ship by 2035 the Indian Navy has taken many strategic steps like:

  • Advancements in technology, stronger indigenisation efforts, and close Navy involvement in the design and manufacturing process  have shortened the time from ship design to delivery.
  • Recently, the Navy also commissioned INS Vagsheer, a diesel-electric Kalvari-class submarine under Project 75, which operates quietly for coastal patrols.
  • Furthermore, the Navy is progressing with Project 75I, which aims to build six advanced conventional attack submarines, with evaluations and cost negotiations underway.
  • On the aviation side, the Navy is also receiving MH-60R Seahawk helicopters from the U.S., with 13 of 24 orders already delivered.

Voyager Tardigrades Experiment

Context: During Axiom Mission-4, Indian Astronaut Shubhanshu Shukla will conduct experiments on tardigrades’ revival, survival, and reproduction during his two-week stay on the International Space Station (ISS).  

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Tardigrades; Voyager Tardigrades experiment. 

What are Tardigrades?

  • Tardigrades or water bears/moss piglets are microscopic aquatic animals (about 0.5 mm long) discovered in 1773.
  • They are Earth's most durable organisms that have existed for around 600 million years, 400 million years before dinosaurs walked the planet, and survived all the five major mass extinction events.
  • They have four pairs of legs, each ending in 4-6 claws, and a specialised mouth to extract nutrients from plant cells, algae, and small invertebrates.
  • Tardigrades are ubiquitous, from the highest mountains to the deepest oceans, but are most commonly found in the thin water film on mosses and lichens. 
  • They can survive extreme conditions including temperatures as low as minus 272.95 degrees Celsius or as high as 150 degrees Celsius; endure ultraviolet radiation of space, and pressures of 40,000 kilopascals (equivalent to what can be experienced at a depth of 4 km under the ocean’s surface); and live after being stored in a freezer for 30 years.
image 21

Why are Tardigrades so resilient?

Both anhydrobiosis and cryptobiosis result in the emergence of a durable shrunken state, called tun, in which tardigrades are able to withstand extreme conditions.

  • Cryptobiosis: Tardigrades owe their incredible resilience to cryptobiosis. It is a state in which organisms bring their metabolism to a near-complete standstill in the face of adverse environmental conditions.
  • Anhydrobiosis: Tardigrades can reduce their metabolism to less than 0.01% of normal, and drop their water levels by more than 95%, a state called anhydrobiosis.
  • They produce unique proteins such as cytoplasmic-abundant heat soluble (CAHS) proteins which are key to their resilience. These proteins form a gel-like matrix within their cells, vitrifying and protecting essential cellular components from destruction. This allows them to withstand extreme temperatures, radiation, and the vacuum of space.

Why do scientists study Tardigrades in space?

  • Tardigrades have been a part of space missions since 2007. European Space Agency’s Foton-M3 mission, carried 3,000 tardigrades in tun state and the post-return analysis confirmed that many survived space vacuum, and some successfully reproduced despite UV exposure, making them the first animals to survive open space.
  • In the ongoing Voyager Tardigrades Experiment, scientists will examine the effects of space radiation and microgravity on tardigrades' biological processes. The primary objective is to identify the genes responsible for making tardigrades resilient. This will help scientists develop strategies to protect astronauts during long-duration space missions, and preserve biological materials for extended space travel.

A better understanding of tardigrades’ survival mechanisms can potentially have several applications: from helping scientists develop more resilient crops to creating advanced sunscreens to preserving human tissues and organs for transplantation.

India not keen to dent Trade ties with Turkey 

Context: Amid the calls to curb the trade, India is not keen to dent the trade ties with Turkey, as the country runs a $2.73 billion bilateral goods trade surplus, and any blockade could be counterproductive for India. 

Relevance of the Topic: Mains: Bilateral Relations: India-Turkey: Key Trends 

India-Turkey Trade Relations

  • India’s exports to Turkey have steadily grown, especially in industrial sectors. In FY25, the exports to Turkey totalled $5.72 billion, largely driven by engineering exports which comprise over 50%. Notably, the Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises (MSME) sector dominated the segment.
  • India's Exports to Turkey: Mineral fuels and oil, engineering goods, electrical equipment, auto and its parts, chemicals, pharma, tanning and dyeing items; plastic, rubber; cotton; man-made fibres and filaments, iron and steel.
  • Imports from Turkey: Marble, mineral oil, fresh apples, gold, vegetables, lime, cement, chemicals, natural or cultured pearls and iron and steel.
  • India runs a $2.73 billion bilateral goods trade surplus and any blockade could be counterproductive.

India's trade relations with Turkey are facing new challenges after the country voiced "support for Pakistan" and criticised India's strikes on terror camps in Pakistan and Pakistan-occupied Kashmir. 

Despite growing tensions and industry pressure, the government is proceeding cautiously on Turkish imports, balancing political messages with economic logic.

Hydrology of Brahmaputra

Context: The Chief Minister of Assam addressed concerns surrounding the Brahmaputra River, emphasising that 65-70% of the Brahmaputra’s flow is generated within India, reassuring the public about India’s water sovereignty.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Brahmaputra River System; Key Hydropower Projects. 

Hydrology of Brahmaputra River

  • Brahmaputra originates as Yarlung Tsangpo in Kailash range near Mansarovar lake in Tibet. It traverses more than 1,000 km eastward, before forming a horseshoe bend around the Namcha Barwa peak, and enters near Gelling in Arunachal Pradesh as the Siang (or Dihang). 
  • Brahmaputra is primarily a rain-fed river system, with only approximately 30-35% of its flow coming from China, mostly through glacial melt and scanty rainfall that happens in the Tibetan region. 
  • The majority of the river’s water (about 65-70%) arises within India itself due to the monsoon rains that pour over the Northeast’s hilly terrains and the numerous tributaries feeding the river.
  • The river is called Siang in Arunachal, is joined by many tributaries in Assam as it flows down the plains before entering Bangladesh, where it is called Jamuna. 
Left/ South bank Tributaries of BrahmaputraRight/ North bank Tributaries of Brahmaputra
DihangKameng
DibangManas
LohitSubansari
Noa DehingDhansiri (North)
Burhi Dehing Sankosh
KopilliRonganadi
Dhansiri (South)
Kolong
image 18

Hydro-statistics and Regional data

  • Brahmaputra’s flow at key points exemplifies India’s water independence. At the Indo-China border, near the Tuting region in Arunachal Pradesh, the flow rate is around 2,000-3,000 cubic metres per second. 
  • During the monsoon season, as the river enters Assam’s plains, the flow swells to an impressive 15,000-20,000 cubic metres per second. 
  • These figures underscore that the river’s strength and volume are predominantly sustained within India’s climatic and geographical domain. Thus, India does not depend on upstream water flow from China to sustain its water needs.

As the region faces severe flooding due to monsoons, India must emphasise resilience and infrastructure over fears of upstream interference. 

Impact of Hypothetical reduction of water by China

  • Even a hypothetical reduction in Chinese water contribution would have a minimal impact on India’s water security or be potentially beneficial. Reduced flow could mitigate the devastating floods that annually ravage Assam and the northeastern region. 

This point also highlights that India’s water system is resilient and primarily driven by monsoon rains and local tributaries.

China’s planned interventions on Brahmaputra

Most of the Chinese infrastructure interventions are hydropower projects with minimal storage, and are located far upstream of Arunachal Pradesh, with no significant impact in Arunachal or Assam.

  • Medog (or Motuo) Hydropower Project: A major concern is the planned massive dam in Medog County near the ‘Great Bend’ where the river makes a U-turn and plunges into a canyon before entering Arunachal Pradesh. The planned 60,000-MW Medog project will be the world’s largest hydropower facility, with a generation capacity three times that of the Three Gorges Dam on the Yangtze, currently the world’s largest hydropower station.
  • South-North Water Diversion (SNWD) project: Concerns have also been raised over China’s massive, multi-decade South-North Water Diversion (SNWD) project, the Western Route of which apparently involves diverting water from the Yarlung Tsangpo (and other rivers) to the country’s dry northern regions.

As a mitigation strategy, India could plan storage on rivers of the Brahmaputra system to absorb the variations in flows (periods of flooding and reduced flows). E.g., The Upper Siang Project will not only generate power, its storage can also serve as a buffer against variations in flows.

India’s interventions to utilise water potential of Brahmaputra:

Brahmaputra and its tributaries carry more than 30% of India’s total water resources potential, and 41% of the total hydropower potential, as per estimates in the CWC-ISRO Brahmaputra Basin Atlas.

  • The National Water Development Authorityhas proposed two links to connect the Brahmaputra and its tributaries to the Ganga basin with the aim of transferring surplus water to water-scarce regions. These are:
    • Manas-Sankosh-Teesta-Ganga Link, joining the Manas, a tributary of the Brahmaputra, to the Ganga via the Sankosh and Teesta
    • Jogighopa-Teesta-Farakka Link, joining the Brahmaputra at the planned Jogighopa Barrage to the Ganga at the Farakka Barrage.
  • However, utilisation of hydropower in Arunachal Pradesh has been slow due to difficulties of land acquisition and concern over the submergence of forest lands, etc.

Environmental Risks: 

  • Risks of flooding may arise from intentional or unintentional operation of reservoirs in Tibet, as well as unforeseen events such as dam failure, landslides, or earthquakes. 
  • Upstream interventions have the potential to affect the river morphology, with consequences for riverine flora and fauna.

Key Facts:

  • Tibetan Plateau is a region of scant rainfall of the order of 300 mm annually. 
  • The southern part of the Brahmaputra river basin in India receives 2,371 mm of rain on average every year, and very few places receive less than 1,200 mm.

India should work to actively seek detailed hydrological and project-related data to continuously assess the downstream impact of Chinese infrastructure interventions and develop comprehensive data sharing protocols with China for advance warning and disaster preparedness.

India’s Garment Sector need Reforms

Context: India’s stagnant garment export performance emphasises the urgent need for policy reforms to scale up the sector and enhance global competitiveness.

Relevance of the Topic: Mains: Garment Sector- significance, challenges, reforms.

State of India's Garment Sector

  • India’s textiles and apparel (T&A) sector employs a workforce of 45 million and contributes 2.3% to the overall GDP of India. 
  • T&A sector has grown steadily from $11.5 billion in FY2001 to $37 billion in FY25. However, its share in global trade remains low (4.2%). 
  • The apparel segment alone (under HS codes 61 and 62) has an even lower share of 3% ($15.7 billion). Additionally, this share has remained stagnant for the past two decades. In the last few years, apparel exports have declined at an AAGR of -2%.

India has set an ambitious target to increase its T&A exports from $37 billion in FY25 to $100 billion by 2030.

Key Challenges in India’s Garment Sector: 

  • Lack of scale: Over 80% of India’s apparel units are Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises (MSMEs) which are too small and dispersed. Unlike China and Vietnam, India lacks large, integrated factories that benefit from economies of scale, reducing unit costs, speeding up delivery, and attracting bulk global orders.
  • High Interest Rate: Interest rates in India average around 9%, much higher than China (3%) or Vietnam (4.5%). For an industry operating on low margins (~4-5%), this makes investment and expansion economically difficult.
  • Outdated Fibre Mix: India’s cotton-to-Man Made Fibre ratio (60:40) contrasts with the global average (30:70), indicating an outdated fibre mix, and the global shift towards man-made fibres.
  • Raw Material Cost: MMF (Man-Made Fibres) such as polyester and viscose are 20% costlier in India compared to competitors (Bangladesh, China, Vietnam). Non-tariff barriers like quality control orders hinder MMF-based apparel growth.
  • Rigid and Complex Labour Laws: India’s 52 central labour laws have created rigidities, discouraging formal hiring and scale. Overtime wages are legally mandated at 2x hourly pay, compared to 1.25x internationally, raising production costs significantly.
  • Low Labour Productivity and Skilling Gaps: A large portion of the workforce is semi-skilled or unskilled, with poor access to modern training. Lack of effective, demand-linked skilling programs reduces efficiency and competitiveness.

Case Study: Shahi Exports 

  • Founded in 1974 by Sarla Ahuja, Shahi Exports started with just 15 women and has grown into India’s largest apparel exporter.
  • It operates 50+ factories, 3 mills, across 8 states, with over 1 lakh workers, 70% women.
  • Built scale through vertical integration (80% fabric made in-house), professionalism, and sustainable practices.
  • Success of Shahi Exports demonstrates that Indian firms can scale with the right investment, vision, and long-term policy support.

Way Forward

  • Capital must be made accessible and affordable for scale-focused investments. A structured capital subsidy of 25-30% linked to the size of the unit can provide the initial push. Five to seven-year tax holiday for units would allow investments to mature and become globally competitive.
  • India’s garment sector needs to transition into a fashion-driven industry. To support this, it is crucial to incentivise and invest in MMF-based apparel while removing non-tariff barriers, such as the quality control orders on MMF.
  • Simplify labour laws and align overtime wages with global standards to reduce cost burdens. Link MGNREGA funds (say 25-30%) to subsidise labour costs in garment units
  • Schemes like SAMARTH should be significantly scaled up to provide short-cycle demand-linked skilling, especially for women. 
  • Shift from production-based to export-linked incentives to reward global market success.
  • At least two of the PM MITRA parks should be developed as garment-focused hubs in labour-abundant states like Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh. This would help reduce worker migration to southern states, lower production costs, support local employment, and foster balanced, inclusive industrial growth across regions.
  • Encourage Vertical Integration: support units to produce in-house fabric and processing, improving efficiency and delivery timelines.

India’s garment sector holds immense potential to generate jobs and boost exports, but without bold policy reforms, this opportunity will slip away. Learning from success stories like Shahi Exports and focusing on scale, skilling, and export competitiveness can transform this sector into a global leader. 

Also Read: Crisis in Cotton Production in India 

Crowd Management

Context: A recent stampede at M. Chinnaswamy Stadium in Bengaluru left 11 dead and more than 50 injured. 

India has the highest number of stampedes and resultant injuries and fatalities. Data from the National Crime Records Bureau reveal that between 1996 and 2022, India recorded 3,935 stampede incidents, resulting in more than 3,000 deaths.

Relevance of the Topic:Mains: Effective Crowd Management: NDMA guidelines. 

What is a Stampede?

  • Stampede is an impulsive mass movement of a crowd that often disrupts the orderly movement of crowds resulting in injuries and fatalities.
  • Factors leading to stampedes: Stampedes happen due to:
    • High crowd density
    • lack of understanding of crowd behaviour
    • lack of coordination, clarity in roles & responsibilities of various stakeholders
    • lack of proper planning on the part of organisers. 
  • Deaths in stampedes: Stampedes have high mortality rates. 
    • Most stampede casualties are caused by traumatic asphyxia (partial or complete cessation of respiration due to external compression of the thorax and/or upper abdomen). 
    • Other possible reasons include myocardial infarction (heart attack), direct crushing injury to internal organs, head injuries, and neck compression.
image 186

What is Crowd Management?

  • Crowd management is defined as a systematic process of planning, organising and monitoring large gatherings. Such management should strategise to reduce and mitigate the risks in advance.
  • Recognising the issue of recurring stampedes at mass gatherings, the National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) has issued guidelines for crowd management. 
  • Objective: To assist all stakeholders, including state governments, local authorities, and organisers/administrators of events and venues of mass gatherings, in overall planning and establishing required systems for effective crowd management.
image 187

What are the NDMA guidelines for Crowd Management in India?

1. Capacity Planning: 

  • An effective method for counting and monitoring visitors passing through a staging point should be implemented to manage the flow. 
  • Ensure that there are designated physical or virtual locations that each visitor must pass through. 
  • Each staging point should provide adequate facilities for resting, eating, drinking water, and maintaining hygiene. 
  • Encourage multiple routes to enhance visitor movement and reduce congestion.

2. Crowd Control: 

  • During the crowd control focus should be on managing the demand-supply gap through:
    • controlling crowd inflow
    • regulating crowd movement at the venue
    • managing crowd outflow if necessary.

3. Conducting Hazard, Risk and Vulnerability Analysis (HRVA):

  • Conducting HRVA for mass gathering locations, along with pre-event scenarios can provide a foundation for preparing for all three phases of any severe incident: response, recovery, and mitigation.
  • The HRVA can facilitate the creation of a decision support system that can enhance the efficiency and effectiveness of rescue and relief operations.
    • Identifying Threats and Causes: Planners can utilise existing information to recognise a variety of potential threats and causes of disasters at places where large crowds gather.
    • Risk Assessment and Planning: After identifying these potential threats and causes, it is essential to assess their risks.

4. Failure Mode and Effect Analysis (FMEA): 

  • NDMA has recommended that all event organisers/planners conduct FMEA. This methodology involves rating every possible hazard on the dimensions of:
    • Severity
    • Frequency of Occurrence
    • Difficulty of detection on a scale of 1-10 to arrive at an overall Risk Priority Number (RPN). 
  • Higher the severity, higher the frequency of occurrence, higher the difficulty of detection, the score assigned would be higher. 
  • The basic premise is that if a disaster can be foreseen, the probability of occurrence is high. For every hazard, actions are then warranted to reduce/remove the risks.

5. Develop a Course of Action: 

  • A course of action should be created to address each threat, cause, or gap identified by FEMA. 
  • After selecting potential courses of action, the planning team should identify the resources required for each option and assess them against the resources available.

Way Forward for Effective Crowd Management

  • Having a right Stampede Risk-Reduction Framework, involving an inter-agency multi-disciplinary approach, for planning mass gatherings.
  • Improving the physical organisation and better design of spaces for effective crowd management.
  • Live surveillance of the crowd can help organisers monitor crowd density, bottlenecks, pressure buildup, and identify the source of disturbances.
  • Effective Inter-agency communication among organisers, local administration officials, police and the crowd. They need to establish who will be responsible for issuing the warning and determine how the crowd will be informed.

Emergency preparedness, including the deployment of medical aid, trained personnel, and effective chaos management protocols must be a non-negotiable standard. India must ensure the safety of its citizens, whether they gather for faith, fandom, or politics.

New Protections for Ladakh

Context: The Central government has notified regulations to preserve Ladakh’s land, jobs, and culture, aimed at addressing concerns raised by civil society over the past few years.

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: Key facts related to new regulations; 6th Schedule.

Mains: Significance and limitations of new regulations for Ladakh.

The Indian President notified the Union Territory of Ladakh Reservation (Amendment) Regulation 2025, a series of regulations for Ladakh’s land, jobs, and cultural preservation, aimed at addressing concerns raised by the civil society in Ladakh over the past five years.

These regulations amend the Jammu and Kashmir Reservation Act, 2004 in Ladakh’s context and introduce a domicile-based job reservation system, recognition of local languages, and procedural clarity in civil service recruitment.

New Regulations

Ladakh Civil Services Decentralisation and Recruitment (Amendment) Regulation 2025:

  • This regulation introduces a domicile requirement for recruitment in government posts under the Union Territory of Ladakh, for the first time.
  • The domicile is defined as a person who has resided in Ladakh for 15 years; or a person who has studied for 7 years and appeared in either Class 10 or 12 examination in Ladakh; Children of Central Government employees who have served in Ladakh for at least 10 years; and children and spouses of domiciles.

Ladakh Civil Services Domicile Certificate Rules 2025:

  • These rules lay out the procedure and documentation required to obtain a domicile certificate.
  • The tehsildar is designated as the issuing authority, while the Deputy Commissioner is the appellate authority.
  • Applications can be submitted both physically and electronically.

Union Territory of Ladakh Reservation (Amendment) Regulation 2025:

  • This regulation caps the total reservation for Scheduled Castes (SC), Scheduled Tribes (ST), Other Backward Classes (OBC), and other socially and educationally backward groups at 85%, excluding the 10% reservation for Economically Weaker Sections (EWS).
  • Importantly, these reservations have also been extended to professional institutions, such as engineering and medical colleges in Ladakh.
  • The quota for SC, ST and OBC for admissions into these colleges was earlier capped at 50% and has now been expanded to 85%.
  • Total reservation for government jobs in the UT now stands at 95% , one of the highest in the country. 

Ladakh Official Languages Regulation 2025:

  • This law recognises English, Hindi, Urdu, Bhoti, and Purgi as the official languages of Ladakh.
  • It also mandates institutional support for the promotion of Shina, Brokskat, Balti, and Ladakhi, for preserving Ladakh’s linguistic and cultural diversity.

Ladakh Autonomous Hill Development Councils (Amendment) Regulation 2025: This amends the LAHDC Act of 1997 to reserve one-third of the seats for women in the Ladakh Autonomous Hill Development Councils of Leh and Kargil, through rotation.

How are the new regulations different from existing provisions?

  • The 2025 regulations mark a significant shift from earlier laws borrowed from Jammu and Kashmir ( the Jammu and Kashmir Reservation Act, 2004 and the Civil Services Decentralisation and Recruitment Act, 2010)
  • Previously, Ladakh lacked domicile criteria, local job protections, defined reservation limits, EWS exclusions, and official recognition of Ladakhi languages. The new rules introduce these elements, moving towards a region-specific governance framework tailored to Ladakh’s unique needs.

Why are these regulations significant?

  • This is the first comprehensive attempt by the Centre to tailor governance and administrative frameworks specifically for Ladakh, following its bifurcation from Jammu & Kashmir in 2019.
  • By defining the domicile criteria and creating a legal filter for recruitment, the government has taken a significant step towards reserving jobs for the local population, a demand that has been at the heart of the protest movement.
  • The language regulation offers long-awaited recognition to Bhoti and Purgi, which are mother tongues for large sections of the population. The promotion of Ladakhi, Balti, and other minority dialects reflects an understanding of the importance of cultural identity in political demands.

Key Demands in Ladakh

The sustained campaign by the Ladakhis, both in Kargil and Leh, forced the government to form a high-powered committee in 2023, headed by Minister of State Nityanand Rai, to look into their demands. 

  • Full statehood for Ladakh 
  • Creation of a Legislative Assembly: To provide Ladakh with representative governance, as it currently remains under direct central rule.
  • Inclusion under the Sixth Schedule: which provides tribal-majority areas in certain northeastern states with legislative and financial autonomy through autonomous district councils
  • A second seat in the Lok Sabha and the constitution of a public service commission. 

These demands have been jointly raised by the Leh Apex Body (LAB) and the Kargil Democratic Alliance (KDA).

Limitations of the New Regulations for Ladakh:

These measures fall short of the demands that civil society organisations in Ladakh have been raising.

  • No Constitutional Guarantee: The new rules are made under Article 240, and are executive orders that lack constitutional guarantee and can be altered or revoked by the Centre anytime, unlike the Sixth Schedule's permanent safeguards.
  • No Land Ownership Safeguards: No restriction on land ownership by outsiders, raising ecological and demographic concerns.
  • No Legislative Autonomy: No local assembly or autonomous council with law-making powers like under the Sixth Schedule. LAHDCs, even with one-third seats now reserved for women, remain administrative bodies without legislative power.
  • Symbolic Cultural Protection: Recognition of local languages without a clear plan for their official or educational use.
  • Short Domicile Period: 15-year domicile condition seen as inadequate by locals, who demand 30 years.
  • Lack of Environmental Safeguards: No legal framework to address concerns over climate-sensitive development.
  • No Representative Politics: The demand for a legislative assembly remains unmet, leaving Ladakh without elected law-making representation.

Ladakh is strategically located at the junction of India, Pakistan and China, where both neighbours have border disputes with India. Recent developments have demonstrated that both these countries often act in tandem. It is imperative that India pays close attention to the sentiments of the region.

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