Context: Boko Haram insurgency is witnessing a resurgence in Nigeria, Africa in 2025 with repeated attacks on military outposts, civilian settlements, and local militia groups.
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts related to Boko Haram; Location of Nigeria.
What is Boko Haram?
Boko Haram is a self proclaimed jihadist militant group mainly based in northeastern Nigeria.
Founded by Mohammed Yusuf in 2002, in Borno state, Nigeria.
Boko Haram translates to ‘Western Education is forbidden’.
They took up arms in 2009 to fight Western education, secular governance and modern institutions, and to impose a radical version of Islamic law.
The group is also active in Chad, Niger, northern Cameroon and Mali.
Boko Haram has split into two factions over the years:
Islamic State West Africa Province (ISWAP): Backed by the Islamic State group, it targets military positions and overrunning outposts across Nigeria’s northeast.
JAS (Jama’atu Ahlis Sunna Lidda’awati wal-Jihad): resorted to attacking civilians and perceived collaborators, and thrives on robberies and abductions for ransom.
Boko Haram insurgency:
Despite earlier gains, Nigeria’s armed forces are struggling to maintain control, particularly in the crisis-ridden Borno state.
Over 2 million people have been displaced and 35,000 civilian deaths have occurred due to the insurgency.
Why is Nigeria losing ground again?
Many military posts are located in isolated areas with limited personnel, making them easy targets. Reinforcements often arrive too late.
ISWAP group uses a decentralised structure to carry out coordinated night attacks with drones and light weapons, making them harder to predict and counter.
Some former militants, despite claiming to have surrendered, continue to aid extremist groups by sharing intelligence and managing logistics.
At the height of its terror in 2013-14, Boko Haram controlled an area nearly the size of Belgium. Though Nigeria’s military reclaimed much of this territory over the past decade, the new wave of attacks has raised fears about a possible return to the gloomy past.
Context: The Cabinet Committee on Economic Affairs (CCEA) approved continuation of the Modified Interest Subvention Scheme (MISS) for 2025-26. The government will allow 7.7 crore farmers to get short-term credit at a subsidised rate of interest through the Kisan Credit Card.
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Modified Interest Subvention Scheme; Kisan Credit Card.
Modified Interest Subvention Scheme
MISS is a Central sector scheme, under which farmers get short-term loans of up to ₹3 lakh through Kisan Credit Card at a subsidised interest rate of 7%, as the government covers 1.5% interest subvention to eligible lending institutions.
Additionally, farmers repaying loans in time are eligible for an additional 3% interest subsidy as prompt repayment incentive (PRI), effectively reducing their interest rate on KCC loans to 4%.
It also includes post-harvest loans against Negotiable Warehouse Receipts (NWRs) for small farmers with KCCs.
In the Budget 2025-26, the government announced to increase the loan limit under the MISS from Rs 3 lakh to Rs 5 lakh.
Implementation and Monitoring by the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) and National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD).
The continuation of the support is critical in sustaining the flow of institutional credit to agriculture, which is vital for enhancing productivity and ensuring financial inclusion of small and marginal farmers.
Context: Recently, a Liberian container ship 'MSC ELSA 3' sank off the Kerala coast near Alappuzha with hazardous cargo on board. This has exaggerated the risk of oil spill, plastic pollution (due to nurdles/plastic pellets), and spread of hazardous chemicals.
The state government of Kerala has declared the wreckage as a state-specific disaster considering the potentially serious environmental, social and economic impact.
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Oil spill remediation techniques; Legal avenues for India in Marine Spills.
Oil Spill
Oil spill is the accidental release of petroleum or its products into the sea or coastal waters.
Oil spills are dangerous as oil floats on water, forming a slick that spreads quickly with wind and currents. Some components can stay suspended causing long-term harm.
Impacts:
Severely damage marine ecosystems- result in death of fish and other organisms.
Destroy mangroves and coral reefs.
Oil can coat the feathers of birds- may lose their insulation abilities, leading to hypothermia and drowning.
Bioaccumulation of toxic substances in the food chain.
Affect livelihood of fishermen and disrupt local economy.
Methods used to clean up Oil Spills
Oil spreads quickly and rough seas and strong currents complicate cleanup efforts. Oils vary in properties, with some sinking or emulsifying with water and making separation tough. Some of the methods used for oil spill clean up are skimming, in situ burning and releasing chemical dispersants.
Skimming: It involves removing oil from the sea surface before it can reach sensitive areas along the coastline. E.g., Using pillows made of oleophilic (oil-attracting) materials which act like a sponge and absorb oil from the surface.
In situ burning: It means burning a particular patch of oil after it has concentrated in an area.
Releasing chemical dispersants: It helps break down oil into smaller droplets, making it easier for microbes to consume and further break it down into less harmful compounds.
The methods can have some drawbacks, such as- chemical dispersants can harm marine life. Additionally, manual cleanup is labour-intensive and often ineffective in remote areas.
Flags of Convenience:
Mediterranean Shipping Company (MSC) is one of the world’s largest container shipping companies, headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland.
ELSA 3 is registered in Liberia, a flag state widely known for its lax regulatory oversight. This practice of registering vessels under so-called “Flags of Convenience” or “Open Registers” is common in the global shipping industry.
This allows shipowners to sidestep the stricter safety, labour, tax, and environmental regulations enforced by traditional maritime nations.
Legal avenues for India in Kerala Ship Spill:
1. MARPOL and SOLAS Conventions:
India is signatory to MARPOL (International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships) and SOLAS (International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea).
MARPOL Annex III deals with pollution from harmful substances. The primary liability for pollution damage is with the shipowner and the flag state, which can extend to covering the cost of cleanup and other damages to the environment.
International Maritime Dangerous Goods Code under SOLAS requires strict controls for transportation of hazardous cargo like calcium carbide. Improper stowage or labelling of dangerous cargo may violate these rules.
Under theSOLAS, India is obligated to investigate whether the vessel met seaworthiness, stability, and hazardous cargo handling standards under the IMDG Code.
2.Merchant Shipping Act, 1958:
India’s Director General of Shipping (DGS) has the territorial jurisdiction to investigate the marine accident under provisions of the Merchant Shipping Act, 1958.
DGS can demand the records, vessel’s safety certificates and maintenance logs to inspect compliance about its structural integrity, maintenance and compliance with safety standards.
DGS can assess compliance with IMDG Code standards for hazardous cargo and verify the vessel’s seaworthiness certification.
3. Environment Protection Act 1986:
The ‘Polluter Pays’ principle upheld by the National Green Tribunal can be invoked to claim compensation for ecological harm.
India may also seek criminal liability under the Indian Penal Code and environmental laws, and claim additional costs for public health impacts and tourism losses.
India needs to respond swiftly to contain the pollution, investigate the causes of the accident and cooperate with international agencies for the strict enforcement of the liabilities of both the shipowner and the flag state.
Context: China is about to launch a space mission called Tianwen-2 to explore a small asteroid named Kamo‘oalewa.
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts related to Tianwen-2 Mission.
Tianwen-2 Mission:
Tianwen-2 aims to explore a near Earth asteroid named Kamo‘oalewa.
The mission will use touch-and-go technique, which has been successfully implemented by the United States’ OSIRIS-Rex and Japan’s Hayabusa2 missions. In touch-and-go technique, the spacecraft hovers close to the surface of the asteroid, while a robotic arm fires an object or burst of gas to knock fragments into a collection chamber.
Depending on the surface conditions, the Tianwen-2 probe might also use anchor and attach technique. In this technique, four robotic arms extend and drill into the surface to retrieve material.
After collecting the samples, the mission will drop them on Earth. The probe will then head towards the main asteroid belt for another mission (towards comet 311P/PANSTARRS). The fragments collected by Tianwen-2 will return to Earth about 2.5 years after the launch.
If successful, China will join the US and Japan as the third country to bring back asteroid samples to Earth.
Kamo‘oalewa Asteroid:
It is a near-Earth asteroid discovered in 2016 by the Pan-STARRS 1 telescope in Hawaii. It is quite small, measuring just 40 to 100 metres in diameter.
It belongs to a rare class called quasi-satellites- celestial bodies that orbit the Sun but remain gravitationally close to Earth.
It appears to follow Earth’s orbit in a "leading and trailing" motion due to its highly elliptical path. This gives the impression the asteroid orbits Earth.
Significance of the Mission
Kamo‘oalewa has garnered attention due to its unusual orbit and unknown origin. Scientists believe exploring this asteroid would help them find clues about quasi-satellites, and how their orbits evolved over time.
Some researchers suggest that Kamo‘oalewa could be the first known asteroid composed of lunar material. The exploration of the asteroid could settle the hypothesis that the Moon was formed as a result of a collision between the Earth and another small planet (Kamo‘oalewa could be a small remnant of that collision).
Context: The Ministry of Earth Sciences launched 'Bharat Forecast System'- the world's highest-resolution numerical weather model with a 6-kilometre grid.It will significantly enhance Indian Meteorological Department’s weather forecasting capabilities, especially with respect to extreme rainfall and cyclones.
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts related to Bharat Forecast System.
Bharat Forecast System
Bharat Forecast System (BFS) is India’s first indigenously built weather model.
Developed by: Pune-based Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology (IITM).
Spatial resolution: It offers a spatial resolution of 6km x 6 km, making it the world’s first weather model with such high resolution. Weather modellers have been working to fine-tune this resolution to 3km and 1km.
Current models like- Coupled Forecasting System (CFS) and Global Forecasting System (GFS) operate at lower resolution of 12 km x 12 km, missing out smaller, localised variations in weather patterns. They are unable to pick weather events occurring over smaller areas within this 144 sq km area unit.
BFS reduces this area to 36 sq km, allowing more granular and precise forecasts.
BFS uses supercomputer Arka (with a capacity of 11.77 petaflops and storage capacity of 33 petabytes).
Data from a network of 40 Doppler Weather Radars from across the country will be used to run the BFS model. Gradually, the number of Doppler radars will increase to 100 which would allow the weather office to issue nowcasts- weather forecasts for the next two hours across the country.
Significance
Improved spatial resolution will enable accurate forecasts for small-scale weather patterns, extreme rainfall, cyclones and disaster management.
It will also help agriculture and water resource management.
BFS is a deterministic model, i.e., it gives one clear and specific weather forecast based on the current data, rather than multiple possible forecasts.
BFS had been under experimental testing since 2022, and the data generated from it helped improve the accuracy of weather forecasts by 30-64%, depending on the event.
This development represents a leap in India’s weather forecasting technology with potential impact on disaster preparedness and climate resilience.
Context: In recent years, there has been a global transition to Electric Vehicles (EVs) largely driven by the need to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and combat climate change. However, recent research reveals negative impacts of the deployment of EVs.
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key Highlights of the recent study on EVs impact on environment.
Electric Vehicles
Electric Vehicles (EVs) are rapidly gaining popularity across the globe. While they make up only 2% of the total global vehicle stock, they accounted for about 20% of all new car sales in 2024, according to the International Energy Agency (IEA).
In India, around 2.5% of new cars sold in 2024 were electric, and the government plans to increase this to 30% by 2030. In China, EVs already account for nearly 50% of new car sales.
Key Highlights of the Study
Typically, an EV is at least 15-20% heavier than a comparable conventional vehicle majorly due to the weight of batteries. EVs on account of their greater weight experience higher wear and tear in their tyres compared to conventional vehicles. Thus, EVs release substantially larger numbers of small plastic particles in the atmosphere.
EVs are also able to accelerate more rapidly. This can lead to additional stress on the tyres due to increased friction and heat generation. Primary fragmentation (from potholes, braking) produces smaller airborne particles while Sequential fragmentation (gradual wear) produces larger particles.
The tyres of heavier and faster-moving vehicles produce a higher proportion of smaller particles (about 1-10 micrometres). Unlike the larger particles that settle on the ground due to gravity, smaller particles remain suspended in the air, adding to the concentration of air pollutants.
Way Forward
Expand air quality regulations: Current air quality regulations focus on PM2.5 and PM10, but with the rise of EVs and increased emission of even smaller tyre fragments, these standards need to be expanded to cover ultra-fine particulate pollution.
Incorporate Non-Exhaust Emissions: Emissions standards would probably need to account for non-exhaust emissions from vehicles.
Research & Development in tyres: Tyre manufacturers would need to invest in research and development to produce sturdier tyres that are better suited to heavier EVs.
Improve road infrastructure: Better roads reduce tyre damage and pollution.
Context: The central board of directors of the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) reviewed the Economic Capital Framework (ECF). ECF is a financial governance tool that guides RBI to determine risk provisioning and surplus transfers to the government.
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Contingency Risk Buffer; Economic Capital Framework.
How does the RBI transfer surplus to the Central government?
Based on the Economic Capital Framework (ECF), RBI transfers dividends to the government every year.
After setting aside the Contingency Risk Buffer and other operational expenditures (salaries etc.) from the earnings of RBI, the surplus is transferred to the central government in the form of dividends. Surplus transfer from RBI is an important component of non-tax revenues to the central government.
Bimal Jalan Expert Committee (2019):
The expert committee led by the former RBI Governor recommended that the ECF framework be periodically reviewed every five years.
It suggested that the Contingency Risk Buffer should be 5.5-6.5% of the RBI's balance sheet to ensure adequate risk provisioning.
The surplus RBI transfers to the government depends on how much risk buffer it wants to maintain. A higher risk buffer would mean a lower amount of transferable surplus and vice versa.
Note:
RBI will transfer ₹2,68,590 crore surplus to the Union government as dividend for the accounting year 2024-25. This is 27% more than the dividend paid in the previous year.
Based on revised Economic Capital Framework (ECF) and taking into consideration the macroeconomic assessment, the RBI board has decided to further increase the Contingent Risk Buffer (CRB) to 7.50%.
It is estimated that the RBI may transfer Rs 2.5 lakh crore to Rs 3 lakh crore as surplus to the government for the accounting year 2024-25. In 2023-24, the RBI had transferred the highest-ever surplus transfer of Rs 2.11 lakh crore.
In FY25, the RBI’s earnings were robust, driven by sale of dollars to curb volatility in the rupee; sharp rise in gold prices; appreciation in prices of government securities held by the RBI.
Key Concepts
Source of Earnings for RBI:
Interest on Government securities held
Interests on loans and advances made
Interest earned on Liquid Adjustment Facility operations
Interest income from foreign currency assets held
Earnings from forex swaps
Seigniorage (difference between cost of printing currency note and its face value)
Valuation gains from Gold
Contingency Risk Buffer:
CRB is the reserved fund within the Economic Capital Framework (ECF) that is maintained by RBI to address potential financial disruptions or crises.
It is the country’s savings for a ‘rainy day’ (financial stability crisis) which the central bank consciously maintains in view of its role as Lender of Last Resort.
Significance:
Higher dividend payout by the RBI will help the government in managing the fiscal deficit.
Higher surplus transfer is likely to improve liquidity conditions in the system.
Context: The United Kingdom has agreed to transfer sovereignty of the Chagos Islands to Mauritius, ending decades of British control over the Indian Ocean archipelago. Chagos was separated from Mauritius in 1965, when Mauritius was still a British colony. The deal allows the UK and US to retain joint use of the Diego Garcia military base for 99 years.
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Location Chagos Archipelago; Diego Garcia; 2024 UK-Mauritius Agreement.
Geography of Chagos Archipelago
Chagos Islands - officially known as the British Indian Ocean Territory - comprise seven atolls with about 60 individual islands.
Location: Located in the Indian Ocean, about 1,600 km northeast of Mauritius.
Land Area: 56.1 sq km total, with Diego Garcia covering 32.5 sq km (which is comparable to Lakshadweep Island of India).
Largest Atoll:Great Chagos Bank (12,642 sq km), the world’s largest atoll structure.
About Chagos Islands dispute
Disputed Territory: Chagos Islands have been a point of contention between Mauritius and the UK since Mauritius gained independence in 1968.
Recognition by UK: In 2024, the UK recognised Mauritius' sovereignty over Chagos but retained control over Diego Garcia, the largest island.
Strategic Importance: Diego Garcia hosts a joint UK-US military base, crucial for military operations in Asia and the Indian Ocean.
British Indian Ocean Territory (BIOT) & Diego Garcia Base:
Formation of BIOT (1965): UK created BIOT, separating Chagos from Mauritius, and paid £3 million for it.
US-UK Secret Agreement (1966): Allowed the establishment of a US military base in Diego Garcia.
Strategic Importance of Diego Garcia
The base became fully operational in 1986.
Used in 1990-91 Gulf War, Iraq & Afghanistan wars and presently, it remains a key UK-US military outpost in the Indian Ocean.
Diplomatic developments: Mauritius has raised the issue of claim in international fora for decades.
2017:UNGA sought an ICJ ruling on the archipelago’s status.
2019 ICJ Ruling: Declared the UK must end its administration of Chagos “as rapidly as possible”.
UNGA Resolution (2019): Called for UK’s unconditional withdrawal within six months.
2024 UK-Mauritius Agreement
Terms of the Deal:
The UK recognised Mauritius’ sovereignty over Chagos.
Diego Garcia remains under UK control for 99 years for military operations.
Mauritius can resettle Chagossians on islands except Diego Garcia.
India has welcomed the treaty signed between Mauritius and the United Kingdom, which restores Mauritian sovereignty over the Chagos Archipelago, including Diego Garcia.
The Chagos dispute has strategic implications for India amid growing China influence in the region. Since India has facilitated the agreement between Mauritius and the UK, it has strengthened India’s position as the leader of the developing world.
Context: According to the data released by the Reserve Bank of India (RBI), India witnessed a sharp 96.5% dropin net foreign direct investment (FDI) in FY25.
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key concepts- Foreign direct investment; net foreign direct investment (FDI).
Drop in net foreign direct investment (FDI)
India witnessed a sharp 96.5% drop in net foreign direct investment (FDI) in FY25. The net FDI fell to $353 million, the lowest on record, from $10 billion in FY24.
What is net foreign direct investment (FDI)?
Net FDI is the difference between FDI inflows by other countries into India and FDI outflow due to direct investments made by Indians abroad.
Net FDI = (Gross investment - Repatriation) - FDI Outflow
Components of Net FDI:
FDI Inflow (Gross FDI) isgross investment minus repatriation/disinvestment.
Gross Investment includes- Fresh equity inflows (shares allocated to foreign investors), Reinvestment of profits by foreign companies in India, other capital inflow (loans from parent company to subsidiary)
Repatriation/ disinvestment- Foreign companies removing capital out of India.
FDI Outflow is the investment by Indian companies abroad.
The net FDI drop is due to:
surge in repatriation/disinvestment of existing investments through profitable initial public offerings (IPOs).
Indian firms increased their investments overseas.
While the net FDI dropped, gross FDI remained concentrated in core sectors like manufacturing, financial services, energy, and communications, which accounted for more than 60% of total inflows.
Context: A cooler-than-usual summer over large geographical areas of the country has contributed to keeping all-India average temperatures within the normal range in May 2025. The primary reason is the frequent passage of streams of western disturbances in the lower latitudes.
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Western Disturbances.
Unusual weather conditions
As per the India Meteorological Department (IMD):
All-India weekly average maximum temperature was 3-5 degrees Celsius below normal over West, Central, and North India. Normal temperatures prevailed over remaining parts of the country.
Core Heatwave Zone (CHZ)- spanning Central, North, and Peninsular India between Gujarat and West Bengal, which is prone to heatwave conditions every year from March to June, has not as yet experienced significant heatwaves.
May has been exceptionally wet over the South and Central Indian regions. Southern Peninsular India has benefited from intermittent spells of rain throughout the ongoing pre-monsoon season.
Reasons for cooler temperature in Summers:
Western Disturbances: The primary reason for a wetter- and cooler-than-usual summer is the frequent passage of streams of western disturbances in the lower latitudes. Western disturbances are eastward-bound winds that originate in the Mediterranean Sea and cause rain or snow along their way.
Continuous incursion of Moisture: There has also been a continuous incursion of moisture from the Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea into the Indian mainland, with the subsequent wind interactions causing rainfall and thundershowers.
What are Western Disturbances?
Western disturbances are extra-tropical cyclones that originate in the Mediterranean region and move eastwards towards the Indian subcontinent, affecting Northern India, northern Bangladesh, and south-eastern Nepal.
The sub-tropical westerly jet streams help western disturbances to enter the Indian sub-continent and affect its weather. The winds while moving take up the moisture from the Mediterranean Sea, Black Sea and Caspian Sea.
These moisture laden winds eventually reach the northwestern Himalayas and get blocked, as a result the moisture gets trapped, and precipitation is shared. This ultimately leads to:
Snowfall in western Himalayas (J&K, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand)
Non-monsoonal rainfall over Indo-Gangetic plains (Punjab, Haryana, Delhi, Uttar Pradesh). These disturbances provide moisture to Rabi season crops
On an average 4-6 disturbances (temperate cyclones) per month pass over northern India between November to April.
Context: The US President has announced Golden Dome, a proposed $175-billion space-based missile defence shield. Golden Dome aims to create a network of satellites to detect, track and potentially intercept incoming missiles.
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts related to Golden Dome.
What is the proposed ‘Golden Dome’?
Golden Dome is a US space-based missile defence system. It is designed to protect the US from long-range threats, especially Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles (ICBMs) from countries like Russia and China.
It is inspired by Israel’s much lauded Iron Dome system- a short-range, ground-to-air, air defence system. But it is far more ambitious in scale and scope, and seeks to integrate next-generation technologies across land, sea, and even space.
How is the Golden Dome different from the Iron Dome?
The Iron Dome is a short-range, ground-based aerial defence system that primarily relies on radars, not satellites, to identify and track enemy targets.
Golden Dome will comprise space-based sensors and interceptors, which would make it the very first truly space-based weapon system.
It will also include ground-based radar systems for detection and targeting, but space-based tech will be the core.
The system will comprise thousands of small satellites orbiting Earth, which will intercept an enemy missile mere moments after it is launched.
The defence shield is estimated to cost ~$175 billion, and is expected to be operational by January 2029.
Orbital weaponry, i.e., weapon systems placed in an orbit around Earth, have been conceptualised and even designed by the US and Soviet Union during the Cold War, and even Nazi Germany during World War II.
Context:China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC) is set to be expanded to Afghanistan with the foreign ministers of the three countries agreeing on it as part of broader efforts to boost trilateral cooperation.
Relevance of the topic:
Prelims: Key facts related to CPEC.
Mains: Strategic Challenges for India post CPEC extension to Afghanistan.
What is the China-Pakistan Economic Corridor?
CPEC is a flagship project under China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) launched in 2015.
It aims to connect China’s Xinjiang province to Pakistan’s Gwadar Port through a network of roads, railways, and energy projects in order to facilitate trade and economic integration.
The project has been touted to boost Pakistan's economy and provide China with direct access to the Arabian Sea.
The original $46 billion infrastructure project has now ballooned to over $62 billion in investments.
What does CPEC’s entry into Afghanistan mean?
The CPEC’s extension into Afghanistan involves connecting Pakistani infrastructure to Afghan roads, railways and mineral-rich provinces, potentially linking the entire region to China’s western logistics and trade networks.
This move could include:
Expanding the ML-1 railway line to connect with Afghan freight corridors
Building highways through Torkham and Spin Boldak crossing points (key border crossing points between Pakistan and Afghanistan).
Chinese access to Afghanistan’s vast lithium and rare earth resources.
Energy pipelines connecting Iran and Central Asia through Afghan territory.
Potential military logistics disguised as trade infrastructure.
India’s concerns around CPEC:
India has been severely critical of the CPEC as:
Violate India’s Sovereignty: The project is a violation of India’s sovereignty and territorial integrity as it passes through Pakistan-occupied-Kashmir, part of India’s territory.
Strategic Encirclement: India perceives CPEC as part of China's strategy to encircle India through infrastructure and military partnerships with neighbouring countries, thereby increasing China's influence in South Asia.
Security Concerns: The development of infrastructure in PoK and Balochistan under CPEC raises security concerns for India, as it could facilitate greater military mobility for Pakistan and China in the region.
Terror-nexus risk: Taliban regime, which once harboured Jaish-e-Mohammed and Lashkar-e-Taiba fighters, may once again serve as a launchpad for anti-India activities. With Chinese funds and Pakistani intelligence support, this triangle could fund, train, and export terrosim into Indian territory.
Undermines India's regional connectivity projects: India fears that CPEC could undermine its own regional connectivity projects, such as the Chabahar port in Iran, by providing alternative trade routes that bypass India.
Expansion of CPEC into Afghanistan represents a strategic challenge for India, as it could alter the regional balance of power and affect India's security and economic interests.
Thus, India needs to reassess its regional strategies and strengthen its diplomatic engagements to safeguard its interests and maintain its influence in South Asia.
