Context: ASHA (Accredited Social Health Activists) workers in Kerala are protesting for better wages and working conditions. Their work is critical for public health but remains undervalued due to its association with traditional gender roles.
Relevance of the topic:
Prelims: Key facts about Government Schemes, Welfare Programs, Social Issues
Mains: Can be used as an example in issues related to Health sector & Governance; Gender Issues in Employment.
Key Highlights of the Issue
Gendered Assumptions: Women dominate state-run welfare schemes (E.g., Anganwadi, ASHA workers). Their work is considered an extension of domestic care, leading to undervaluation and low pay.
Payment and Working Conditions:
Despite WHO recognition (2022), ASHAs remain underpaid. Kerala pays ₹7,000 per month, among the highest in India, but still below the minimum wage for unskilled workers.
Payments are often irregular due to dependence on central and state funding. Economic Survey (2022-23): India spends only 2.1% of GDP on healthcare, below the WHO-recommended 5%.
No legal status as Workers: ASHAs are seen as "activists" rather than "workers", denying them labour rights. Despite their role in critical health interventions, they lack social security and job stability. ILO Recommendation (2018): Urged nations to formalise care workers, but India is yet to implement.
Demands of ASHA workers (in Kerala) include
Formal worker status
₹21,000 honorarium
₹5 lakh as retirement benefits.
Benefits of Recognising ASHA Workers as formal workers:
Financial Security : Regular wages instead of incentives. E.g., 63% care workers are Women (ILO Report 2021)
Better Working Conditions: Formalisation would bring job security, healthcare benefits, and social security.
Women Empowerment: Economic independence and dignity at work. E.g., Only 32% women earn their own income (NFHS-5 2021-22).
Strengthened Healthcare System: Motivated workforce ensures better community health services. E.g., ASHA workers played an important role in COVID-19 response.
Way Forward
Formalisation of ASHA Workers: Recognise them as public health workers under labour laws. Provide fixed salaries, job security, and social security benefits.
Legal Recognition & Labour Rights: Implement ILO Convention 189 (Decent Work for Domestic Workers). Ensure EPF, ESI, and pension benefits.
Timely and Increased Payment: Kerala Model: ₹21,000 minimum wage demand should be considered nationwide.
Political and Social Awareness: Recognise unpaid and underpaid care work. NITI Aayog (2021): Recommended monetising unpaid care work to boost GDP.
ASHA workers are vital to India’s healthcare system but remain undervalued. As Amartya Sen highlights, true development expands freedoms, which includes fair wages and dignity at work. Formalising their roles, ensuring social security, and increasing healthcare investment will align with PM Modi’s vision of ‘Sabka Saath, Sabka Vikas’ and create a gender-inclusive, resilient public health system.
Context: India's rising obesity and diabetes rates have raised concerns about the role of ultra-processed foods (UPFs) in public health.
Relevance of the topic:
Prelims: Government policies and interventions to regulate processed food.
Mains: Health policies and regulatory frameworks; Role of food processing industry in public health.
Major Highlights:
As per the latest edition of theNational Family Health Survey (NFHS-5), 1 in 4 adults in India are either obese or diabetic (NFHS-5). Ultra-processed foods (UPFs) contribute significantly to this health crisis.
The 2025 Economic Survey recommends a ‘health tax’ on UPFs, while the Indian Prime Minister has called for tackling obesity. However, weak and industry-friendly food regulations undermine these efforts, allowing misleading advertisements and lack of proper labeling.
Challenges in Regulating Ultra-Processed Foods
1. Ambiguous and Ineffective Laws:
Consumer Protection Act, 2019 lacks clear guidelines on nutritional information disclosure.
FSSAI rules have no definition of High Fat, Sugar, and Salt (HFSS) foods or UPFs.
Multiple laws exist but are not harmonised, leading to weak enforcement.
2. Industry Influence on Policy:
FSSAI’s regulatory framework has been criticised to favour large food corporations over public health. Industry representatives dominate stakeholder meetings, sidelining scientific experts.
FSSAI proposed Indian Nutrition Rating (INR) in 2022, modeled after Australia’s failed ‘health star’ system.
The system allows even unhealthy foods to get misleading star ratings, rather than clear warning labels.
FSSAI ignored its 2021 proposal for a ‘traffic light’ colour-coded warning system due to industry lobbying.
3. Delayed Implementation of Front-of-Pack Labels (FOPL):
Despite recommendations since 2017, India still lacks mandatory warning labels. E.g.,
No mandatory requirement to disclose sugar, salt, or fat content in ads.
Cola drinks and processed foods freely target children and youth, without clear health warnings.
The 2025 Economic Survey calls for urgent reforms, but no clear roadmap exists.
Most countries with effective front-of-pack labels (FOPL) use clear warnings rather than stars.
5. Public Awareness Deficit:
Lack of mass campaigns educating people about the risks of UPFs. Children and youth are the most vulnerable to misleading advertisements.
Government Initiatives
1. National Multisectoral Action Plan (2017) for Prevention and Control of Common Non-Communicable Diseases:
Recommended amendments to laws regulating junk food advertisements. However, there has been limited enforcement in implementing these recommendations.
2. FSSAI’s Initiatives:
FSSAI launched a movement: India@75: Freedom from Trans-fats by 2022 with the aim of eliminating TFA from India.
Eat Right India campaign by FSSAI to protect the health of the people and transform the country's food system. It is based on three key themes- Eat Safe, Eat Healthy, and Eat Sustainable.
FSSAI’s Indian Nutrition Rating (INR) (2022): Introduced a star rating system, but criticised for being industry-friendly.
Mandatory fortification of salt (iodine and iron), edible oil (vitamins A and D), and wheat flour (iron, folic acid, vitamin B12) as per the FSSAI standards. FSSAI has set up the ‘Food Fortification Resource Centre’ as a nodal point to provide required support to stakeholders.
3. Economic Survey 2025 Recommendations:
‘Health tax’ on ultra-processed foods to curb consumption.
Stringent front-of-pack labels replacing misleading star ratings.
Advertising restrictions on HFSS foods targeting children.
Way Forward
Replace Star Ratings with Warning Labels: Adopt ‘high in’ labels based on WHO or NIN guidelines.
Define HFSS and UPFs Clearly: Set scientific thresholds for sugar, salt, and fat content in processed foods.
Strict Advertisement Regulations: Amend existing laws to prohibit misleading ads and mandate nutritional disclosures.
Public Awareness Campaign: Nationwide campaigns in regional languages on the health risks of UPFs.
Health Tax Implementation: Levy higher taxes on HFSS foods and subsidize healthier alternatives
Value Addition:
Quote: "It is health that is real wealth and not pieces of gold and silver." (Mahatma Gandhi)
Context: Despite having a strong scientific manpower base, robust IT and pharmaceutical sectors, and a thriving start-up ecosystem, India lags in research and development (R&D) investment.
India's Gross Expenditure on R&D (GERD) is only 0.64% of GDP (FY21), much lower than global leaders like the US, China, Japan, and South Korea. The private sector’s role in R&D is limited, with most funding coming from the government.
Relevance of the topic:
Prelims: Gross Expenditure on R&D (GERD) – Definition and Trends; Government initiatives for R&D promotion
Mains: Role of government in fostering innovation; Low R&D investment and its impact on industrial growth; Private sector participation in research Global Comparisons: India vs China, US, Japan in R&D.
Challenges in R&D Growth:
India’s Low R&D Spending:
GERD in India: ₹60,196 crore (FY2011) → ₹1,27,381 crore (FY2021).
R&D as percentage of GDP: 0.64% (India) vs 2.1% (China), 3%+ (US, Japan, South Korea).
Developed nations have 70% private-sector contribution, while India relies mostly on government funding.
Sector-wise R&D Expenditure:
Pharmaceuticals (50%): Driven by drug innovation, vaccine research.
IT (15%): Investments in AI, cybersecurity, software advancements.
Transportation (10%): Focus on EVs, autonomous vehicles, infrastructure.
Defence & Chemicals (7-10%): Investment in military technology, chemical innovations.
Biotechnology: Growing R&D in medical research, genetic engineering.
Electronics, Fuels, Telecommunications, Metallurgy: Relatively lower investments, suggesting mature industries or slow adoption of new technologies.
Private Sector’s Limited Role:
Globally, private firms contribute 50-70% of R&D spending, but in India, it is mostly government-driven. Indian firms hesitate to invest in long-term R&D due to uncertain returns. High costs discourage startups and MSMEs from investing in R&D.
Top R&D spenders globally:
US – Google, Amazon lead private R&D (70% contribution).
China – Hybrid model with both state and private sector investments.
Focus on Basic Research Over Applied Research:
Applied research drives commercial innovation and attracts investment. But India’s academic institutions focus moreon theoretical research, leading to fewer linkages between research institutions and industries. This causes limited technology transfer from labs to businesses.
Presently, investments are concentrated in pharmaceuticals and IT, but disruptive technologies like quantum computing, semiconductors, and AI need more funding.
Bureaucratic and Regulatory Barriers: Complex approval processes delay patents and innovation commercialisation. Tax incentives for R&D are not competitive compared to other countries
Government Initiatives for R&D Growth
Increased GERD (2013-14 to 2021-22): The government has doubled R&D spending from ₹60,196 crore to ₹1,27,381 crore. Increased focus on AI, biotechnology, semiconductors and quantum technology sectors.
National Research Foundation (NRF): Aims to bridge the gap between academia and industry. Supports multidisciplinary research collaborations.
PLI Scheme for Technology Sectors: Encourages R&D in electronics, semiconductors, and renewable energy.
Tax Incentives for R&D Investment: Offers weighted tax deductions for companies investing in research.
Atal Innovation Mission (AIM): Promotes startups, incubators, and innovation hubs in schools & colleges.
India's R&D investment remains low despite its strong IT, pharma, and startup ecosystem. Increasing industry-academia collaboration, private investment, and applied research is essential to strengthen India’s global competitiveness and technological self-reliance.
Context: As India continues its journey toward gender equality, the Beijing Platform for Action remains a guiding framework.
Relevance of the Topic: Mains: Essay: Women Empowerment in India- Achievements.
About Beijing Platform for Action
Beijing Declaration was a resolution adopted by the United Nations (UN) at the end of the Fourth World Conference on Women in September 1995.
The resolution was adopted to promulgate a set of principles concerning the equality of men and women.
It covers 12 key critical matters of concern and areas for action considered to represent the main obstacles in women empowerment.
India’s Achievements in Advancing Women’s Rights
Maternal and Reproductive Health:
Institutional Deliveries: Increased to 95% due to initiatives like PM Surakshit Matritva Abhiyan and PM Matru Vandana Yojana.
Maternal Mortality Rate (MMR): Declined from 130 (2014) to 97 (2020) per 1,00,000 births (Sample Registration System data).
Modern contraceptive use: 56.5% of married women now opt for modern contraceptives, enhancing reproductive autonomy.
Women’s access to Healthcare:
Ayushman Bharat Pradhan Mantri Jan Arogya Yojana: World’s largest government-funded healthcare scheme has provided millions of women with free medical treatment.
Education and Skill Development:
Improvement in child sex ratio: Achieved through the Beti Bachao Beti Padhao (BBBP) initiative.
Higher retention rates in education: National Education Policy 2020 has integrated education with skills training.
STEM opportunities for women: Encouragement for women in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM).
Menstrual hygiene support: Improved sanitation has reduced school absenteeism among adolescent girls.
Women’s Economic Empowerment:
Financial Inclusion via Self-help groups (SHGs):
National Rural and Urban Livelihood Missions connected 100 million women to financial networks.
Deendayal Antyodaya Yojana - National Rural Livelihood Mission provided credit and livelihood opportunities.
Digital Financial Inclusion:
Unified Payments Interface (UPI) has boosted women’s participation in digital savings and investments.
Pradhan Mantri Gramin Digital Saksharta Abhiyan has trained 35 million rural women in digital literacy.
Gender-Responsive Budgeting:
Gender Budget’s share in the national budget increased from 6.8% (2024-25) to 8.8% (2025-26).
$55.2 billion allocated to gender-specific programs.
Women in Leadership:
Young women are emerging as leaders in climate action, digital entrepreneurship, and governance.
Initiatives like Gender Advancement for Transforming Institutions (GATI) Project (which supports women in STEM) and G20 TechEquity Platform (which has trained thousands of young women in emerging technologies) reflect this transformation.
Political Representation:
The Women's Reservation Act guarantees 33% representation for women in legislatures.
Local governance initiatives have empowered 1.5 million women leaders, creating the world’s largest cohort of women in political leadership.
Actions against Gender-based Violence:
Persistent Issue: Despite the legal framework women continue to face violence.
Government measures:
770 One Stop Centres established for medical, legal, and psychological aid to survivors.
Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita 2023 (enforced in July 2024) strengthens legal protection for women.
Odisha Blockchain Initiative: Ensures swift and confidential support for survivors of violence.
Gender-Responsive Policing: Rajasthan Police Academy & UN Population Fund partnership has built survivor trust and access to justice.
Way Forward
The 30th anniversary of the Beijing Declaration highlights that gender equality is a global imperative.
India’s approach, backed by strong government leadership, global partnerships, and policy innovation, serves as a model for inclusive and sustainable development.
Key future priorities:
Strengthen collaborations with local and global partners.
Invest in young women’s leadership in governance and economy.
Address systemic barriers such as digital gender divide, safety concerns, and economic dependency.
By reinforcing women-led development, India continues to set a global benchmark for gender equality and social transformation.
Context: The Ministry of Health and Family Welfare has recently announced that India has achieved the National Health Policy (NHP) target of a maternal mortality rate (MMR) of 100 deaths per one lakh live births. The Ministry has announced the continuation of the National Health Mission, stating its achievements in healthcare.
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims and Mains: National Health Mission and its Relevance.
National Health Mission
National Health Mission (NHM) was launched in 2013 by subsuming National Rural Health Mission (launched in 2005) and National Urban Health Mission (launched in 2013).
Initiative of: Ministry of Health and Family Welfare
Aim: Achievement of universal access to equitable, affordable & quality health care services that are accountable and responsive to people’s needs.
Main programmatic components include:
Health System Strengthening
Reproductive-Maternal- Neonatal-Child and Adolescent Health (RMNCH+A),
Communicable and Non-Communicable Diseases
Targets under National Health Mission:
Reduce MMR to 1/1000 live births (100/1 lakh live births)
Reduce IMR to 25/1000 live births
Reduce TFR to 2.1
Prevention and reduction of anaemia in women aged 15–49 years
Reduce annual incidence and mortality from Tuberculosis by half
Reduce Leprosy to <1/10000 population and incidence to zero in all districts
Annual Malaria Incidence to be <1/1000
Less than 1 percent microfilaria prevalence in all districts
Kala-azar Elimination by 2015, <1 case per 10000 population in all blocks
Prevent and reduce mortality from communicable & non-communicable diseases
Reduce household out-of-pocket expenditure on total health care expenditure
Key features of National Health Mission:
Comprehensive primary healthcare: Establishment of Health and Wellness centers to provide preventive, promotive, curative and palliative care service.
Maternal and child healthcare: Programs like Janani Suraksha Yojana and Janani Shishu Suraksha Karyakram to promote institutional deliveries and reduce maternal and infant mortality.
National Disease Control Programs with integrated management of communicable and non-communicable diseases. E.g.; National Vector Borne Disease Control Program.
Free drugs and diagnostics provision under Free Drugs Service Initiative.
Strengthening Rural healthcare by establishing Sub-centers and Community Health Centers in rural areas for accessible and affordable healthcare.
Community participation by formation of Village Health Sanitation and Nutrition Committees to engage local communities in health planning.
Achievements under National Health Mission:
Maternal Mortality Rate has declined from 130 per lakh live births in 2014-16 to 97 per lakh in 2018-20 (marking a 25% reduction).
The Under-5 Mortality Rate has decreased from 45 per 1,000 live births in 2014 to 32 in 2020 (75% reduction compared to global reduction)
Infant Mortality Rate has declined from 39 per 1,000 live births in 2014 to 28 in 2020.
Total Fertility Rate has decreased from 2.3 in 2015 to 2.0 in 2020, as per National Family Health Survey (NFHS-5).
Under the National Tuberculosis Elimination Programme (NTEP), the incidence of tuberculosis has reduced from 237 per 1,00,000 population in 2015 to 195 in 2023. The mortality rate has decreased from 28 to 22 in the same period.
Kala-azar elimination efforts have been successful, with 100% of endemic blocks achieving the target of less than one case per 10,000 population by the end of 2023.
Measles-Rubella Elimination Campaign, under the Intensified Mission Indradhanush 5.0, vaccinated over 34 crore children, achieving a 97.98% coverage.
National Sickle Cell Anemia Elimination Mission, launched in 2023, has screened over 2.61 crore individuals in tribal areas, working towards its elimination by 2047.
Malaria surveillance has increased and malaria deaths have decreased.
New Initiatives under NHM:
U-WIN platform (2023) aids intimely administration of vaccines and real-time vaccination tracking to pregnant women, infants, and children across India.
The number of operational Ayushman Arogya Mandir (AAM) centers has increased to 1,72,148 by the end of FY 2023-24.
Mobile medical units have expanded (over 1400 MMUs) to ensure healthcare access in remote and underserved areas.
Bharat Health Initiative for Sahyog Hita and Maitri (BHISHM): advanced mobile modular kits designed to offer rapid, first-line medical care during disasters or public health emergencies.
Certification of public health facilities under the National Quality Assurance Standards.
Context: Disability rights activists are criticising the draft Digital Personal Data Protection Rules that infantilises Persons with Disabilities (PwDs) and negates their decision-making capabilities.
Relevance of the topic:
Prelims: Questions based on provisions of DPDP Act and RPD Act 2016
Mains: Analytical question on DPDP act with reference to the persons with disability.
About Disputed Consent Provision
The Digital Personal Data Protection (DPDP) Act 2023 has a consent provision, where the digital intermediaries require the consent of an individual for the storage and use of the personal data. This provision is key to the act as it ensures the transparency and accountability of the personal data transmission and usage.
In case of children and persons with benchmark disabilities (i.e., 40% disability), the Act provides for the parental or guardian consent to use the personal data.
Though, the provision of guardian’s involvement for consent in case of children is a welcome step. But, in case of persons with disability this key provision remains a bone of contention.
The Controversy: Section 9(1)of the DPDP Act, 2023
Section 9(1) of the Act says: The Data Fiduciary shall, before processing any personal data of a child or a person with disability (PwD) who has a lawful guardian, obtain verifiable consent of the parent of such child or the lawful guardian, in such manner as may be prescribed.
Data fiduciaries: Parties processing the personal data.
Data principals: Users whose data is being collected.
This section “appears to presume” that just because a PwD might have a legal guardian, this in itself would be indicative of their “inability to take decisions in the digital sphere”.
Rule 10 of the draft DPDP Rules
Rule 10 of the draft DPDP Rules deals with the governing of Section 9(1) of the DPDP Act.
Verification of guardianship:
A Data Fiduciary must verify that such guardian is appointed by a court of law, a designated authority or a local level committee, under the laws applicable to guardianship.
Defines PwDs:
Individuals with long term physical, mental, intellectual or sensory impairment, that hinder their full and effective participation in society equally with others.
Individuals suffering from any of the conditions relating to autism, cerebral palsy, mental retardation or a combination of any two or more of such conditions.
The Rule provides for considering guardianship under the Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act, 2016 (RPWD Act) and the National Trust for the Welfare of Persons with Autism, Cerebral Palsy, Mental Retardation and Multiple Disabilities Act, 1999 (NT Act).
Rationale to include Guardian’s Consent for PwDs
Long-term inability:
It is believed that persons with disability having a long term physical and mental disability have limited capacity to take the legally binding decisions in their personal capacity.
E.g., A person with visual impairment requires a guardian to provide for the consent for the digital financial transactions.
Limited applicability:
The draft rules by the MiETY have clarified that the clause of guardian consent is applicable in case of disabilities that restrict proactive decision making by an individual.
E.g., The guardian consent is mandated for the disabilities like autism, cerebral palsy, mental retardation and to or more such conditions.
Protection against vulnerabilities:
Guardian consent provision aims to protect PwDs from exploitation due to data theft and other vulnerabilities.
Criticism of the Provisions
Demeans Abilities:
The provision of guardian’s consent in case of PwD demeans and questions their decision making abilities. The provision, therefore, is seen as discriminatory.
Strengthens the Stereotype:
The provision for guardian’s consent reiterates the stereotype against inabilities of the PwD, that can further cascade into the loss of jobs and opportunity for economic participation.
Violates Privacy Rights:
The Act irrespective of the nature of data requires a guardian’s involvement for providing consent. This violates the Rights to Privacy and Right to Choice of PwD that is guaranteed under Article 21.
E.g., A visually impaired person may require guardian consent to perform the financial transactions above a certain amount, but requirement of similar guardian’s consent in fitness application or e-commerce website violates privacy.
Neglects Intersectionality issues:
The law does not consider intersectionality of gender and disability. E.g., PwD women may require their guardian’s consent to be able to buy sanitary napkins from an online platform.
Scope of Consent Policing:
Requirement of guardian’s consent may be misused for moral policing, as guardians may control the actions and choices of the PwDs.
Critics argue that in cases of guardians appointed under the National Trust Act, would be in “direct conflict” with the autonomy of persons with disabilities under the UNCRPD.
Legal Obligations of Guardians:
Guardians may face legal consequences and penalties under the Act, potentially leading to conflict of interest.
The Digital Personal Data Protection Act 2023, consent provision is crucial to ensure data security. But, it needs to balance between the privacy of PwD and protecting them against exploitation.
Legal guardianship laws for PwDs in India
The legal guardianship for PwDs, while not mandatory, is governed by two laws in India — the RPWD Act, 2016 and the NT Act, 1999 — both of which mandate different roles for the guardians appointed under it for adult PwDs.
1. National Trust Act, 1999:
The NT Act’s guardianship clauses apply to PwDs diagnosed with autism, cerebral palsy, intellectual disability, or occurrence of two or more of these conditions. It provides for full guardianship of the PwD.
NT Act goes against the principles of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (UNCRPD), by making “decision-making capacity” a metric for guardianship without adequately defining it.
2. Rights to Persons with Disabilities Act, 2016:
The RPWD Act’s guardianship clauses apply to people experiencing long-term physical, mental, intellectual, or sensory impairments which, when interacting with various barriers, hinder their full and effective participation in society on an equal basis with others.
This provides for a “limited guardianship”, which allows for support in making specific legal decisions when the individual’s capacity is deemed insufficient.
The RPWD Act upholds the principles of the UNCRPD, and frames guardianship as support to PwDs in exercising their own decision-making rights.
About Rights to Persons with Disabilities Act, 2016:
Rights to Persons with Disabilities Act 2016 defines “persons with disabilities” as a person with physical, intellectual, or sensory impairment which, in interaction with barriers, hinders his full and effective participation in society equally with others.
Types of disabilities covered under the Act are increased from 7 to 21. It includes various physical and mental disabilities like acid attack victims, Dwarfism and Autism Spectrum Disorder.
Free Education: Act provides for the free and compulsory education for persons with benchmark disability up to 18 years of age unlike 6-14 years in case of Right to Education Act.
Reservation: It mandates a 4% reservation in the public employment and 5% reservation in educational institutions, for the PwD
Accessible infrastructure: The Act mandated both public and private institutions to make institutions infrastructure accessible to the persons with disability.
Universal accessible digital products: Section 41 to 43 of the Act provides for the provisions of the accessible ICT consumer products for the PwD.
Context: Citing the “World Social Protection Report 2024-26”, Director-General of International Labour Organisation applauded India citing the country’s social protection coverage hasalmost doubled from 24% to 49%, in a very short time.
Relevance of the topic:
Prelims: International Labour Organisation.
Mains: Social Security network in India.
World Social Protection Report 2024-26: India's Achievements
Increase in Social Protection Coverage:
The proportion of the population covered under at least one branch of social protection increased from 24.4% in 2018 to 48.8% in 2022.
Government's welfare schemes, insurance, and pension programs helped to ensure that vulnerable sections of society receive adequate support.
Leveraging digital platforms:
Digital platforms like e-Shram have been utilised to register and track informal workers.
This helps in ensuring that they have access to employment opportunities and social security benefits.
India's Economic Transformation
Unemployment Rate:
Substantial decline from 6% in 2017-18 to 3.2% in 2023-24, highlighting the positive impact of various employment-generating initiatives and labour reforms.
This reduction reflects improved job creation, particularly in sectors like manufacturing, services, and the gig economy.
Labour Force Participation Rate (LFPR):
Increased from 49.8% to 60.1%, indicating that more individuals are entering the workforce.
This rise is attributed to skill development programs, increased formal sector opportunities, and the integration of women and youth into the labour market.
Consolidation of Labour laws: India has merged 29 existing labour laws into 4 comprehensive labour codes. The four codes are:
Code on Wages: Establishes minimum wage norms and ensures timely payment to all workers.
Code on Occupational Safety, Health, and Working Conditions: Aims to provide safe working environments and regulate working hours.
Code on Industrial Relations: Simplifies dispute resolution processes and promotes harmonious employer-employee relations.
Code on Social Security: Extends social security benefits like pensions, health insurance, and maternity benefits to a wider workforce.
Major Social Security Initiatives
Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Yojana (PMJDY):
A financial inclusion program ensuring access to banking facilities, credit, insurance, and pension.
Over 500 million bank accounts opened, empowering the economically weaker sections.
Pradhan Mantri Jeevan Jyoti Bima Yojana (PMJJBY):
Life insurance cover of ₹2 lakh for individuals aged 18-50 at a premium of ₹436 per annum.
Provides financial security to families after the death of the primary earner.
Pradhan Mantri Suraksha Bima Yojana (PMSBY):
Accidental insurance cover of ₹2 lakh for a premium of ₹20 per annum.
Targets workers in high-risk sectors, offering them protection against accidental disabilities and death.
Atal Pension Yojana (APY):
Pension scheme for workers in the unorganised sector, providing a monthly pension of ₹1,000 to ₹5,000 upon retirement.
Promotes long-term financial planning among low-income groups.
Employees' State Insurance Scheme (ESIS):
Offers medical care, sickness benefits, maternity benefits, and employment injury benefits to employees.
Ensures comprehensive welfare for industrial workers and their dependents.
National Social Assistance Programme (NSAP):
Provides pension support to the elderly, widows, and disabled individuals from BPL families.
Acts as a safety net for the most vulnerable sections.
e-Shram Portal:
A database of over 280 million informal workers enabling direct benefit transfers and inclusion in welfare schemes.
Facilitates portability of benefits for migrant workers.
Impacts of Labour Codes:
Promoting labour welfare by providing uniform social security to all workers, including gig and platform workers.
Universalising wages to ensure equitable remuneration.
Enhancing ease of doing business through simplified registration, licensing, and compliance procedures.
Improving working conditions by mandating health and safety standards.
About International Labour Organisation (ILO)
It is a specialised agencyof the United Nations (UN) dedicated to improving labour conditions and living standards throughout the world.
History:
It was created in 1919, as part of the Treaty of Versailles that ended World War I, to reflect the belief that universal and lasting peace can be accomplished only if it is based on social justice.
In 1946, the ILO became a specialised agency of the newly formed UN.
Headquarters: Geneva, Switzerland.
Members: The ILO has 187 member states: 186 out of 193 UN member states, plus the Cook Islands.
Structure: It is the only tripartite U.N. agency that brings together governments, employers and workers’ representatives of 187-member States.
It serves its tripartite constituents, and society as a whole, in a variety of ways, including:
Formulation of international policies and programmes to promote basic human rights, improve working and living conditions, and enhance employment opportunities.
Creation of international labour standards backed by a unique system to supervise their application.
An extensive programme of international technical cooperation formulated and implemented in an active partnership with constituents, to help countries put these policies into practice in an effective manner.
Training, education, and research activities to help advance all of these efforts.
In recognition of its activities, the ILO was awarded the Nobel Prize for Peace in 1969.
Context: The Centre government has withheld ₹2,152 crore in funds to Tamil Nadu under the Samagra Shiksha scheme due to the State’s refusal to implement the National Education Policy (NEP) 2020’sthree-language formula.
Tamil Nadu follows a two-language policy and views three-language policy as an imposition of Hindi and a threat to its linguistic identity.
Definition: The three-language policy was introduced in the National Education Policy (NEP) of 1968 to standardise language education across India.
Objective: To promote multilingualism, national unity, and administrative efficiency.
Structure:
Hindi-speaking States: Hindi, English, and a modern Indian language (preferably a south Indian language).
Non Hindi-speaking States: Regional language, Hindi, and English.
Background of Three-Language formula:
1968: Introduced in the first NEP under Prime Minister Indira Gandhi.
1986: Reiterated in the National Policy of Education (NPE) 1986 without major changes.
2020: Retained in NEP 2020 with greater flexibility, allowing States to choose languages.
Tamil Nadu’s Resistance
Tamil Nadu adopted a two-language policy (Tamil and English)in 1968, citing Hindi imposition.
Historical background:
In 1937, the Justice Party strongly opposed the Rajaji-led Madras government’s attempt to make Hindi compulsory in schools. Protests led to the deaths of two activists, Thalamuthu and Natarajan, and the policy was eventually withdrawn.
1968: DMK government passed a resolution rejecting the three-language formula, reinforcing Tamil Nadu’s two-language policy. Since then, successive governments have opposed any changes to this policy.
2019: Strong resistance from Tamil Nadu led to the removal of mandatory Hindi learning from the draft NEP proposed by the Kasturirangan Committee.
Three-Language Formula in NEP 2020
Flexibility: States and students can choose the three languages, with at least two being native to India.
No Imposition: No specific language is mandated for any State.
Emphasis on mother tongue: Encourages teaching in the home language/mother tongue until Grade 5, preferably till Grade 8.
Encouraging Sanskrit: Promoted as an optional language within the three-language formula.
Significance of Three-Language Formula
Promotes Multilingualism: Encourages learning multiple languages for better communication and cultural understanding.
National integration: Bridges linguistic divides and fosters unity across regions.
Global competence: Retains English as a global link language while promoting Indian languages.
Cognitive benefits: Research shows learning in the mother tongue enhances cognitive development.
Issues in Three-Language Formula
Perceived Hindi imposition: Non-Hindi-speaking States, especially Tamil Nadu, view it as an attempt to impose Hindi.
Cultural resistance: Seen as a threat to regional languages and linguistic identities.
Political tensions: Opposition from regional parties fearing erosion of linguistic autonomy.
Resource constraints: Lack of teachers and materials for additional languages.
Implementation challenges: Varied adoption across States, with some prioritising Sanskrit over modern Indian languages.
Supreme Court observations on the Three-Language Formula
Linguistic Secularism:
The Supreme Court, in the U.P. Hindi Sahittya Sammelan vs State of U.P. (2014), emphasised “linguistic secularism”— ensuring the rights and aspirations of all language speakers.
It observed that India’s linguistic policies should be “accommodative” rather than rigid.
Medium of Instruction and Parental Choice: In State of Karnataka vs Associated Management of Primary & Secondary Schools (2014), the Supreme Court ruled that:
Parents and students have the right to choose the medium of instruction.
The state cannot impose a particular language in primary education.
Freedom of Speech and Expression (Article 19) extends to the right of a child to choose a language.
The judgment referred to Pierce v. Society of Sisters of Holy Names (1924, U.S.), which held that “a child is not a mere creature of the state” and parents play a crucial role in deciding their child's education.
Hindi as an Official Language, not National Language: The Supreme Court has clarified that Hindi is not India's national language.
The Munshi-Ayyangar Formula in the Constituent Assembly led to Article 343, making Hindi the official language, but not the national language.
Furthermore, Article 29(1) guarantees all linguistic communities the fundamental right to conserve their language, script, and culture—for both majority and minority groups.
Law Commission Report (216th Report, 2008): It has observed that language imposition could be counterproductive and harm national unity.
Allahabad High Court: In Sunil K.R. Sahastrabudhey vs IIT Kanpur, it was observed that although Article 351 places a “duty” on the government to promote Hindi, there is no right to compel an institution to provide education in Hindi.
Way Forward
Constructive dialogue: Centre and States must engage in discussions to address concerns and find common ground.
Flexible implementation: Allow States to choose languages based on local preferences and needs.
Resource allocation: Provide adequate funding and infrastructure for language teachers and materials.
Focus on multilingualism: Promote learning of Indian languages without undermining regional identities.
Decentralised approach: Respect State autonomy in education while aligning with national goals.
Context: The recent incident of violence against an interfaith couple in Madhya Pradesh, marrying under the Special Marriage Act 1954, has raised concerns about its provisions and efficacy.
Relevance of the topic:
Prelims: Key facts about Special Marriage Act 1954.
Mains: Special Marriage Act 1954: Provisions and Concerns.
About Special Marriage Act, 1954:
The Special Marriage Act (SMA), 1954 was enacted to provide a secular legal framework for marriages between individuals belonging to different religions, castes, or communities.
SMA enables marriage between inter-faith or inter-caste couples without them giving up their religious identity or resorting to conversion.
Objective of the Act:
To decolonise the pre-independence marriage laws, which were largely based on religious personal laws.
To empower individuals to marry outside their religion without converting to another faith.
To offer a legal mechanism for interfaith marriages (particularly significant in the post-Partition period when religious divisions were sharp).
Eligibility criteria for Marriage:
The Act prescribes specific conditions that both individuals must fulfill to legally solemnise their marriage:
Age requirement and eligibility:
The male partner must be at least 21 years old.
The female partner must be at least 18 years old.
People of any faith can marry across India.
Marital status:
Neither party should have a living spouse at the time of marriage, ensuring that monogamy is upheld.
Mental capacity:
Both individuals must be of sound mind and capable of giving valid consent to the marriage.
Individuals with severe mental illnesses or disabilities affecting their ability to consent are disqualified.
Prohibited relationships: The Act prohibits marriage between close relatives as per customary restrictions, unless allowed by the personal laws of the individuals involved.
Mandatory Public Notice Requirement:
One of the most controversial provisions of the Act is the requirement for public notice before the marriage can be registered.
This provision was intended to allow for transparency and objections, ensuring that no fraudulent or unlawful marriages take place. However, it has led to serious privacy concerns and the misuse of personal information, particularly in cases of interfaith marriages.
Provision for raising objections to Marriage:
Under Section 7 of the Act, any person can raise an objection to the marriage within the 30-day notice period.
Valid grounds for objection include:
Either party is below the minimum legal age.
One of the partners is already married.
The marriage falls within prohibited relationships as per their customs.
One or both parties are incapable of giving valid consent due to mental incapacity.
If an objection is raised:
The Marriage Officer is required to investigate the claims and decide whether the marriage can proceed.
If the objection is found valid, the couple cannot get married under the Act.
While this provision was introduced as a safeguard against unlawful marriages, it has been frequently misused by families, religious groups, and vigilantes to disrupt interfaith marriages.
Registration and legal recognition of Marriage:
If no valid objections are raised within the notice period, the couple can proceed with the marriage.
The marriage is solemnised in the presence of the Marriage Officer and three witnesses.
After the ceremony, a marriage certificate is issued, which provides legal recognition to the marriage under Indian law.
Unlike religious marriages, no religious rituals or conversions are required under this Act.
Issues with the Special Marriage Act, 1954:
1. Violation of Privacy:
The public notice requirement reveals the personal details of the couple to family members, society, and vigilante groups, compromising their right to privacy.
In Justice K.S. Puttaswamy vs Union of India (2017) case:
The Supreme Court has ruled that privacy is an inalienable fundamental right.
It recognised that individuals have the right to make autonomous decisions about their personal lives, including marriage.
The public display of marriage notices violates this right, making couples vulnerable to social backlash.
2. Risk of harassment and physical violence:
The recent incident at Bhopal (2024) highlights the dangers posed by this provision:
The couple’s personal information was allegedly leaked, making them targets of violence.
Many interfaith couples face threats, family pressure, and even forced separation due to public disclosure.
The state’s failure to provide security to interfaith couples exacerbates the issue.
3. Weaponisation of Section 7 (Objection Clause):
Objections to marriage are frequently misused by:
Family members who disapprove of interfaith marriages.
Religious extremists and vigilantes who claim to be protecting religious purity.
Individuals with personal grudges or vested interests.
There are no safeguards to prevent false, malicious, or communal objections, leading to unnecessary delays and harassment.
4. Gender bias and patriarchal control:
Women, especially from the Hindu community, are often portrayed as incapable of making independent decisions.
The assumption that Muslim men manipulate Hindu women reinforces patriarchal and communal biases.
Women often face pressure from families, society, and law enforcement to withdraw from interfaith marriages.
5. Legal and social consequences of Public Notice Requirement:
Threats from Family and Society: Many couples go into hiding or run away to escape backlash from their families and communities.
Forced marriages and honor killings: There have been cases where women are forcibly married off or subjected to honor crimes to prevent interfaith unions.
State inaction: Law enforcement agencies often fail to protect couples from threats and violence, allowing moral policing by the vigilante groups to thrive.
Suggested reforms in this Context:
Abolishing the Public Notice Requirement: In 2021, the Delhi High Court has ruled that public notice is not mandatory, but this needs to be uniformly implemented across India. Privacy should be protected, and only relevant legal authorities should have access to marriage records.
Strengthening protection for couples: Acting against vigilante groups and not allowing them to interfere in lawful marriages.
Regulating the Objection Mechanism: Only valid legal objections (age, mental capacity, existing marriage) should be allowed. Authorities must reject objections based on religion, personal beliefs, or social biases as it goes against the spirit of the Act.
Raising awareness and legal literacy: Public awareness campaigns should challenge misconceptions about interfaith marriages. Couples should be informed about their rights and legal protections under the Special Marriage Act.
Strict action against moral policing: Vigilante groups should be criminally prosecuted for interfering in private matters and authorities leaking personal data should also face legal consequences.
The Special Marriage Act, 1954, was meant to protect interfaith and inter-caste couples, but certain provisions have turned it into a tool of harassment. Unless these issues are addressed, the fundamental rights of individuals to choose their partners will remain under threat.
Context: The share of Gender Budget allocation in the total Union Budget has increased to 8.86% in FY 2025-26 from 6.8% in FY 2024-25. This is the highest allocation in two decades, with ₹4.49 lakh crore spread across 49 Union Ministries and departments. It reflects a strong commitment to create a more supportive and empowering environment for women.
Relevance of the topic:
Prelims: Key trends in Gender Budget.
Mains: Gender budgeting and associated challenges in India.
Key Highlights of Gender Budgeting 2025-26:
1. Increased share of Gender Budget allocation:
Maximum allocation in Part B:
72.75% of the gender budget has been allocated to Part B type of gender budget, followed by Part A and Part C, i.e., 23.5% and 3.75% respectively.
Ministry-wise allocation:
10 Ministries received over 30% of their allocation in the Gender Budget for FY 2025-26.
The Ministry of Women & Child Development received the highest 81.79% allocation, followed by the Department of Rural Development (65.76%), the Department of Food and Public Distribution, and the Department of Health and Family Welfare.
Allocation to new Ministries: Twelve new Ministries/Departments have reported allocations in the GBS 2025-26.
They include: Department of Animal Husbandry & Dairying, Department of Biotechnology, Department of Food & Public Distribution, Department of Financial Services, Department of Fisheries, Department of Land Resources, Department of Pharmaceuticals, Department of Water Resources, RD & GR, Ministry of Food Processing Industries, Ministry of Panchayati Raj, Ministry of Ports, Shipping & Waterways, and Ministry of Railways.
This expansion of gender budgeting into non-conventional sectors reflects the government approach to gender mainstreaming.
2. Inclusion of women as a priority group in the National Development Framework:
The budget sets a holistic vision for Viksit Bharat with ‘zero poverty, universal good quality school education, 100% skilled labour with meaningful employment, 70% women in economic activities, and India as the food basket of the world.
As per the latest Periodic Labour Force Survey, India’s female labour force participation rate (FLFPR) has risen to 42% in 2023-24 from 33% in 2021-22. (the global average is 47% as reported by the International Labour Organisation).
However, a 37% point gap remains when compared to men’s labour force participation of 79%.
Achieving the ambitious target of 70% women’s participation in economic activities by 2047, needs increased investment in skilling, employment, entrepreneurship, access to resources, and social security entitlements.
For this purpose, key initiatives like Skill India Programme, Deendayal Antyodaya Yojana-National Rural Livelihoods Mission, MGNREGS, PM Employment Generation Programme, PM Vishwakarma, Krishonnati Yojana, have received increased allocations. Approximately 52% of ₹1.24 lakh crore allocations of these funds are directed toward women and girls.
3. Advancing women’s economic participation:
Budget 2025-26 provides a robust foundation for advancing women’s economic participation. New schemes like Prime Minister Dhan-Dhaanya Krishi Yojana, first-time entrepreneurs’ scheme, sustainable livelihood for urban workers initiative etc. will play a critical role in fostering women’s workforce participation & creation of women entrepreneurs.
As per the government’s Udyam portal, 20.5% of the micro, small and medium enterprises (MSMEs) are women-owned employing about 27 million people.
Reports suggest that establishing 30 million additional women-owned businesses could generate 150-170 million jobs, accounting for over 25% of the job creation needed for India’s working-age population by 2030.
The budget advocates:
Unlocking finance for women-owned enterprises through collateral-free loans, alternative credit scoring models, and targeted financial literacy programmes.
Simplifying documentation requirements, such as delinking Kisan Credit Cards from land ownership, would help women farmers avail loans and credit facilities.
Tracking access and usage of such schemes through gender-disaggregated data to further enhance their effectiveness.
4. Focus on gig workers:
The Budget proposes to formalise gig workers by issuing identity cards and registering them on the e-Shram portal.
This is a significant step as 90% of India’s working women are engaged in the informal sector.
It will empower millions of women by providing them formal identity, access to social security entitlements, and financial inclusion benefits.
5.Gender inclusivity in the technology sector:
The budget aims for establishment of a Centre of Excellence on Artificial Intelligence (AI) for the education sector, and has allocated a dedicated ₹600 crore gender budget under the India AI Mission.
This demonstrates the government’s intent to harness AI for social good, and ensure equitable outcomes in the workforce, and promote gender inclusivity in the technology sector.
About Gender Budgeting
Gender budgeting is a strategy that ensures public financial policies, programs and expenditures to promote gender equality.
Components of Gender budgeting- There are three components of the gender budgeting
Part A (100% for women): These are gender-specific expenditures allocated for the schemes directly benefiting women. (E.g., Beti Bachao Beti Padhao, SHE-Box etc.)
Part B (30% to 99% for women): It consists of Pro-women general expenditure that benefits both men and women but special focus on improvement of women’s condition (E.g., MGNREGA ensures wage equality for women).
Part C (less than 30% for women): These are gender-neutral budgeting that impacts all the citizens but may need gender sensitive planning to ensure equal benefits. (E.g., Har Ghar Nal project benefitting women by reducing their time to fetch water).
Benefits of gender budgeting:
Promotes gender equality: It ensures that government resources are allocated to reduce gender disparity. (Beti Bachao Beti Padhao scheme enhanced enrollment of girls in school)
Enhancing economic empowerment of women: The adequate gender budgeting provides skill development enhancing employment and workforce participation in the workforce. (Mudra yojana and Stand-Up India to promote entrepreneurship among women)
Improves health and social welfare: Budgeting in schemes like Janani Suraksha Yojana has reduced the maternal mortality by promoting institutional deliveries. (Institutional deliveries has been increased to 78%: NFHS-5)
Ensuring women safety and security: Allocation of funds for safety and security of women by providing necessary infrastructure and self-defence training to women. (Nirbhaya fund is used for women’s safety projects like emergency helplines and surveillance in public transport.)
Issues in gender budgeting:
Inadequate allocation: Women constitute about half of the nation’s population but gender budgeting is only 8.86% of the budget.
Skewed allocation: Over 95% of the gender budgeting is done for the 5 ministries only, this limits the scope of implementation of the gender budgeting.
Implementation gap: Many gender-responsive schemes suffer from poor execution due to bureaucratic delay and lack of coordination. (only 37% of Nirbhaya Fund has been utilised since its inception)
Gender neutral schemes overlook women: Needs of women are often overlooked leading to further deprivation of the women. (only 27% of supervisory position in MGNREGA are held by women)
Insufficient monitoring and accountability: There is a lack of clear mechanism that leads to inefficient spending. (Pradhan Mantri Matru Vandana Yojana’s benefits have reached less than 50% of eligible women as per NITI Aayog : 2023).
By ensuring gender-responsive budgeting, strengthened social protection, and by fostering a labour market which includes both women and men, India can pave the way for women to become key drivers of national growth, ultimately achieving the ambitious target of 70% women in economic activities by 2047.
Context: The UnionBudget 2025-26 has announced an Urban Challenge Fund of Rs 1 lakh crore to implement the proposals for ‘Cities as Growth Hubs’, ‘Creative Redevelopment of Cities’ and ‘Water and Sanitation’ and Inclusive development.
Relevance of the topic:
Prelims: Scheme based questions.
Mains: Detailed question on challenges faced by urban poor and vulnerable sections; initiatives for tackling challenges.
Challenges faced in Urban Regions
Unplanned urbanisation: Unplanned urbanisation is one of the major challenges faced, this leads to the slum proliferation in the urban regions. (17.5% of urban population in India resides in the slum as of 2022).
Infrastructure and basic facility access: The urban population faces the challenges in the access to basic facilities like drinking water and sanitation. (71% of drinking water in India is contaminated and only 54% have access to operational sanitation facilities.)
Quality of life: Cities like New Delhi have been declared the most polluted city globally with the poor Air Quality Index.
Social inequality and marginalisation: About 13.7% of India's urban population lives below the national poverty line.
Lack of social security: Urban areas are facing in-formalization of the labour force leading to the lack of social security like pension and medical benefits enhancing the vulnerability.
Lack of Livelihood security: The unorganised labour in India is rising especially in the construction sector which have lack of job security and uniform income.
Initiatives in Budget 2025-26
Urban Challenge fund:
The government has announced ₹1 lakh crore urban challenge fund to revitalise the cities as growth hubs and creative redevelopment of the cities.
This fund will finance up to 25% of the cost of viable urban infrastructure projects, with a stipulation that at least 50% of the cost is funded from bonds, bank loans, and private-public partnerships (PPPs).
An allocation of Rs 10,000 crore is proposed for 2025-26. Cities are expected to raise Rs 40,000 crore through floating municipal bonds, entering into PPPs, and taking loans to complement the government’s funding.
National Geospatial Mission:
The Mission will be started to develop foundational geospatial infrastructure and data.
Using PM Gati Shakti, this Mission will facilitate modernisation of land records, urban planning, and design of infrastructure projects.
Promoting benefits for GIG workers:
The government acknowledged the Gig workers on online platforms as the new-age economy.
The government has announced to arrange for their identity cards and registration on the e-Shram portal.
They will be provided healthcare under the PM Jan Arogya Yojana. This measure is likely to assist nearly 1 crore gig-workers.
Support for vendors: The budget announced the revamping of the PM SVANidhi scheme to enhance loans from banks, UPI linked credit cards with a Rs. 30,000 limit, and capacity building support.
PM SVANidhi was launched in 2020 during the Covid-19 pandemic.
Under the scheme, street vendors can avail themselves of loans of Rs 10,000, Rs 20,000, and Rs 50,000.
Housing: SWAMIH Fund 2.0 will be established as a blended finance facility with contribution from the Government, banks and private investors. This fund of Rs. 15,000 crore will aim for expeditious completion of another 1 lakh units.
Benefits of the proposed initiatives
Reducing slums: The SWAMIH 2.0 fund for affordable housing will lead to the reduction in the count of slum dwellers in urban areas and promote the quality of life in urban areas.
Promoting social security: Proposed initiatives like cards for GiG workers and extension to healthcare under PM Jan Arogya Yojana will enhance social security and will promote Universal Healthcare for the vulnerable section.
Better planning: National Geospatial Mission will promote prompt urban planning, reducing unplanned and uncontrolled urbanisation.
Fiscal challenge in Urban Development:
Shortfall of funds with Urban Local Bodies:
Transfers to urban India primarily occur through three channels — direct transfers to Urban Local Bodies (ULBs); Centrally Sponsored Schemes (CSS); and Central Sector Schemes. There has been a reduction in direct transfers to ULBs.
With the abolition of octroi (a key revenue source for cities) the expectation was that the lost revenue would be compensated through central devolution. However, with the introduction of GST, the source revenue of ULBs fell by over 21%.
This shortfall will force cities to raise their own revenues, and thus burden citizens with additional taxes.
Budget allocations for Central Sector Schemes (CSS) schemes fall short in the Union Budget 2025. E.g., PMAY (CSS component) saw a 30% reduction in allocation compared to last year. This will place additional financial pressure over the states and the cities.
CSS involves cost-sharing between the Union, States, and local governments.
Schemes under CSS: PMAY, Swachh Bharat Mission (SBM), Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT), and Smart Cities Mission.
Issue with Tied funds through CSS:
CSS schemes/CSS funds are directly controlled by the Union government and involve conditional transfers, and often have strong political overtones.
This often diverts the resources of the state government towards specific projects, thus compromising long-term inclusivity of urban development. E.g., skewed CSS budgetary allocations to Mass Rapid Transit Systems and metro projects.
Urban development is a key pillar of India’s growth strategy as cities contribute nearly 67% to the GDP. The proposed initiatives along with strong urban infrastructure under AMRUT 2.0 scheme can help India to achieve the SDG 11 i.e., sustainable cities. The need of the hour is rational fiscal devolution and flexible funding mechanisms to ensure sustainable development.
Context: For the first time, the Anthropological Survey of India (AnSI) and Tribal Research Institutes (TRI) conducted a comprehensive classification of 268 denotified, semi-nomadic, and nomadic tribes across India after three years of research and study. These tribes were previously thought to have never been classified systematically.
Relevance of the topic:
Prelims: Key facts about De-notified Tribes.
Mains: Need for categorisation of De-notified Tribes.
Key Findings
179 communities were recommended for inclusion in the Scheduled Castes (SC), Scheduled Tribes (ST), or Other Backward Classes (OBC) lists.
85 communities are being recommended for classification for the first time ever.
63 communities were found to be “not traceable,” possibly due to:
Assimilation into larger communities.
Migration to different states.
Changes in community names.
Why was the Study needed?
Post-Independence, the Criminal Tribes Act of 1924 was repealed in August 1949, leading to the denotification of "criminal" tribes.
Despite this, efforts to classify these communities have remained incomplete.
This has led to their exclusion from welfare schemes for the SCs and STs.
Who are de-notified tribes?
The term 'De-notified Tribes' stands for all those communities which were once notified under the Criminal Tribes Acts, enforced by the British government between 1871 and 1971. These Acts were repealed by the independent Indian Government in 1952, and these communities were "Denotified". A few of these communities which were listed as de-notified were also nomadic.
A National Commission for De-notified, Nomadic and Semi-Nomadic Tribes (NCDNT) was constituted in 2006. It was headed by Balkrishna Sidram Renke and submitted its report in June 2008. The Renke commission estimated their population at around 10.74 crore based on Census 2001.
Not all of these tribes are categorised under SC, ST and OBC. The standing committee report in Parliament has cited that 269 DNT communities are not covered under any reserved categories and thus face exclusion from benefits.
Previous attempts at classification by various commissions: Several commissions tried to classify denotified, semi-nomadic, and nomadic tribes:
First Backward Classes Commission (Kaka Kalelkar, 1955)
Lokur Committee (1965)
Mandal Commission (1980)
Renke Commission (2008)
Idate Commission (2017)
However, none succeeded in identifying all communities comprehensively.
Idate Commission's observations:
In its 2017 report, the Idate Commission listed over 1,200 denotified, semi-nomadic, and nomadic tribes across India. It also highlighted 267 communities that were never classified.
Commission further urged for immediate completion of the classification process to ensure welfare benefits for these communities.
Government response:
A Special Committee was constituted by the Prime Minister’s Office in February 2019 chaired by the Vice Chairperson of NITI Aayog, the committee included:
Bhiku Ramji Idate (Idate Commission).
Dr. J.K. Bajaj (Centre for Policy Studies).
Director-General of AnSI.
The AnSI and TRIs were tasked with carrying out the classification study, the report of which has been submitted recently.
Need for Categorisation
Correct classification of communities: Activists have highlighted that having a lack of a unified and complete list hampers efforts to organise these communities. The present classifications contain inclusion and exclusion errors and sometimes leave out hundreds of communities altogether.
Access to welfare schemes: Delays in categorisation prevent these communities from accessing the welfare schemes meant for SCs, STs, and OBCs. The Parliamentary Standing Committee on Social Justice and Empowerment (2022) flagged this issue, emphasising the urgency of the classification process.
Correcting historical errors: Misclassification of tribes as castes and vice versa during colonial censuses created discrepancies leading to protests.
Anthropological perspective: Using an anthropological lens, present classifications differ from political or census-based approaches. This ensures accurate representation of social and cultural identities which can be used to frame better and relevant schemes and plan development parameters.
Once the classification is finalised, state governments can initiate processes for inclusion and extend welfare benefits to these communities.
Challenges and concerns
Political implications: Activists in states like Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Madhya Pradesh, and Gujarat are debating the grounds and criteria for classification framework as it has implications for reservation policies.
Debate within the welfare board: Two main approaches have emerged within the Development and Welfare board for denotified communities:
Approach 1: Complete the classification into SC, ST, or OBC to enable these communities to access existing welfare schemes and reservations.
Approach 2: It advocates for a separate schedule in the Constitution specifically for denotified tribes, ensuring targeted benefits.
Way Forward
The Special Committee under the Vice Chairperson of NITI Aayog is scrutinising the AnSI and TRI report, based on it, the final report will be prepared for the Government.
Based on the report, the Government will decide on:
Approving the recommendations for inclusion in SC, ST, or OBC lists.
If required, initiating steps for the creation of a separate Constitutional schedule.
Based on the Government’s decision, appropriate measures will be taken to ensure:
