Context: Eurasian otter, once an integral part of Kashmir's aquatic ecosystem, was thought to be extinct in the Valley for three decades. However, a rare sighting of the semi-aquatic mammal has now been reported in south Kashmir.
Relevance of the Topic:Prelims: Location and species-based questions.
Major Highlights:
Eurasian Otters have reemerged in the Gurez Valley i.e., 123 km north of Srinagar.
It represents the first live documentation of species for the last 25 years.
About Eurasian Otters
Eurasian otter is a semi-aquatic mammal native to Eurasia.
They have dense and water repellent furs for insulation in cold water.
Adaptations: Webbed feet for swimming, streamlined body and muscular tail for propulsion.
Habitat:
Europe, North America, and some parts of Asia.
In India, confirmed in Himalayas, Western Ghats, Odisha.
Prefers clean freshwater ecosystems.
Carnivorous: Primarily eats fish, amphibians, crustaceans and small mammals.
Conservation Status and Threats
IUCN status: Near Threatened
Population decline due to:
Habitat loss (urbanisation, river pollution)
Poaching (fur trade, conflicts with fishermen)
Pesticide contamination affecting fish populations
Context: The Axiom-4 Mission to the International Space Station (ISS) has been postponed to June 22, 2025, due to critical safety concerns. Shubhanshu Shukla, an Indian Air Force (IAF) officer and ISRO astronaut, has been named the pilot for the Mission.
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Axiom-4 Mission; International Space Station.
What is the Axiom Mission 4?
Axiom Mission 4 (or Ax-4) is a private spaceflight to the International Space Station.
The flight is expected to launch in April 2025 and last about 14 days.
It will be operated by Axiom Space and use a SpaceX Crew Dragon spacecraft.
It will use a Falcon 9 rocket to place the Crew Dragon spacecraft into low-Earth orbit (LEO).
Launched from: NASA’s Kennedy Space Center in Florida, the US.
Crew: The Indian astronaut will be joined by three other astronauts.
The private astronauts would conduct a mission consisting of science, outreach, and commercial activities.
Why has the Axiom Mission 4 been delayed?
The mission was originally scheduled for launch on 29 May from NASA's Kennedy Space Centre in Florida, but the mission was postponed.
A liquid oxygen (LOX) leak was detected during booster inspection. LOX is a vital component of rocket fuel, it provides the oxygen necessary for the fuel to combust in space, where there is no atmospheric oxygen.
NASA also detected leaks in the ageing Russian module of the International Space Station.
The SpaceX team has cleared the leak and carried out necessary validation tests before clearing for the launch.
Space experiments by ISRO in Axiom-4 Mission:
During the 14-day stay at the ISS, astronaut Shubhanshu Shukla (ISRO) will conduct seven microgravity research experiments proposed by national R&D laboratories and academic institutions.
The experiments include- impact of microgravity radiation on Edible Micro-algae, sprouting salad seeds in space and the survival, revival, reproduction and transcriptome of Tardigrades in space etc.
Axiom previous Space's missions
Axiom Mission 1: The world’s first commercially crewed private spaceflight to the International Space Station (ISS). Launched in April 2022 for a 17-day stay.
Axiom Mission 2: Ax-2 was launched in May 2023, spent 8 days in orbit.
Axiom Mission 3: Ax-3 in January 2024, remaining docked for 18 days.
Key Facts
Shubhanshu Shukla, a distinguished pilot in the IAF, is the first Indian astronaut to visit the ISS on a private mission.
He has been picked as one of the four astronauts for the ISRO’s historic Gaganyaan mission— the nation’s inaugural human space flight mission.
About International Space Station (ISS)
ISS is a modular space station (habitable artificial satellite) and the single largest man-made structure in low Earth orbit (~408 kilometres above Earth's surface).
Launched in: 1998
It is a multinational collaborative project involving five participating space agencies:
NASA (United States)
Roscosmos (Russia)
JAXA (Japan)
ESA (Europe)
CSA (Canada)
It circles the Earth in roughly 92 minutes and completes 15.5 orbits per day, hosting a maximum of seven astronauts.
It serves as a microgravity and space environment research laboratory in which scientific research is conducted in astrobiology, astronomy, meteorology, physics, and other fields.
NASA intends to keep operating the ISS until the end of 2030, after which the ISS would crash into Point Nemo over the South Pacific Oceanic Uninhabited Area (SPOUA).
Context: Israel launched a large-scale military operation named “Operation Rising Lion” against Iran. The operation involved a series of airstrikes, hitting more than 100 targets across Iran.
Relevance of the topic:
Prelims: Key facts about Operation Rising Lion, key locations.
Mains: Geopolitical Implications of Operation Rising Lion.
Operation Rising Lion
Israel launched the large-scale military operation which involved a series of airstrikes, hitting more than 100 targets across Iran.
Key targets were: Iranian nuclear facilities, military infrastructure, missile sites, and top military and nuclear personnel.
Attacked Natanz Nuclear Facility- the heart of Iran’s uranium enrichment programme, located in the Central province of Isfahan.
Israel's strikes killed top military personnel like:
Maj Gen Mohammad Bagheri, chief of staff of the armed forces
Gen Hossein Salami, chief of the Islamic Revolutionary Guards Corps (IRGC), arguably the most powerful institution in the country.
Israel also targeted a number of military sites across Iran. These include:
a nuclear research centre and two military bases in Tabriz in northern Iran
missile development and production facilities in Bid Kaneh, on the southern edge of Tehran
a missile base in Kermanshah in central Iran; and multiple military bases in and around Tehran.
This is by far Israel's most extensive attack on a sovereign state since the 1967 war and is likely to have far-reaching consequences for the region and the world.
Why did Israel strike now?
Theimmediate trigger was a resolution passed by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) declaring Iran as non-compliant with its nuclear obligations - the first such resolution in two decades.
The resolution came after revelations that Iran was secretly conducting nuclear activities at three undisclosed sites. Israel has long viewed a nuclear Iran as an existential threat.
Talks between Iran and the US in Oman to revive the 2015 nuclear deal had shown little progress.
Wider Geopolitical Implications:
The strike may lead to a broader regional war. Iran's response through drone attacks and the threat of further retaliation increases the chances of open conflict.
The attack has likely derailed the US-Iran talks in Oman to revive the 2015 nuclear deal.
The shared threat from Iran has brought Arab states closer to Israel. The Abraham Accords may further deepen as Gulf countries and Israel enhance their security cooperation.
Context: A new study by researchers at the Max Planck Institute for Sustainable Materials, Germany, revealed a sustainable method to extract Nickel from low-grade ores using hydrogen plasma instead of carbon.
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Hydrogen Plasma Based Nickel Extraction
About Nickel
Nickel is a critical metal used in several clean energy technologies, especially Electric Vehicles (EVs), as it is a major component of lithium-ion batteries used in EVs.
Traditional nickel extraction is Carbon intensive, producing 1 tonne of nickel and emitting over 20 tonnes of CO₂.
While EVs are seen as a cleaner alternative to traditional fossil fuel-powered vehicles, there are hidden environmental costs associated with their production, especially in the manufacturing of lithium-ion batteries.
The new study has introduced a sustainable, one-step method to extract nickel using hydrogen plasma instead of carbon.
Hydrogen Plasma Method
Traditional Nickel Extraction is multi-step, energy-intensive and relies on carbon. Nickel oxide is heated with carbon, which removes the oxygen and produces pure nickel, along with carbon dioxide emissions.
Hydrogen Plasma Method: The method replaces carbon with hydrogen plasma as the reducing agent and uses electricity as the energy source, specifically through an electric arc furnace. It is conducted in a single electric arc furnace, unlike the current multi-step process (calcination → smelting → reduction → refining).
Hydrogen gas, when subjected to high-energy electrons in an electric arc, splits into high-energy ions, entering a plasma state. Plasma is the extremely hot and reactive fourth state of matter. It is distinct from solids, liquids, and gases.
Hydrogen plasma acts as a reducing agent and rapidly reduces the metal oxides. From a thermodynamic perspective, the process is not only cleaner but significantly faster.
The end product of hydrogen reacting with oxygen is water, not carbon dioxide. Therefore, the entire process is carbon-free, using only electricity, hydrogen, and yielding water as a byproduct.
The findings present a significant advancement in making nickel production cleaner and more energy-efficient.
Key Benefits of Hydrogen Plasma Method:
84% reduction in direct carbon dioxide emissions compared to conventional processes.
Up to 18% more energy-efficient and faster, reducing both energy consumption and time.
The only byproduct of the process is water (H₂O) instead of CO2.
The method produces high-purity ferronickel- an alloy with which stainless steel can be made, eliminating the need for extensive refining steps and making the overall process more sustainable.
The process is particularly effective on nickel laterite ores, which are abundant but underutilised due to traditional methods requiring high-grade ores. This has special significance for India, which has substantial laterite deposits in Odisha’s Sukinda region.
However, scaling the method for industrial use would require significant initial investments, access to renewable energy, and further research on kinetics and plasma stability.
Context: The Delhi government has announced plans to develop India’s first integrated E-Waste Eco Park at Holambi Kalan in north-west Delhi. A global tender (RFQ-cum-RFP) would soon be floated to attract leading green technology partners.
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about integrated E-Waste Eco Park; e-waste.
India’s first integrated E-Waste Eco Park
Location: Holambi Kalan in north-west Delhi.
Spread across 11.4 acres, the state-of-the-art facility will be built under a Public-Private Partnership (PPP) model.
Expected to process up to 51,000 metric tonnes of e-waste annually.
The park will be developed by the Delhi State Industrial and Infrastructure Development Corporation (DSIIDC) under the Design, Build, Finance, Operate and Transfer model.
The project is estimated to cost Rs 150 crore expenditure and Rs 325 crore in operational costs, and is expected to generate over Rs 350 crore in revenue. Construction of the park is expected to be completed within 18 months.
It aims to position Delhi as a national leader in e-waste management, green jobs and resource recovery.
Apart from recycling e-waste, the park will include zones for dismantling, refurbishing, component testing, plastic recovery, and a second-hand electronics market.
It will also host training centres to upskill informal sector workers engaged in unsafe e-waste handling.
What is E-Waste?
As per the E-Waste (Management) Rules, 2022,e-waste is defined as: electrical and electronic equipment, including solar photovoltaic modules or panels or cells, whole or in part, discarded or rejected from manufacturing, refurbishment and repair processes.
Examples: Large household appliances like Refrigerators, air conditioners, washing machines ; Consumer electronics like Televisions, computers, laptops, smartphones etc.
E-waste can contain materialof economic benefit such as plastics, iron, glass, aluminum, copper, silver, gold, platinum, palladium, lithium, indium etc. and rare earth elements.
E-Waste contains hazardous substances such as Lead, Cadmium, Mercury, Hexavalent Chromium, Polychlorinated Bi-phenyls (PCBs), Brominated Flame Retardants (BFR), etc.
Management of E-Waste in India is regulated under E-Waste (Management) Rules, 2022 under the Environment Protection Act, 1986.
India's E-Waste Emergency:
India stands as the third-largest producer of e-waste in the world after China and the US. In FY24, the country generated 1.7 million tonnes of e-waste. Delhi contributes nearly 9.5% of that staggering total.
Unfortunately, only 17% of global e-waste is recycled in a scientifically sound manner. Presently, only 43% of the country's e-waste is recycled. Further, at least 80% of the sector comprises informal scrap dealers.
Toxins from crude e-waste handling contaminate air, soil, and water and pose serious health risks, especially to vulnerable groups like children.
Significance:
By encouraging the safe and scientific recovery of essential materials, it will reduce pollution and conserve resources.
Bring order to the informal sector, create thousands of green jobs and empower local dismantlers, recyclers, and refurbishers.
Delhi's E-Waste Eco Park is the first of four such facilities planned across the country and a step towards sustainable development and a circular economy.
According to Fortune Business Insights, the global military drone market was valued at $14.14 billion in 2023 and is projected to reach $47.16 billion by 2032, reflecting the rapid militarisation of drone technology.
Evolution of Drone Warfare
While unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) date back to World War II, their strategic utility surged post-1991 Gulf War.
In a watershed moment in the 2020 Nagorno-Karabakh conflict, Azerbaijan’s drones overwhelmed Armenian defences. Since then, drones have redefined warfare: from Houthi strikes on Saudi oil sites and Hamas’s use in Gaza.
Recently, in Ukraine's bold Operation Spider’s Web in 2025, over 100 First-person view (FPV) drones hit deep into Russia, damaging 40+ aircraft and causing $7 billion in losses. In retaliation, Russia launched the world’s biggest drone attack till date, with almost 500 drones hitting Ukraine overnight.
This evolution has led to the rise of swarm drones, which work together in large numbers to overwhelm enemy defences.
Swarm Drones
Swarm drones are autonomous or semi-autonomous UAVs that operate in coordinated groups, much like swarms of birds or fish. They communicate via wireless networks and adjust in real time to achieve shared objectives.
Swarms are more resilient than traditional drones due to in-built redundancy, i.e., even if one drone is intercepted, others can continue on the mission.
Drone swarms are thus used to saturate air defences, gather intelligence, and attack high-value targets.
Countries are developing advanced AI-driven swarm drones that can make real-time decisions, adapt tactics mid-mission, and coordinate complex manoeuvres- set to play a key role in future combined arms warfare alongside infantry, armour, and cyber units.
What Makes Drone Swarms a Strategic Threat?
Low Cost, High Impact: A $500-$1,000 drone can damage a $200 million aircraft.
Difficult to intercept due to their small size, and ability to overwhelm defences- cluttering radars, exhausting ammunition, and slipping through even robust air defence systems.
High Agility and Mobility: Swarm drone attacks can be launched anytime, anywhere even from a truck near an airbase, as seen in Op Spider’s Web. In a country like India, with porous borders and diverse populations, this threat is both real and pressing.
Traditional military bases, aircrafts, and infrastructure, previously considered secure, are now vulnerable to drone attacks and demand new defence strategies.
Countering Drone Threats
Detection of Drones: Defence against drones begins with detection. Modern systems employ a combination of: AESA radars; Electro-optical and infrared sensors; Acoustic detectors; AI-powered fusion systems
Neutralisation of Drones: Once detected, drones can be neutralised by kinetic means such as:
Missiles and anti-aircraft guns, though these are expensive and less effective against swarms.
Automated gun systems like C-RAM and Phalanx, which autonomously track and fire at targets, offer a more practical solution.
Some cost-effective alternatives include:
Directed Energy Weapons (DEWs): Lasers and microwave pulses that disable drones by damaging sensors or frying electronics.
Electronic Warfare (EW): Jamming GPS signals or communication links.
Spoofing: Misleading drones about their location or issuing false commands.
Cyber Attacks: Taking control of drones and crashing them by exploiting software vulnerabilities.
Interceptor drones & nets: For close-range neutralisation, protecting critical assets.
The ideal defence is a layered system, integrating multiple modes of interception for redundancy and cost-efficiency purposes. Examples include Israel’s Iron Dome and the US’s Directed Energy M-SHORAD.
India’s Counter-Drone Infrastructure:
Since 2020, India has ramped up its counter-drone infrastructure, deploying a layered defence that blends indigenous technology, EW, and air defence systems. Key systems include:
Akashteer Air Defence Control System : Developed by Bharat Electronics Ltd, it integrates with the Indian Air Force’s integrated command network for real-time tracking.
Bhargavastra : Solar Defence and Aerospace Ltd’s weapon system fires 64 micro-rockets in salvos to eliminate drone swarms.
DRDO’s Anti-Drone System: It offers 360-degree radar coverage, with both jamming (soft kill) and laser (hard kill) capabilities. Drones can be detected up to 4 km away, and neutralised within a 1 km radius.
Indrajaal: An AI-powered grid from a Hyderabad startup that combines jammers, spoofers, and intelligence to protect areas up to 4,000 sq km. Already deployed at naval sites in Gujarat and Karnataka.
During the May 2025 swarm attacks, the IAF activated its Integrated Counter-UAS Grid, alongside conventional radars, guns, and missiles, neutralising attempted strikes on 15 military bases and several urban targets.
Drone warfare has ushered in a new age of asymmetric, AI-driven conflict and transformed the dynamics of the battlefield. As CDS General Chauhan aptly stated- We are at a cusp where war may be between humans and machines- and tomorrow, between machines themselves.
Context: The United Nations General Assembly has declared 2026 as the International Year of the Woman Farmer. The resolution celebrates the essential role of women in global agriculture while raising awareness of their challenges, which include property rights and market access.
Relevance of the Topic: Mains: Role of women in Agriculture and challenges faced by them.
Women in Agriculture
Women contribute 60-80% of food production in developing countries and form 39% of the agricultural labour force in South Asia.
In India, approximately 80% of all economically active women are employed in agriculture.
According to Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS) 2023‑24, 64.4 % of India's agricultural workforce are women.
These figures highlight the vital role of women in agriculture. Yet, their contribution remains undervalued due to systemic gender biases in land ownership, access to credit, and representation in policy making.
Key Challenges Faced by Women Farmers
Land Ownership Disparity: In India, the percentage of women who own agricultural land is significantly lower than that of men, despite women constituting a substantial part of the farm workforce. Only 14% of agricultural landholders in India are women; NFHS-5 puts this figure even lower at 8.3%.
Limited access to formal credit: Lack of land ownership makes it difficult to obtain credit and limits their access to financial institutions. While microfinance and self-help groups provide some access, such loans are often insufficient for significant investments. Less than 15% of female farmers access institutional credit (NABARD All India Rural Financial Inclusion Survey 2016-17). Consequently, they rely on informal sources, leading to exploitative debt cycles.
Invisibility in Agricultural Policy: Agricultural policies and schemes are often male-centric. As per MS Swaminathan, “The female face of farming is missing from policy frameworks.”
Double Burden and Time Poverty: Time Use Survey (2019) shows women spend 3-5 hours more daily on unpaid care work, reducing their capacity for skill-building or secondary livelihoods.
Limited access to technology: Regular access to information on agricultural planning and advisory is essential for farmers, but women have more limited access to technology, such as mobile phones.
Mechanisation Gap: Mechanised tools are predominantly designed for male farmers.
Climate Change disproportionately affects women farmers by increasing their domestic responsibilities and elevating their exposure to agricultural risks like crop failure.
These obstacles hinder investments, technology adoption and improvements in livelihoods.
Government Initiatives for Women in Agriculture:
The Government of India supports small women farmers to enhance skills and promote sustainable agriculture.
Mahila Kisan Sashaktikaran Pariyojana (MKSP): Upgrades skills and increases resource access for women.
Sub-Mission on Agricultural Mechanisation: Offers 50–80% subsidies on farm machinery for women.
National Food Security Mission (NFSM): 30% fund allocation for women in some states and UTs.
Self-Help Groups (SHGs) and DAY-NRLM: Promote group farming, micro-financing, and entrepreneurship.
Way Forward: Policy Recommendations
Gender-Sensitive Agricultural Policies: Policy design and implementation should take into account the unique needs of women farmers. E.g., Designing Women-Centric Farm Tools.
Granular data with a gender lens are needed to develop solutions tailored to women’s needs.
Focus on agri-value chains that support women farmers and are managed by women.
Enhance women’s access to financing mechanisms and information while supporting their collective action and networks, such as women’s self-help groups.
Secure Land Ownership through joint or individual land titles.
Women are the backbone of agriculture, yet they remain marginalised in land rights, credit access, and decision-making. As M.S. Swaminathan aptly said, "If agriculture is to be sustainable and equitable, the invisible face of the woman farmer must become visible.
Context: The Union Finance Ministry has capped spending under the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (MGNREGS) at 60% of its annual allocation for the first half of Financial Year (FY) 2025-26.
Until now, the rural jobs guarantee scheme has operated as a demand-driven programme with no such spending limit.
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key features of MGNREGS.
Centre Caps MGNREGS Spending: Rationale of Govt
The Finance Ministry has placed MGNREGS under the Monthly/Quarterly Expenditure Plan (MEP/QEP), a cash management framework used to control government spending. This restricts the spending to 60% till September 2025 (Second quarter of FY). MGNREGS was thus far exempt from MEP/QEP on account of being demand-driven.
MGNREGS has long been plagued with financial troubles, which the government hopes to address by implementing the MEP/QEP mechanisms.
MGNREGS plagued with Financial Troubles:
Data from the Ministry of Rural Development shows that more than 70% of the budget is frequently exhausted by the second quarter of the financial year (FY). While supplementary allocations are often made in the third quarter, even these run out by January. This leaves significant pending dues by the end of the FY.
Over the last five FYs, pending dues have ranged between Rs 15,000 crore to Rs 25,000 crore. On average, 20% of the subsequent FY’s budget is spent in clearing the pending dues.
Implementing an expenditure cap may likely ensure an adequate budget will remain for the latter half of the FY, so that no supplementary allocation will have to be made.
MGNREGS acts as a buffer for rural citizens, especially during times of lean harvests, freak weather events, and rural distress. Work demand under the scheme fluctuates throughout the year due to a number of reasons, primarily agricultural activities and weather patterns.
Criticism of the Spending Cap on MGNREGS:
Constitutional courts have held that financial inability cannot be a reason to disregard statutory or constitutional duties, including in various judgements like- Swaraj Abhiyan v Union of India (2016), Municipal Council, Ratlam vs Shri Vardhichand (1980) etc.
The 60% spending cap makes it virtually impossible to realise an entitlement that is legally guaranteed under the Act, once the ceiling is reached.
Further, there is currently no clarity on what will happen once the ceiling is reached. States could be forced to deny employment even when there is demand, or workers may have to work without timely payment.
In both scenarios, statutory rights of the workers may be violated:
Right to receive employment within 15 days of raising the demand, as provided under MGNREGA.
Right to receive wages within 15 days of closure of work, as mandated under the Act.
About MGNREGS:
MGNREGS provides up to 100 days of guaranteed employment in a financial year to any rural household willing to do unskilled manual work on demand.
Launched in 2006 by the Ministry of Rural Development.
Employment must be provided within 15 days of a work demand, if not, the applicant is entitled to an unemployment allowance.
MGNREGA Act, 2005 mandates that wages must be paid within 15 days of work completion.
At least one-third of beneficiaries have to be women. Implementation is done by Gram Panchayats.
The MGNREGA recognises employment as a statutory right. The Act signified a critical shift from employment being a negative right under Article 21 of the Constitution (which mandated that the state must not interfere with your livelihood unreasonably), to a positive statutory obligation on the government to provide employment on demand.
Context: In the aftermath of the deadly plane crash in Ahmedabad, Gujarat, officials have confirmed the recovery of the Cockpit Voice Recorder (CVR) and Flight Data Recorder (FDR) from the plane crash site.
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Black Box.
What is Black Box?
A black box is a flight recording device used in aircraft to record flight data and cockpit conversations.
It consists of two main components:
Cockpit Voice Recorder (CVR): record radio transmissions and other sounds in the cockpit such as the pilot conversations and engine noises.
Flight Data Recorder (FDR): record crucial flight information like altitude, speed, heading, engine performance, and more.
These devices help investigators reconstruct the sequence of events before a crash and determine its causes.
Modern black boxes are actually orange in colour to make them easier to spot in wreckage. The term "black box" comes from early versions of data recorders that were kept in light proof boxes, making them appear "black" from the outside.
The recording devices are stored inside a unit generally made out of strong substances such as steel or titanium and are also insulated from factors such as extreme heat, cold or wetness. They are placed at the back of the plane, where damage is usually less in a crash.
For crashes over water bodies, Black Boxes are equipped with beacons that send out ultrasound signals for 30 days, although this does not guarantee their discovery.
History:
Black boxes were the brainchild of Dr. David Warren, an Australian jet fuel expert.
In 1963, Australia became the first country to make black boxes mandatory on all aircraft.
Context: The Union Ministry of Power is planning to mandate a fixed temperature range (20°C to 28°C) for air conditioners in India to reduce energy consumption and promote public health.
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: WHO Housing and Health Guidelines (2018), Rationale for New AC guidelines from the Centre; Common refrigerants used in ACs.
New AC guidelines from the Centre:
The new directive will cap the operational temperature range of all new air conditioners (ACs) in India between 20°C and 28°C, whether in homes or commercial settings.
Currently, many air conditioners available in the market allow temperatures as low as 16°C or 18°C, and heating settings going up to 30°C.
Rationale: To reduce energy consumption and mitigate health risks associated with excessive cooling.
Why is this being proposed?
To Save Electricity:
A study by the Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE) predicted that by 2030, India’s total AC load could reach 200 GW, putting stress on energy supply.
According to the Power Minister, every 1°C increase in an AC’s temperature setting can save 6% of the electricity it uses.
Mandating optimal temperature off AC to 24°C, the country could save 20 billion units of electricity per year.
To Improve Public Health:
Many people set their ACs at very low temperatures (like 18-21°C), but this is not only uncomfortable for most, it is also unhealthy.
Low indoor temperatures are linked to:
Increased blood pressure due to vasoconstriction (narrowing of blood vessels and stress on the heart).
Higher risk of hypertension and respiratory issues like asthma and infections.
Poor sleep, especially in children and the elderly.
Reduce lung function in children.
Mental health issues like anxiety and depression, especially in persistently cold homes.
WHO’s 2018 Housing and Health Guidelines recommend using 18 degrees Celsius as the minimum safe living-room temperature in temperate or cooler climates because cardiovascular and respiratory admissions were found to climb steeply below that threshold.
A longitudinal study found that 16% of individuals over the age of 50, living in environments cooled to below 18°C, experienced higher blood pressure, lower vitamin D levels and reduced lung function.
Standards like ASHRAE-55 and ISO 7730 recommend maintaining minimum indoor temperatures for comfort and safety. A lightly clothed person can comfortably release body heat at 20-24°C.
How do Air Conditioners Work?
An AC works by removing heat from inside a room and dumping it outside.
It uses a refrigerant that evaporates and absorbs heat, then gets compressed (which uses most of the power), and finally releases the heat through a condenser.
The colder the temperature one sets, the harder the AC has to work and the more electricity it uses.
ACs are most efficient when operating in a temperature range suited to their refrigerant, typically 20°C to 28°C.
What is a refrigerant?
A refrigerant or coolant used in ACs takes out the heat of a room and throws it outside into the atmosphere.
A refrigerant has to undergo phase changes to absorb and compress the heat to distribute cold fresh air into the room. It changes from a liquid to gas when it absorbs a room’s heat and then again gets back to its liquid form when the compressor compresses it.
The ideal refrigerant can be selected considering certain factors like -- favourable thermodynamic properties, non-corrosive nature and safety features like its toxicity and inflammability.
Common refrigerants used in ACs:
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs): phased out due to Ozone depletion.
Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs): less harmful but still risks Ozone depletion. Indian government plans to phase out the HCFC refrigerants by 2030.
Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs): Ozone-safe but have high global warning potential.
Hydrocarbons (Propane and Iso-Butane): ozone-friendly, completely halogen-free and have the least global warming potential but flammable.
Thus, the case for moving towards a fixed temperature range on ACs is clear- supported by public health benefits as well as energy savings.
Context: The recent film Kesari Chapter 2: The Untold Story of Jallianwala Bagh is based on Sir C. Sankaran Nair.
Relevance of the Topic : Prelims: About C Sankaran Nair and his key Contributions.
About C. Sankaran Nair
Born in the year 1857 in Malabar, Kerala.
He was a liberal constitutionalist, social reformer, and a fierce critic of both British imperialism and reactionary elements within Indian society.
He was a staunch advocate of universal liberty and equality.
He was a brilliant jurist, being appointed as Advocate General of the Madras Presidency and later a judge of the Madras High Court.
Author of book “Gandhi and Anarchy” (1922)- a critique of Gandhi’s political methods, especially non-cooperation and Khilafat movement. Despite his disagreements with Gandhi, Nair acknowledged his global stature.
Nair firmly believed in constitutional methods and rejected political fanaticism. This conviction led him to oppose Gandhi’s non-cooperation movement as well as the Khilafat agitation.
Critic of extreme nationalism, religious mobilisations, and political fanaticism.
Key Achievements:
He was the first Malayali and the only Keralite to preside over the Indian National Congress (Amaravati Session, 1897).
Nair was among the first Indian members of the Viceroy’s Executive Council, overseeing portfolios like education and health.
He was a member of London’s National Liberal Club.
Key Contributions:
Vision of Secular India:
At the 1897 Amravati Congress, Nair advanced a vision of secular India, advocating education for lower castes, upliftment of women, and the dismantling of caste-based barriers.
He opposed the creation of sectarian institutions like Banaras Hindu University, fearing they would breed communalism.
Resignation over Jallianwala Bagh Massacre: He resigned from Viceroy Executive Council in protest against the Jallianwala Bagh massacre.
Champion of Social Reforms:
He campaigned for the abolition of caste, equality of women, and reform of the matrilineal system among the Nairs of Kerala.
He was associated with the Social Reform Conference and believed political freedom was meaningless without social emancipation.
He resisted the Village Cess Bill in the Madras Legislative Council, which threatened traditional self-governing village systems.
Protector of Free Speech and Education:
As a Viceroy’s Council member, he refused to allow a church prayer supporting Allied victory during WWI, stating : “Christ does not take sides in war.”
He advocated English education as a means of women’s empowerment, political awakening, and rational public discourse.He envisioned an India where reason triumphed over dogma.
Political Realism: For Nair, India was not a romantic ideal but a land bound by social evils. He remarked: “India was a land of millions- ignorant, illiterate, half-starved, superstitious, and shackled by caste.” He did not glorify a mystical past, unlike many contemporaries. Instead, he offered a rational, reformist blueprint for a modern India.
Context: The Central government has sanctioned over 300 FRA Cells to facilitate the implementation of the Forest Rights Act, 2006 across 18 states and UTs.
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key Features of FRA Cells, FRA 2006, DAJGUA.
Pending Forest Rights Claims
According to the March 2025 progress report, about 14.45% of the 51.11 lakh forest rights claims filed under the Forest Rights Act (FRA), 2006 across 21 States/UTs still remain pending.
Even among the 43 lakh disposed claims, over 42% have been rejected indicating serious issues in the implementation process.
To address these long-standing delays and rejections, the Union government has sanctioned over 300 FRA Cells across 18 states & UTs.
About Forest Right Act 2006
Also known as Schedule Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers Act.
The act recognises and vests the forest rights and occupation in Forest land in Forest Dwelling Scheduled Tribes (FDST) and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (OTFD) who have been residing in such forests for generations.
The Act identifies Four Types of Rights:
Title rights: Gives FDST and OTFD, the right to ownership of land farmed by tribals or forest dwellers subject to a maximum of 4 hectares. Ownership is only for land that is being cultivated by the concerned family and no new lands will be granted. It also provides for Community rights over minor forest produce and other resources.
Use rights: The rights of the dwellers extend to extracting Minor Forest Produce, grazing areas, pastoralist routes, etc.
Relief and development rights: To rehabilitation in case of illegal eviction or forced displacement and to basic amenities, subject to restrictions for forest protection.
Forest management rights: It includes the right to protect, regenerate or conserve or manage any community forest resource which they have been traditionally protecting and conserving for sustainable use.
Key Facts:
The Act recognises both individuals and community rights.
The decision and declaration of Habitat rights under FRA is in the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Tribal Affairs.
The claim needs to be approved by the Gram Sabha. The decision of the Gram Sabha to reject or allow the claim can be appealed before court.
About FRA Cells
FRA Cells are created in districts and states to assist in implementing the Forest Rights Act, 2006, law meant to give forest rights to Scheduled Tribes and forest-dwelling communities.
This is being done under a new scheme called Dharti Aba Janjati Gram Utkarsh Abhiyaan (DAJGUA ).
Key details about FRA Cells:
Until now, implementation of the FRA, has been the domain of State and Union Territory governments who were supposed to form local committees like Gram Sabhas, Sub-Divisional Level Committees (SDLCs), District Level Committees (DLCs), etc., to process land claims.
Now, under DAJGUA, 324 district-level FRA cells and 17 state-level FRA cells have been approved. The rules governing the operation of these cells flow from the DAJGUA programme and not the principal legislation of the FRA.
FRA Cells are meant to help tribal people and Gram Sabhas prepare documents, manage data, and push pending claims, not to interfere in decision-making.
The highest number of district FRA cells are sanctioned in Madhya Pradesh (55), followed by Chhattisgarh (30), Telangana, Maharashtra, Assam, and Jharkhand.
Though FRA cells function under state machinery as per DAJGUA rules, they are centrally funded through Grants-in-Aid General, as seen in sanction orders for states like Assam, Himachal Pradesh, and Odisha. The guidelines provide a budget of ₹8.67 lakh for each FRA cell at the district level, and ₹25.85 lakh for each State-level FRA cell.
Dharti Aba Janjati Gram Utkarsh Abhiyaan (DAJGUA):
A central sector scheme launched in October 2024.
Purpose: To Improve tribal welfare across 68,000 tribal-dominated villages by bringing together 25 interventions of 17 line ministries.
One component of the DAJGUA programme is to speed up FRA implementation.
Concerns: Forest rights activists and experts have raised concerns of FRA Cells being a parallel FRA mechanism outside of FRA’s purview and that it could weaken community control.
