Context: A recent study by the Institute of Nano Science and Technology, Mohali, has revealed a previously unrecognised cause of Anti-Microbial Resistance: Nanoplastics.
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Nanoplastics; Anti-Microbial Resistance.
What is Anti-Microbial Resistance (AMR)?
Antimicrobials: Including antibiotics, antivirals, antifungals and antiparasitics) are the medicines used to prevent and treat infectious diseases in humans, animals and plants.
Anti-Microbial Resistance (AMR): Occurs when bacteria, viruses, fungi and parasites no longer respond to antimicrobial medicines.As a result of drug resistance, these medicines become ineffective and infections become difficult to treat, increasing disease spread, severe illness, disability and death.
AMR is a global menace: India is among the worst hit countries. The AMR burden in India is particularly high, posing a serious threat to attaining the SDG targets by 2030.
Sources of Development of AMR
Natural Evolution: AMR is a natural process that happens gradually through genetic changes in pathogens over time (natural mutation).
Vertical gene transfer: AMR can be acquired from vertical gene transfer i.e., during the process of bacterial division, the drug resistance gene is transmitted from the parent to offspring.
Horizontal gene transfer: AMR can also be acquired by a microbe from other microbes through swapping genes via horizontal gene transfer i.e., genetic sequences associated with antimicrobial resistance may pass on from one microbe to another in the community.
Anthropogenic Causes:
Incomplete doses of medication and self-medication.
Inappropriate disposal of unused or expired medication can expose microbes in the environment to antibiotics and trigger AMR.
Using antibiotics in farm animals and herbicide use to control weeds may enrich Antimicrobial resistance gene (ARGs) and Mobile genetic element (MGEs) by altering soil microbiomes.
Microplastics and untreated solid and liquid waste can act as a reservoir of microbes resistant to antimicrobials.
What are Nanoplastics?
Definition: They are plastic particles smaller than 100 nanometres.
Formation:
Breakdown/degradation of larger plastic materials.
Intentional production in industrial processes.
Sources and Prevalence:
Common Sources: PET Bottles, Cosmetics, Synthetic Textiles.
Found in soil, air, water, oceans, and even human bloodstream.
Joint threat of AMR & Nano-Plastic Pollution:
In the study conducted, researchers found that nanoplastics (derived from single-use plastic bottles) can play a role in spreading AMR.
Nanoplastics and microorganisms co-exist in diverse environments, including the human gut. Nanoplastics derived from polyethylene terephthalate (PET) bottles act as a medium for cross-species gene transfer from E coli to Lactobacillus acidophilus (a useful microbe in human gut), through a process called horizontal gene transfer.
There are two novel mechanisms through which nanoplastics derived from PET bottles facilitate AMR gene transfer.
Direct Transformation: Nanoplastics physically carry AMR genes between bacteria.
Outer Membrane Vesicle (OMV) Secretion: Nanoplastics cause bacterial stress, increasing the release of vesicles (OMVs) loaded with AMR genes, which spread AMR to other bacteria.
Implications:
Nanoplastics may contribute to the AMR crisis by introducing AMR genes to beneficial gut bacteria like Lactobacillus acidophilus, which could act as reservoirs for AMR genes.
During infections, these gut bacteria can potentially transfer the genes to pathogenic bacteria, exacerbating the AMR crisis.
Thus, there is an urgent need for strict safety guidelines, awareness programmes, as well as policies that prioritise responsible usage of plastics and waste management to safeguard human health and microbiome stability.
Context: The Central Government has initiated the process to build a memorial for former Prime Minister Dr. Manmohan Singh. He was cremated at the Nigam Bodh Ghat in New Delhi.
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about guidelines related to Memorials.
Major Highlights:
The Former Prime Minister of India Dr. Manmohan Singh passed away on December 26, 2024. The Union Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA) declared seven days of State mourning and announced a state funeral for the dignitary.
He was cremated at the Nigambodh Ghat in Central Delhi (a common cremation place), a first for any former PM.
Is there a rule related to Memorials?
While guidelines exist for State funerals, there is no specific rule or government order regarding allocation of space for memorials for former PMs.
The convention is that former PMs have been cremated at designated places.
Dr. Singh was cremated at a common place of cremation (where even a common man could be cremated).
Trends in the Past:
Except Former PM Vishwanath Pratap Singh, all other former PMs have memorials dedicated to them, majorly in Delhi and other parts of the country. E.g.,
Context: 2024 elections saw a high tide of democracy with elections in many countries including India, yet PEW’s recent global surveys highlighted that across 31 nations surveyed in 2024, about 54% of adults were not satisfied with the way democracy worked in their country. They felt disconnected from political leaders and institutions, and found that political parties did not represent their interests and that the common man had no influence on politics. This has led to the decline of voter participation.
In this context, let us discuss the challenges faced by democracy including the decline of voter participation and ways to arrest it.
Relevance of the Topic: Mains: Challenges faced by Democracy; Reasons for Decline in Voter Participation.
Challenges faced by Democracy
Declining Democratic Quality: The Global State of Democracy Report 2024 has highlighted deteriorations in credible elections, effective parliaments, economic equality, and freedoms of expression and press. This decline has raised concerns about institutions and processes supporting democratic governance.
Erosion of Public Discourse: The electoral campaigns were characterized by a significant decline in decency within public discourse. Rhetoric and divisive language have become commonplace, undermining the integrity of political dialogue.
Misinformation and Polarisation: The rise of misinformation during elections has posed serious threats to electoral integrity. WEF reports indicate that misinformation significantly impacts voter perceptions and outcomes and exacerbates societal divisions.
Voter Discontent: WEF surveys indicated that approximately 54% of adults across 31 nations expressed dissatisfaction with their democratic systems. Many felt disconnected from political leaders and institutions, which suggests a broader frustration with representative democracy.
Erosion of Trust: There is a growing disillusionment with democratic institutions, particularly among younger populations. Many feel that elections do not yield meaningful change, leading to frustration and apathy towards the democratic process.
Resurgence of Authoritarianism: Many democracies are witnessing a rise in authoritarian tendencies, where leaders exploit crises to consolidate power. This trend can undermine democratic norms and institutions.
Weakening of Democratic values: There is a decline in fundamental democratic principles such as freedom of expression, rule of law, and civic rights.
External Interference: Democracies have become vulnerable to foreign interference, which can disrupt electoral processes and manipulate public opinion, the external pressure complicates efforts to maintain electoral integrity and public trust.
Economic Instability: Economic challenges, worsened by global crises such as climate change and geopolitical tensions, can lead to dissatisfaction with democratic governance. In such situations, citizens turn to populist or extremist parties that promise quick fixes rather than sustainable solutions.
Reasons for Decline in Voter Participation
Voter Fatigue: Continuous elections and relentless campaigning can lead to voter fatigue. When citizens feel overwhelmed by the frequency of elections, their enthusiasm to participate diminishes.
Urban Apathy: In urban areas, a sense of disconnection from political processes often leads to lower turnout. Many urban voters feel that their concerns are not addressed by political leaders, resulting in apathy towards voting.
Disillusionment with Candidates: Voter discontent with the quality of candidates and their platforms can lead to disengagement. When voters perceive candidates as untrustworthy or out of touch with their needs, they may choose not to vote.
Socio-economic Factors: Individuals from lower socioeconomic backgrounds often face barriers to voting, including lack of time due to work commitments or financial constraints that make it difficult to take time off to vote.
Political Polarisation and Negative Campaigning: The rise of aggressive and negative campaigning can alienate voters. When political discourse becomes hostile or divisive, it may discourage individuals from participating in elections altogether.
Undelivered Promises: The development dream remains unrealized in many democracies largely on account of misgovernance, corruption and misplaced priorities. Even now, the political parties’ pitch for votes is based on doles and not on the hard decisions needed for long-term and sustained growth.
Way Forward
One Nation One Election: Synchronising elections as per Kovind Panel recommendations.
Contesting from a Single Constituency: Amend the law to prevent a candidate from contesting elections from more than one constituency.
Ban on Criminals: Lifetime ban on individuals convicted of serious crimes from contesting elections to promote the decriminalization of politics.
Restriction on government Advertisements and Schemes: Prohibit government advertisements highlighting achievements for six months before the end of the House’s term during general elections, there should also be restriction on announcement of cash incentive-based schemes immediately before the elections.
Safeguards for Election Commissioners: Extend the same level of protection against removal offered to Chief Election Commissioner to other Election Commissioners.
Anti-Defection: Decisions on anti-defection cases be taken by the President or Governor based on the ECI’s advice.
False Declarations: Make false election declarations a punishable offense.
Context: The Dhaka-based International Crimes Tribunal on October 17 issued arrest warrants for Ms. Sheikh Hasina (former Prime Minister of Bangladesh) and 45 others including former Cabinet ministers, advisers and military and civil officials. Bangladesh has recently formally requested India to extradite the former Prime Minister.
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key aspects of India Bangladesh Extradition Treaty.
Background:
After leaving Dhaka on August 5, 2024, Ms. Hasina was declared an absconder for not surrendering. A first information report was filed on August 13, 2024, against her and other former associates.
She has been charged with conspiracy to eliminate the students involved in protests, and the mistreatment and killing of hundreds of the protesters, which are labelled as genocide and crimes against humanity.
Subsequently, on December 23, 2024, Bangladesh formally requested India to extradite former Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina, who fled to New Delhi amid anti-government protests in August 2024.
Legal Framework
Bangladesh's legal system allows for trials in absentia, but there are complexities regarding International law and Common law jurisdictions as accused must be present in Court (physical or virtual) for the trial.
India has not yet commented on the extradition request. India has a bilateral extradition treaty with Bangladesh but is not obligated to extradite Hasina due to claims of political offenses.
India's Supreme Court in National Human Rights Commission vs State Of Arunachal Pradesh & Anr. (1996) has ruled that non-citizens are entitled to protection of Article 21 under the Constitution, which could influence decisions regarding Hasina's extradition.
Options before India
House Arrest: India can place Hasina under house arrest while allowing her participation in her trial via video conferencing, ensuring cooperation with Bangladesh's investigation.
ICC Jurisdiction: ICC jurisdiction can be invoked due to the nature of the alleged crimes. However, since Bangladesh is pursuing domestic legal action, ICC intervention may not be necessary unless there are concerns about the fairness of the proceedings.
Refuse extradition: India can refuse extradition, citing lack of “good faith” or “interest of justice” and related concerns. Article 8 lists out multiple grounds for refusal including cases in which, an accusation has not been made in good faith in the interests of justice or in case of military offences which are not an offence under the general criminal law.
Way Forward for India
Maintain diplomatic engagement with the new government in Bangladesh.
Avoid hasty decisions to ensure long-term strategic and economic ties with Bangladesh.
Stand by Sheikh Hasina without openly antagonising the interim government.
Leverage the structural linkages with the party in power as well as association and geographic realities to sustain favorable relations.
Ultimately, the decision to extradite is going to be political and diplomatic and not legal.
India Bangladesh Extradition Treaty
Establishment: Signed in 2013 and amended in 2016 for faster and easier extradition of fugitives between the two countries.
Background:
India sought the treaty to address insurgents from the North-East operating from Bangladesh.
Bangladesh aimed to address the presence of groups like Jamaat-ul-Mujahideen Bangladesh (JMB) in India.
India extradited Anup Chetia, a United Liberation Front of Assam (ULFA) leader, in 2015.
Provisions of the Treaty:
Extraditable Offences:
Crimes carrying a minimum punishment of one year imprisonment, including financial crimes.
Offences must fulfill the principle of dual criminality (punishable in both countries).
Includes attempts, aiding, abetting, inciting, or participating in the commission of an extraditable offence.
Exceptions:
Extradition can be refused if the offence is of a political nature.
However, the treaty specifies a long list of offences not considered political, including:
Murder, culpable homicide, assault, explosions, use of firearms, property damage intending to endanger life, kidnapping, hostage-taking, incitement to murder, and terrorism-related offences.
Amendment in 2016 to Simplify Extradition Process
Requirement to provide evidence of the offence was removed; only an arrest warrant from a competent court is now required.
Since Sheikh Hasina faces multiple arrest warrants issued in Bangladesh, it makes her case eligible under the amended treaty.
Key Principles:
Both countries commit to extraditing individuals wanted by courts for criminal charges, prosecution, or conviction in the requesting country.
The treaty intends to enhance cooperation in combating terrorism and transnational crime.
Context: A recent study was conducted by the Azadi Project and Refugee International on the plight of the Rohingya refugees which highlighted the gross violation of human and constitutional rights in the refugee camps.
Relevance of the Topic: Mains: Ethics and status of refugees in India, including citizenship issues.
Who are Rohingya Refugees?
Rohingya people of Myanmar constitute the world’s largest stateless population in the world estimating about 2.8 million.
The group is denied citizenship, rights and faced genocide in the Myanmar’s Rakhine region.
As per the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), India hosts a Rohingya population of 22,500 refugees.
India’s stand on Rohingya refugees:
India is neither a signatory to the Refugee Convention, nor a party to the key International instruments such as:
Conventions against Torture and other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment
International Convention for the Protection of all Persons from Enforced Disappearance.
Therefore, India maintains no legal obligations to provide asylum and adhere to non-refoulement.
Policy of Non-refoulement prohibits returning individuals to places where they face persecution, torture, or serious harm, protecting refugee and human rights.
India continues to detain Rohingya refugees under domestic acts like:
The Foreigners Act, 1967 regulates the entry, stay, and departure of foreigners in India, along with deportation of the illegal migrants in India
The Passport Act, 1967 governs the issuance and regulation of passports in India
India categorises Rohingya refugees as ‘Illegal Migrants’.
Additional Information:
Case regarding Rohingyas: Mohammad Salimullah versus Union of India 2021 rejected the plea to prevent deportation of 170 Rohingya illegal migrants.
The Supreme Court rejected the plea stating the right to reside is not a right under Article 21.
The matters regarding Citizenship are part of the Union list in Schedule VII.
Arguments for Non-Refoulement of Rohingyas:
International Obligation: India is a signatory to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, whose Article 7 refrains from the refoulement of refugee to a place where that can face torture or cruel treatment.
Lack of Domestic Law: Legal vacuum regarding refugee issue makes a ground to follow the international conventions and norms in this regard as per the Supreme Court in Vishakha versus State of Rajasthan case 1997.
Constitutional Morality: Following non-refoulement principle will uphold constitutional morality as Article 51(c) of constitution mandates that the state must strive to promote respect for international laws and treaty obligations.
Discriminatory Policy: The refuge policy of the government is discriminatory as Citizenship Amendment Act 2019 excludes persecuted rohingya muslims.
Arguments against Policy of Non-Refoulement:
Non-signatory: India is not signatory to the Refugee convention, hence, India does not have a specific obligation on non-refoulement.
Internal security: India’s security policy is strictly against illegal migration as it can create law and order issues in the nation. Example: Rohingya settlements in Sri Nagar removed due to security concerns.
Resource constraints: India already has a vast population under poverty to address. Migrants will pose an additional burden on national resources.
Cascading demand: Providing refugee status to Rohingya will have a cascading demand from the other regions too. Example: Ahmadiyya Muslim population in Pakistan.
Difference between Asylum Seekers and Refugees:
Asylum Seeker:
An asylum seeker is someone who has fled their home country and is seeking international protection but has not yet been formally recognised as a refugee.
They apply for asylum in another country, claiming they are at risk of persecution but their status is still under review.
For example, Julian Assange took refuge in Ecuador’s embassy and Sheikh Hasina took asylum in India after the upsurge in Bangladesh.
Refugees:
A refugee is someone who has been recognised under international law (E.g., the 1951 Refugee Convention) as being unable or unwilling to return to their home country due to a well-founded fear of persecution based on race, religion, nationality, political opinion, or membership in a particular social group.
Refugees are granted protection and legal rights in the host country.
Status of Rohingya: UNHCR recognises and registers the Rohingya as refugees
Conclusion: The Rohingya issue is complex as it involves the angles like international law; internal security and governance; and ethical issues like humanity and protection to the aggrieved. India in order to address such challenges and issues should come up with a dedicated law and policy for refugees.
Context: Recently concluded winter session of the Parliament saw a lot of disruptions. In this context, let us discuss the features of parliamentary form of government, importance of Parliamentary productivity, and reasons for decline of Parliament and the way ahead.
Relevance of the Topic: Mains: Declining Productivity of Parliament (Trends, Outcomes and Way Forward).
Constitutional Provisions
Article 74 and 75:
Article 74: There shall be a Council of Ministers with the Prime Minister at the head to aid and advise the President who shall, in the exercise of his functions, act in accordance with such advice.
Article 75: Other provisions as to the Minister.
Article 163 and 164:
Article 163: Council of Ministers to aid and advise the Governor.
Article 164: Other provisions as to Ministers.
Features of Parliamentary form of Government
President is the Nominal Executive: President is the nominal head of state, while Prime Minister is the real executive i.e. head of government. (Article 74 states that there shall be a Council of Ministers headed by the PM to aid and advise the President.)
Majority Party rule: Political party with majority on the floor form the government.
Collective Responsibility: Ministers are collectively responsible to Lok Sabha (Art 75)
Political Homogeneity of Council of Ministers: Mostly, Council of Ministers belongs to the same political party with similar ideology.
Double Membership: Ministers are part of both legislature and executive.
Dissolution of Lower House: It can be dissolved on the recommendations of the PM.
Secrecy: Ministers operate on the principle of secrecy of procedure and cannot divulge any information about their proceedings policies and decisions. Oath of secrecy to the ministers is administered by the President/Governor of State.
Significance of Parliamentary Productivity:
The Parliament of India is the supreme legislative body in the country responsible for enacting laws and overseeing the functioning of the government. The roles of Parliament in India include:
Law Making: The primary function of Parliament is to make laws. Bills are introduced in either house of Parliament, debated and discussed, and finally passed as Acts of Parliament.
Scrutiny of Government: Parliament has the power to hold the government accountable by asking questions, seeking clarifications, and conducting debates on government policies and actions.
Budgetary Control: Parliament has the power to approve or reject the government's budget proposals and to scrutinize government spending.
Oversight of Executive: Parliament has the power to investigate and examine the functioning of the executive branch of the government and its various agencies.
Electoral Functions: Parliament has the power to decide on the qualifications and disqualifications of members, conduct elections to fill vacancies, and determine the electoral boundaries.
Constitutional Functions: Parliament has the power to amend the Constitution, approve the proclamation of emergency, and to impeach the President, Vice-President, and other high officials.
Parliament in India is essential for maintaining the democratic system of the country and ensuring that the government is accountable to the people.
Indicators of Declining Productivity of Parliament
Number of Bills Passed: As per the PRS Legislative Research, the number of bills passed by the Lok Sabha (the lower house of India's parliament) has declined in recent years.
15th Lok Sabha (2009-2014)
248 Bills passed
16th Lok Sabha (2014-2019)
205 Bills passed
17th Lok Sabha (2019-2024)
131 Bills passed
Question Hour: An important aspect of parliamentary productivity is the ability of MPs to ask questions of the government during Question Hour. However, Question Hour has been disrupted in recent years, with MPs often protesting and preventing the House from functioning.
According to IndiaSpend, 16th Lok Sabha lost 29% of its scheduled time due to disruptions, while the current 17th Lok Sabha has lost 48% of its scheduled time so far.
Private Members' Bills: Private Members' Bills are bills introduced by MPs who are not part of the government. The number of Private Members' Bills being introduced and passed in parliament has declined in recent years. Till date, only 14 Private Members' Bills have been passed and received assent.
Reduced Number of Sittings: The 17th Lok Sabha has only functioned for 230 sitting days so far. With only 1 year left, it will likely be the least productive Lok Sabha till date.
Lack of Discipline and Decorum: Lack of opportunity to present their views and unresponsive attitude of the government further fuels the indiscipline in MPs.
Declining quality of Parliamentary Debates: Parliamentarians generally tow the party line and argue on rhetoric rather than facts and substantial reports. It leads to lack of quality debates in parliament and frequent disruptions.
Legislation through Ordinances: Government is increasingly relying on the ordinance route rather than introduction of bills for crucial issues, this has further subverted the Parliament. E.g., Ordinance to amend the Government of National Capital Territory of Delhi (GNCTD) Act, 1991.
Reasons for the Decline:
Increased Polarisation: Increased polarisation and confrontational politics is leading to frequent disruptions in the House. MPs often engage in protests, sloganeering, and walkouts, which prevent the smooth functioning of parliament. This has resulted in the loss of valuable time and resources, hindering the legislative process.
Lack of Adequate Preparation and deliberation before introducing bills in Parliament. The government often rushes to pass bills without thorough discussions, leading to poorly drafted legislation, inadequate scrutiny and oversight.
Committee System: Committees play a crucial role in scrutinizing bills, conducting in-depth research, and engaging in consultations with stakeholders, which help in drafting effective legislation. Absence of a robust committee system leads to either bypassing of committees or inadequate scrutiny of bills.
Lack of Diversity: Indian parliament lacks diversity, with a significant underrepresentation of marginalised groups, including women and religious minorities. This has resulted in the exclusion of diverse voices and perspectives, leading to the passing of legislation that does not reflect the needs and aspirations of all sections of society.
Declining role of Rajya Sabha: Many ordinary bills are introduced and passed as money bills so as to evade the scrutiny of Rajya Sabha. E.g., Aadhar Bill.
Increased Expulsion: Increased expulsion of members of opposition on grounds of being unruly.
Decline in Parliamentary Standards: Reduced expectations from the public coupled with declining parliamentary standards.
Outcomes of Parliamentary Decline
Performance Decline: Decline in the productivity of Parliament impairs its ability to effectively perform the duties that have been entrusted to it by the Constitution".
Impairs basic legislative function: MPs are not able to ask ministers tough questions during question hour to assess the work that their ministries are doing. With disruptions eating into the time available for parliamentary business, adequate time is not available for debating legislation.
Bills passed without Debate: As a result, bills either get passed without effective debate or remain pending in Parliament. With Parliament meeting for a fewer number of days and with its productivity falling on account of disruptions, MPs are not able to raise matters of urgent public importance and bring it to the attention of the government.
Reduced Scrutiny: When Parliament does not function, laws needed to address challenges in governance are not legislated, the government gets away with minimal scrutiny over its functioning, and MPs lose out on the opportunity to represent the interests of their constituents.
Loss of Faith: Decline of parliament leads to loss of faith in the institution of Parliament and its role in upholding Indian democracy.
Way Forward
British Convention: In the British Parliament, there are certain days in a week in each Parliamentary session where the opposition parties are allowed to determine the agenda for the day’s discussion. (20 days a year.)
Increased Frequency: Parliament should meet more frequently. In the 1950s, Parliament met for 120-140 days every year; now it ranges between 60 and 70 days.
Longer sitting hours: The House of Commons sits for about 150 days in a year with an average sitting lasting for seven and a half hours. Currently our Parliament meets for an average of 70 days in a year and the rules provide that Lok Sabha would meet for 6 hours and Rajya Sabha for 5 hours.
Parliamentary Schedule is decided by the government, which can postpone or curtail a session if faced with uncomfortable issues. It can be fixed in two ways.
First, a calendar of sittings should be announced at the beginning of each year for limited flexibility.
Second, the rules should be amended to ensure that the House is summoned if a significant minority (say 25% or 33%) of members gives a written notice.
In the UK, the PM is bound by a constitutional convention to respond to questions directly posed to him by MPs. It is not so in India.
Technology: Parliament should leverage technology such as using electronic voting systems, enabling remote attendance for members, and enhancing digital communication channels. This would enable parliament to function more efficiently, reduce disruptions, and save time and resources.
Capacity Building: There should be a focus on capacity-building and training for parliamentarians, particularly in areas such as legislative drafting, public speaking, and committee work. This would enable MPs to be more effective in their roles, contributing to better legislative outcomes and increased productivity.
Introducing Parliament Productivity Index (PPI) that measures both the productivity of a session of Parliament and identifies five most disruptive MPs on the basis of clearly defined parameters.
Establishing Parliamentary Reforms Commission: Experts like Subhash C Kashyap have suggested the establishment of a parliamentary reforms commission to improve the efficiency of parliamentary procedures and practices.
Context: The SVAMITVA scheme, which aims to issue legal property cards to rural families, finds hindrance in its implementation as ten states are yet to join the scheme, citing existing systems and other reasons.
Relevance of the topic:
Prelims: SVAMITVA scheme- Facts about the Scheme
Mains: SVAMITVA- Benefits, Concerns
About SVAMITVA Scheme
SVAMITVA stands for Survey of Villages and Mapping with Improvised Technology in Village Areas.
It is a central sector scheme which was launched nationally on the occasion of National Panchayati Raj Day on 24th April 2021.
Initiative of: Ministry of Panchayati Raj.
The scheme is a collaborative effort of the Ministry of Panchayati Raj, State Panchayati Raj Departments, State Revenue Departments.
Survey of India is the Technology Implementation Agency.
The scheme is a reformative step towards establishment of clear ownership of property in rural inhabited (Abadi) areas.
It provides the ‘record of rights’ to village household owners possessing houses in inhabited rural areas in villages. The legal ownership cards (Property cards/Title deeds) would be issued to the property owners by mapping land parcels using Drone survey and CORS (Continuously Operating Reference Stations) Networks which provides mapping accuracy of 5 cm.
It will cover around 6.62 Lakh villages of the entire country during 2021-2025.
Eligibility: The applicant should have a property in rural inhabited (Abadi) area.
Exclusions: Agricultural Lands are not covered under this scheme.
Benefits of SVAMITVA Scheme
Reduce property-related disputes and legal cases by creating accurate land records.
Financial stability to the citizens in rural India by enabling them to use their property as a financial asset for taking loans and other financial benefits.
Creation of survey infrastructure and GIS (Geographic Information System) maps that can be leveraged by any department for their use.
Preparation of a better-quality Gram Panchayat Development Plan aided by proper land records and use of GIS maps enhances governance.
Financial federalism: Determination of property tax, which would accrue to the Gram Panchayats directly in States where it is devolved or else, add to the State exchequer.
States’ Reservations in implementation of SVAMITVA Scheme
Ten states including Tamil Nadu, West Bengal and Bihar are yet to join the SVAMITVA scheme.
Existing systems of similar measures:
‘Natham’ areas in Tamil Nadu, for instance, have legal validity for their land records and can be used to apply for bank loans.
Bihar Special Survey and Settlement Act, 2011 has been carrying out the survey of the entire State with maps, records and rights.
Prior Abaadi records exist in West Bengal.
Limited coverage:
Jharkhand has paused the implementation of SVAMITVA due to the perceived conflict in giving property rights under the Santhal Pargana and Chotanagpur Tenancy Acts.
Odisha and Assam have allowed limited coverage of the scheme in their jurisdictions.
Non-inclusion of certain areas:
Many States, including Uttar Pradesh, have not extended the Abaadi area to include the agricultural land on which people have constructed houses and are staying in villages.
Context: The meteoric rise of Unified Payments Interface (UPI) since its launch eight years ago, is no small feat for a country like India. As UPI enters its next phase of growth in both reach and innovation, there remain certain challenges to be addressed.
Relevance of the Topic: Mains: UPI- Scope, Risks, Way forward
Present Scenario of UPI in India
Unified Payments Interface (UPI) ecosystem accounts for nearly 80% of digital transactions in India.
UPI penetration is at 30% of the population. With India’s low digital literacy and a historic reliance on cash, this is a big achievement.
UPI has played a key role in fostering public trust in digital payments.
Scope for further growth of UPI
Enhancing public trust:
UPI’s continued success will heavily depend on whether its ecosystem can maintain and build upon such public trust.
This, in turn, will depend on UPI’s performance on resilience, reliability, and openness to innovation.
Wider reach:
70% of the population remains to be brought into the digital payments fold.
Potential for Innovations:
Expanding reach of UPI will require substantially new innovations ranging from service offerings to app design and the overall product base of the UPI ecosystem.
Scope for new entrants:
A major hindrance for UPI’s growth is the extreme market concentration of two Third Party App Providers (TPAPs) in the UPI network — Phone Pe and Google Pay.
Together, they control over 85% of the total market share.
The next biggest player, Paytm, controls merely 7.2%.
What are the risks posed by Duopoly in the UPI ecosystem?
Increased systemic vulnerability:
High market concentration of payments systems in PhonePe and GooglePay can lead to single points of failure, where any sudden break in services can have ripple effects across the entire financial structure.
Risk of decreased competition and innovation:
Disproportionately large share of the market and user base creates high entry barriers for smaller and newer market participants.
Lack of competition also discourages investment in new innovations.
Risk of foreign dominance:
Both PhonePe and GPay are foreign-owned (by Walmart and by Google respectively).
Foreign ownership creates multiple potentially new lines of failure, including data protection and backdoor access to sensitive information of Indian citizens, etc.
Regulative Measures and Recent Developments:
Initial proposal: In November 2020, National Payments Corporation of India (NPCI) proposed that the digital payment firms would not be allowed to hold more than 30% share of the volume of transactions processed via India's popular unified payments interface (UPI). The mandate was to take effect from the end of 2024.
Extension of Deadline: In December 2024, NPCI extended the deadline for compliance by two years to the end of December 2026.
Recent reports suggest that the NPCI may potentially increase the market share cap from 30% to 40%.
Presently, Phone Pe accounts for 48.36% and Google Pay for 37.3% of market share in volume, as of August 2024.
Every subsequent extension to the deadline given by the NPCI, with any potential increase in the market share cap, will only allow the dominant TPAPs to consolidate their hold.
Way Forward
Strict implementation of market cap at previously determined 30% to prevent monopolistic tendencies and encourage competition.
Create a level-playing field for Indian entrants to the UPI ecosystem, thus balancing foreign dominance and addressing data sovereignty concerns.
Encourage innovation through increased competition, user-friendly apps and customised user reach.
The UPI ecosystem has every potential to offer smaller market participants a level playing field to compete and innovate with large established players. Providing the right conditions and right incentives is the key, so as to ensure the next phase of growth in both reach and innovation.
Context: TheRBI’s Financial Stability Report released in December 2024, highlights significant improvements in the asset quality of Scheduled Commercial Banks (SCB), with Gross NPA ratios at a 12-year low.
It shows the resilience of India’s financial system, supported by strong capital buffers, improved provisioning and healthy domestic financial fundamentals amidst global uncertainties.
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Important Banking-related terms.
RBI’s Financial Stability Report
Published bi-annually by the Reserve Bank of India.
It reflects the collective assessment of the Sub-Committee of Financial Stability and Development Council (FSDC), which is headed by the RBI Governor.
The report evaluates the resilience of the Indian financial system and identifies risks to financial stability.
Important Banking-related Terms
1. Asset Quality Ratio:
Asset quality ratio (AQR) is a key indicator that measures the proportion of non-performing assets (NPAs) to total assets in a bank.
A high AQR indicates that a bank has a large amount of bad assets that are dragging down its performance and posing a risk to its solvency.
A low AQR indicates that a bank has a healthy portfolio of assets that are generating income and interest for the bank, enhancing its profitability and stability.
2. Provisioning Coverage Ratio (PCR):
PCR provides insights into the adequacy of provisions made by banks to cover potential losses on their loan portfolios.
It is calculated by dividing the total provisions held by a bank by its total non-performing loans (NPLs).
It represents the percentage of NPLs that are covered by provisions.
A higher ratio indicates a stronger ability to absorb potential losses.
3. Capital Adequacy Ratio (CAR):
CAR is the ratio of a bank’s capital in relation to its risk weighted assets and current liabilities. This is a measure of a bank’s ability to meet its obligations.
A high CAR means the bank can absorb losses without diluting capital.
4. CASA Ratio (Current Account Savings Account ratio):
CASA is the proportion of current account and savings account deposits in the total deposits of the bank.
A low CASA ratio means the bank relies heavily on costlier wholesale funding, which can hurt its margins.
5. Net Interest Margin (NIM):
This is the difference between interest earned by a bank on loans and the interest it pays on deposits.
NIM will be high for banks with higher low-cost deposits or high lending rates.
Low NIM and high NPA is a bad combination.
6. Return on Assets (RoA):
It shows how profitable a bank’s assets are in generating revenue.
A lower RoA means that the bank is not able to utilise assets efficiently.
Negative RoA implies the bank’s assets are yielding negative returns.
7. Capital Conservation Buffer (CCB):
CCB is a concept introduced under the international Basel III norms.
According to Basel III norms, during good times, banks must build up a capital buffer that can be drawn from, when there is stress.
In India, to adhere to Basel norms, RBI wants all the commercial banks to achieve a minimum total capital of 9 per cent and a capital conservation buffer of 2.5 per cent, with the minimum total capital and CCB adding up to 11.5 per cent.
Major Highlights of RBI’s Financial Stability Report
Gross NPA ratio hasdeclined to a 12-year low of 2.6% in September 2024.
Scheduled Commercial Bank’s Net NPA ratio stayed at 0.6%.
Provisioning Coverage Ratio improved to 77% in September, mainly due to proactive provisioning by Public Sector Banks.
Improvement in Return on Assets and earnings before provisions and taxes.
Sequential decline in the net interest margin abetted by shift of deposits to higher interest rate buckets.
Decline in share of low-cost Current Account Savings Account (CASA) deposits.
Increase in share of term deposits, especially for higher interest-rate buckets.
Context: TheUS President elect Donald Trump’s supporters are locked in a public row about skilled immigration and H-1B visa.
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about H-1B Visa.
What is the H-1B Visa?
The H-1B is a Visa in the United States that allows the US employers to employ high skilled foreign workers in specialised occupations. The programme was started in 1990.
Criterion: Specialty Occupation refers to a job that requires a specific set of specialised skills and educational qualifications.
Educational Requirement: At least a Bachelor's degree or higher in a specific field of study.
Specialised Knowledge: Expertise in a particular field like- IT specialists, engineers, scientists, healthcare professionals etc.
Complex and specialised duties associated with the position.
Eligibility Criteria- Visa Requirements for Employees:
Education: A person should possess a Bachelor’s degree or higher (or its equivalent) in a specific field directly related to the offered position.
Job Offer: A person must have a legitimate job offer from a U.S. employer for a specialty occupation.
Work Experience: Depending on the specific occupation and degree, one may be required to demonstrate relevant work experience in the field.
Licensing: If the occupation requires a license to practice in the state of intended employment, the employee must generally possess that license before the H-1B petition can be approved.
Duration and Cap
Duration:
H-1B status is initially granted for three years but can be extended to another three years (maximum of 6 years).
After 6 years the visa holder has to either leave the US for a period of at least 12 months before returning or apply for and receive permanent residence that is a green card.
There is no capping on the number of H1-B Visas that an individual can have in his/her lifetime.
Cap:
Currently, the annual numerical limit is 85,000 for H-1B visas (65,000 new status visas and extra 20,000 visas available to those with a Master’s degree or higher from the US universities.)
Some H-1B petitions are exempt from the annual cap. (E.g., those for employees of institutions of higher education, non-profit research organisations, or governmental research organisations)
Debate over H-1B Visas
H-1B Visa has been the highly desired pathway for jobseekers including Indians to migrate to the US.
People born in India are the largest beneficiaries of the H-1B programme.
Data from the US government show that Indians account for more than 70% of all H-1B petitions approved each year since 2015.
Immigration is one of the most polarising political issues in the US. Much of the election time anti-immigration rhetoric focused on low skilled labour migration.
Critics of the H-1B program claim that this program has been misused by tech corporations to staff their low to mid-level workforce for much less pay than what Americans would demand.
They are of the view that such immigration depresses wages and takes away jobs that would have otherwise gone to the American working class.
President elect Mr. Trump has encashed on such sentiments and has promised improved conditions for working American Middle Class by curbing immigration.
Proponents of H-1B visa argue that this programme is essential for bridging the skill gaps in the USA and wages are market driven. Since, China and India boast the highest number of STEM graduates (more than 6 million combined) in the World. When compared to the number of STEM graduates in the US (nearly 8 lakh), they become critical and vital for the economy.
Context: The government has proposed an amendment to the Commercial Courts Act 2015 aiming to expeditecommercial dispute resolution.
Relevance of the topic:
Prelims: Terms related to Alternate Dispute redressal.
Mains: Analysis of status of Alternate Dispute Redressal in India.
Major Highlights:
The government is working to establish dedicated Commercial Courts with jurisdiction and power conferred under Commercial Court Act 2015.
The goal is to:
Institutionalise, license and regulate Arbitration in India.
Prompt institutionalisation of the Arbitration Council of India (established under 2019 amendment) to standardise arbitration across the country.
What is Arbitration?
Arbitration is a method of resolving disputesoutside the traditional Court System. It involves neutral third parties, known as arbitrators, agreed upon by the disputing parties.
Key Characteristics of Arbitration:
Voluntary in nature involving mutual consent of the parties prior to the contract.
Flexibility as compared to formal court procedures.
Binding and non-binding depending upon the nature of agreement.
About the Arbitration and Conciliation (Amendment) Bill 2024
The bill is drafted to amend the Arbitration Act 1996, as per the recommendations of Justice Srikrishna Committee.
Earlier Amendments in Act of 1996:
The 2015 Amendment was aimed to reduce court intervention and make the act more user-friendly.
The 2019 Amendment to create an independent body to grade arbitral institutions named Arbitration Council of India.
The 2021 Amendment to reduce frauds, specify the arbitrators qualifications and promote global competitiveness.
Key Features of the Proposed Bill of 2024:
Define Arbitration Institutions as a body that conducts arbitration proceedings under its own rules or as agreed by parties, streamlining the arbitration process.
Recognising Institutions: The bill shifts from grading to recognising the arbitration institutions, focusing on their accreditation and the provision of model procedural rules.
Introduction of Appellate Tribunal: Arbitration Appellate Tribunal to further reduce court interventions in the awards.
Emergency Arbitration provisions for interim relief before the constitution of the arbitral tribunal.
Time limit: The court must decide on arbitration referral within 60 days.
Benefits of the Proposed Amendments
Promoting institutionalisation of arbitration procedure in India by addressing loopholes.
Reduce court interventions by proposing appellate tribunal.
Timely conclusion of disputes by proposing time limits for courts to referral for arbitration.
Providing interim relief by providing provision for emergency relief.
Challenges Associated with Arbitration Ecosystem in India
Nascent Institutionalisation: The Arbitration Council of India (ACI), established under the 2019 amendment, became operational only in 2023.
Delay in Awards: Arbitration awards are often delayed due to delay in court referral and appeal in courts.
Lack of Awareness: The arbitration is predominantly utilised by large businesses. Small and medium businesses are still unaware about the process.
Competition: Indian Arbitration faces stiff competition from Singapore's arbitration due to its effectiveness and user-friendly practices.
Conclusion: Arbitration is the key to address commercial disputes to enhance ease of doing business and reduce judicial pendency. Institutionalisation, hassle free process and quality arbitrators need to be provided to make arbitration effective in India.
Context: With the end of Bashar-al-Assad's regime in Syria, the Houthi rebels have gained importance in Iran's axis of resistance against the US and Israel.
Relevance of the topic:
Prelims: Organisations and location based questions from the middle east.
Mains: Impact of middle-east tensions on India.
What is the Axis of Resistance?
The 'Axis of the Resistance’ refers to the political and military alliances led by Iran and is composed of state and non-state actors in the Middle-East.
The axis comprises Iran's Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC), Hezbollah in Lebanon, the Syrian armed forces, Hamas and the Palestinian Islamic Jihad (PIJ) in the Gaza Strip and the West Bank, certain militias in Iraq, and Houthi forces in Yemen.
Key goals of Alliance:
Oppose Israel: The central ideology of the group is to oppose Israel advances in Gaza and help Palestine to gain control over the territory.
Anti-American: The alliance is against the US military presence and its cultural influence in the middle east. Example: Islamic revolution in Iran demonstrated anti-Americanism.
Regional Dominance: Axis of resistance focus on the dominance of the Shia sect of Islam, predominantly by creating a 'Shia crescent’ including Lebanon, Iraq and Syria.
Resistance to Sunni powers: The alliance is focused against the Sunni-majority states including Saudi Arabia, and UAE as they are aligned with the US.
Means and modes used to sustain Ideology:
Military campaigns as members are actively involved in several conflicts like Syrian civil war, Iraq fight against ISIS and Yemen's civil war.
Proxy warfare by helping non-state actors like Hezbollah in Lebanon and Popular Mobilisation Forces (PMF).
Diplomatic alliance- Axis is focused to counter USA by hand holding alliance with Russia and China for weapons and logistical support.
About Houthi Rebels
Houthis, originally known as Ansar Allah (i.e. supporters of God) are predominantly Shia Muslims and a political military group of Yemen.
The group is focused on opposing the USA and Israel. Also, they oppose Saudi Arabia and UAE to favour Sunni sects of Islam.
Role of Houthis in Axis of Resistance
Opposing US allies: The Houthis attack Saudi Arabia from the Yemen border as it is a US ally in the region.
Block trade: Location of Houthi is at a crucial choke point i.e., Bal el-Mandeb strait allows them to attack the vessels with short range rockets leading to damage or rise in vessel insurance premium, disrupting trade.
Symbol of resistance: Houthis continue terrorist attacks on Saudi Arabia and US supported Yemen government to show resistance.
Impact on India due to these regional dynamics:
Impacting energy security: Houthi attack on vessels can destabilise the Indian supply of crude oil via Bab el-Mandeb and Red Sea.
Expensive Maritime trade: Indian vessels due to attack by Houthis either take the route of Cape of Good Hope or need to pay heavy premium on vessel insurances. Both make maritime trade expensive for India.
Safety of India Diaspora: Any escalation in the situation leading to war like situation can risk the safety of 2.5 Million Indians in Saudi Arabia.
Geopolitical Challenge: Violence and continuous proxy-war will demean India efforts to balance relations with the US and Iran.
Spillover effect: In case of escalation the tensions may spill to the Horn of Africa making a new challenge to balance relations with Djibouti and Somalia.
What should be India's course of action in these complicated situations?
India should follow a pragmatic approach with a balance of Idealism containing values like humanity, peace and growth of the region.
India needs to strengthen trade ties with the Middle East, continuously engage with Iran, ensure diaspora security, build a strong naval presence in the Indian Ocean and diversify the energy basket to sail over the tides of challenges in the region.
