Geography & Environment & Disaster management

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What is the Potential of Biochar?

Context: India plans to launch its carbon market in 2026 aiming to reduce carbon emissions. Among the potential carbon removal technologies, Biochar has emerged as a promising option.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Concept of Biochar. 
Mains: Biochar: What, potential, benefits, challenges.

What is Biochar? 

  • Biochar is a type of charcoal rich in carbon produced from pyrolysis of biomass (agricultural residue, municipal solid waste) under limited or no oxygen conditions. It offers a sustainable alternative to manage waste and capture carbon. 
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India generates over 600 million metric tonnes of agricultural residue and over 60 million tonnes of municipal solid waste every year. A significant portion of both is burnt openly or dumped in landfills, leading to air pollution from particulate matter and greenhouse gases such as methane, nitrous oxide, and CO2. 

Utility of Biochar

  • Waste management: By using 30% to 50% of surplus waste, India can produce 15-26 million tonnes of biochar and remove 0.1 gigatonnes of CO2-equivalent annually. 
  • Byproducts of biochar production, such as syngas (20-30 million tonnes) and bio-oil (24-40 million tonnes), can generate additional electricity and fuels.
    • Utilising syngas could generate around 8-13 TWh of power, equivalent to 0.5-0.7% of India’s annual electricity generation, replacing 0.4-0.7 million tonnes of coal per year.
    • Bio-oil can potentially offset 12-19 million tonnes (or 8%) of diesel or kerosene production annually, leading to lower crude oil imports and reducing more than 2% of India’s total fossil-fuel-based emissions.
  • Carbon sink: Biochar can hold carbon in the soil for 100-1,000 years due to its strong and stable characteristics, making it an effective long-term carbon sink. 
  • Agriculture: 
    • Applying biochar can improve water retention, particularly in semi-dry and nutrient-depleted soils. This can abate nitrous oxide emissions by 30-50%.
    • Biochar can also enhance soil organic carbon helping restore degraded soils.
  • Industrial sector: In carbon capture applications, modified biochar can adsorb CO2 from industrial exhaust gases. 
  • Construction sector:
    • Biochar can be explored as a low-carbon alternative to building materials.
    • Adding 2-5% of biochar to concrete can improve mechanical strength, increase heat resistance by 20%, and capture 115 kg of CO2 per cubic metre, making building materials a stable carbon sink.
  • Wastewater treatment: Biochar offers a low-cost and effective option to reduce pollution. India generates more than 70 billion litres of wastewater every day, of which 72% is left untreated. A kilogram of biochar along with other substances can treat 200-500 litres of wastewater, implying a biochar demand potential of 2.5-6.3 million tonnes. 

What hinders Biochar’s Application? 

Despite its theoretically substantial potential to capture carbon, biochar remains underrepresented in carbon credit systems due to: 

  • Absence of standardised feedstock markets and consistent carbon accounting methods, which undermine investor confidence. 
  • Barriers such as limited resources, evolving technologies, market uncertainties, and insufficient policy support. 
  • Viable business models are yet to emerge for large-scale adoption. Market development is further constrained by:
    • limited awareness among stakeholders, 
    • weak ‘monitoring, reporting, verification’ frameworks, and
    • lack of coordination across areas such as agriculture, energy, and climate policy.

Way Forward

To enable large-scale adoption : 

  • Sustained support for R&D is essential to create region-specific feedstock standards and to optimize biomass utilisation rates based on agro-climatic zones and crop types.
  • Biochar should be systematically integrated into existing and upcoming frameworks, including crop residue management schemes, bioenergy initiatives in both urban and rural contexts, and state-level climate strategies under the State Action Plans on Climate Change. 
  • Recognising biochar as a verifiable carbon removal pathway within the Indian carbon market will generate additional income for investors and farmers through carbon credits. 
  • Deploying biochar production equipment at the village level has the potential to create approximately 5.2 lakh rural jobs, linking climate action with inclusive economic development.
  • The additional benefits of biochar, such as better soil health, lower fertilizer requirement (by 10-20%), and higher crop yield (by 10-25%), should be systematically integrated into policy and market frameworks to fully realise its potential.

Biochar, though not a silver bullet, offers a science-backed multisectoral pathway for India to achieve its climate and development goals.

What caused Flash Floods in Uttarkashi?

Context: Recently, flash floods and mudslides struck Dharali village in Uttarkashi, Uttarakhand. 

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Concept of Flash Floods and Cloudburst.Mains: Reasons behind flash floods in Uttarkashi.

While such disasters are frequent in the Himalayan region, this particular event was not caused by a cloudburst, but due to a dangerous combination of rugged topography, continuous rainfall, and geological fragility.

What are Flash Floods?

  • Flash floods are sudden surges in water levels in rivers or streams, often caused by intense rainfall, rapid snowmelt, or dam breaches. 

Causes Behind the Flash Floods in Uttarkashi: 

  • Rugged Himalayan Topography: 
    • Uttarkashi lies at an altitude between 800-6900 metres, with steep slopes, deep gorges, and narrow valleys. These steep gradients accelerate the flow of rainwater and landslide debris which make flash floods more intense and sudden.
    • The region's terrain causes rapid runoff, preventing water from percolating, and instead directing it forcefully into river systems.
  • Continuous Heavy Rainfall: Though not a cloudburst (which requires 100 mm/hour rainfall), Uttarkashi received persistent rainfall over several days, saturating the soil and weakening slopes. Saturated land is more prone to landslides and debris flow, which adds mass to flowing water, worsening the impact downstream.
  • Geological Vulnerability: The region consists of glacial moraines, unconsolidated sediments, and loose soil layers formed by past landslides. Even mild triggers like rainfall or tremors can cause massive slope failure, sweeping mud and rocks into river channels.
  • Accelerated Deglaciation due to Climate Change: Rising temperatures have led to increased melting of glaciers around Gangotri and Yamunotri. This meltwater, when combined with rainfall, increases the hydrological load, enhancing the chances of flash floods.
  • Lack of vegetation: Uttarkashi district is situated along the southern Himalayan slope, where there is limited vegetation and no significant obstruction. Mild triggers such as rainfall or earthquakes can cause loose moraine and soil to easily slither downhill, swallowing homes and roads along its path.

Why was it not a Cloudburst?

  • According to the India Meteorological Department (IMD): Rainfall of 100 mm or more in an hour over a roughly 10 km x 10 km area is classified as a cloudburst event.
  • On the day of the flash flood, Uttarkashi received only 2.7 mm, and stations reported well below cloudburst criteria. 
  • Thus, this was a widespread rain-induced landslide and flash flood, not a localised extreme rainfall event.
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The Uttarkashi flash floods are a classic example of how vulnerable Himalayan ecosystems are to even moderate but prolonged rainfall, especially when climate change and poor land-use practices compound the risk. This underlines the need for sustainable development, robust early warning systems, and disaster-resilient infrastructure in fragile hill regions.

Odisha and Chhattisgarh to ‘amicably’ resolve Mahanadi River Dispute 

Context: After a prolonged legal battle in a designated Mahanadi Water Disputes Tribunal over sharing of the Mahanadi river water, Odisha and Chhattisgarh have expressed willingness to resolve the dispute amicably between themselves.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key provision for resolution of Inter-State River Water Dispute. 

Inter-State River Water Dispute

  • Article 262 of the Constitution provides for the adjudication of inter-state water disputes. It makes two provisions:
    • Parliament may by law provide for the adjudication of any dispute or complaint with respect to the use, distribution and control of waters of any inter-state river and river valley.
    • Parliament may also provide that neither the Supreme Court nor any other court is to exercise jurisdiction in respect of any such dispute or complaint.

Under this provision, the Parliament has enacted two laws:

1. The River Boards Act 1956: 

  • The Act provides for the establishment of river boards for the regulation and development of inter-state river and river valleys. 
  • A river board is established by the Central government on the request of the state governments concerned to advise them.

2. Inter-State River Water Disputes Act 1956: 

  • The Inter-State River Water Disputes Act empowers the Central government to set up an ad hoc tribunal for the adjudication of a dispute between two or more states in relation to the waters of an inter-state river or river valley. 
  • The decision of the tribunal would be final and binding on the parties to the dispute. 
  • The Supreme Court nor any other court does not have jurisdiction in respect of any water dispute which may be referred to such a tribunal under this Act. 

Mahanadi River System

  • Mahanadi river rises in the Sihawa hills, Chhattisgarh. This is south of the Amarkantak Plateau region. 
  • Basin states: Chhattisgarh and Odisha and comparatively smaller portions of Jharkhand, Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh, draining an area of 1,41,589 sq. kms. The river drains into the Bay of Bengal. 
  • The Mahanadi basin is geographically bounded by:
    • Central India hills on the north
    • Eastern Ghats on the south and east
    • Maikal range in the west. 
  • Major Dams: 
    • Hirakud Dam (Odisha): One of the longest earthen dams in the world. 
    • Hasdeo Bango & Arpa Projects (Chhattisgarh). 
Left bank TributaryRight bank Tributary
Seonath Ong
HasdeoTel
MandJonk
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Mahanadi Water Disputes Tribunal: 

  • Mahanadi River Dispute: Odisha alleges that the upper riparian state Chhattisgarh had "illegally" constructed a number of barrages across the river and its tributaries, which has seriously affected inflow into the Hirakud reservoir in Odisha, particularly in the non-monsoon seasons.  
  • The Mahanadi Water Disputes Tribunal was established in 2018. The proceedings continued between 2018 and 2023 with data submissions, arguments, and inspections from both states.

It is to be noted that no inter-state water dispute in the country has ever been resolved entirely through tribunal proceedings. Hence, the move towards amicable resolution of the inter-state river water dispute between Odisha and Chhattisgarh is a step in the right direction. 

Flash Floods in India 

Context: Flash floods were recently reported in several districts of Himachal Pradesh due to intense rainfall over a short duration.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Concept of Flash Floods and affected regions. Mains: Key drivers of Flash Floods and mitigation strategies.

What Are Flash Floods?

  • According to the National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA): Flash floods are sudden and high-intensity floods that occur within six hours of a triggering event such as heavy rainfall, dam breach, cloudburst, or landslide. These floods are highly localised, short-lived, and destructive. 
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Key Drivers of Flash Floods:  

  • Extreme Precipitation: According to the study, only 25% of the flash floods that occur in India are directly caused by extreme precipitation. The rest of them are a result of a combination of extreme rainfall and the condition of the soil before precipitation.
  • Pre-wet Soil Conditions: Saturated soil cannot absorb new rainfall, leading to instant runoff.
  • Geomorphological Factors: In the Himalayas, geomorphological factors such as steep slopes, and high relief contribute to flash floods. 
  • Flashiness of Sub-basins: River basins that react quickly to rainfall lead to sudden floods. In the West Coast and Central India, flash floods are driven by the high flashiness of sub-basins, meaning water levels peak quickly after heavy rainfall. Prevailing soil conditions significantly influence how fast water infiltrates these sub-basins.
  • Multi-day Rainfall Events: The study notes that an extreme rainfall event leads to immediate flash floods (within six hours) only 23% of the time. Usually, it is the prolonged (multi-day) low-intensity and high-intensity rainfall which results in these floods.
  • Climate Change: With rising global temperatures, extreme weather events such as flash floods are increasing in frequency and intensity across the world. For every 1 degree Celsius rise in average temperature, the atmosphere can hold about 7% more moisture, leading to more intense precipitation which exacerbates the risk of flash floods.

Increasing Frequency and Regional Spread of Flash Floods: 

Recent flash floods in Himachal Pradesh, Assam, Goa, and parts of Central India highlight their increasing frequency and regional spread across diverse terrains. A study by researchers based at the Indian Institute of Technology (IIT)- Gandhinagar has found: 

  • Notable increase in flash flood events since 1995. Flash floods are mainly centred in the Himalayas, the west coast, and Central India.
  • Most of the flash floods occurred in the Brahmaputra River basin, followed by the Ganga and Krishna River basins.
  • The sub-basins located in the Himalayan regions and the southern parts of the Ganga River basin are highly prone to flash floods, whereas the sub-basins in the central regions of the Ganga River basin exhibit low flash flood susceptibility.

Way Forward

  • Adopt Region-Specific Adaptation strategies based on factors such as topography and soil conditions, and not just extreme rainfall events. This can help in developing better early warning systems, targeted disaster preparedness, and long-term adaptation plans.
  • Identify potential flash flood hotspots and take measures like building climate-resilient infrastructure to limit the impact of the extreme weather event.
  • Enhance land-use and flood planning in the wake of rising temperatures and changing rainfall patterns.

Long-term Air Pollution Exposure increases Dementia Risk

Context: A new large-scale study by Cambridge University researchers has found that long-term exposure to air pollution is linked to an increased risk of developing dementia. 

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Major Pollutants and associated Health risks; ROS. 

The data from the World Health Organisation (WHO) shows that 99% of the world’s population breathes air containing high levels of pollutants. 

Long-term Air Pollution Exposure increases Dementia Risk: Highlights of the Study

S. No. Pollutants Description Associated Risks
1.PM 2.5Extremely fine particulate matter with a diameter of 2.5 micrometres or less. 


Predominantly produced by vehicle emissions and thermal power plants. 		For every 10 micrograms per cubic metre (µg/m³) of long-term exposure to PM2.5, an individual’s relative risk of dementia would increase by 17% from the baseline. 
2.Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) Produced primarily due to the burning of fossil fuels by vehicles, thermal power plants, and various industrial processes. For every 10 μg/m³ of long-term exposure to nitrogen dioxide, the relative risk of dementia increased by 3%.
3.Soot Soot or Black Carbon comes from sources such as vehicle exhaust emissions and burning wood.  The study reported that dementia risk jumped by 13% for each 1 μg/m³ of long-term soot exposure.

What is Dementia?

  • Dementia is a term for several diseases that affect memory, thinking, and the ability to perform daily activities. The illness gets worse over time, and mainly affects older people. 
  • According to WHO, ~57 million people worldwide had dementia in 2021. The number is expected to increase to at least 150 million cases by 2050. The rise in air pollution, especially in developing countries, might lead to an even sharper rise in cases. 
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How Air Pollution causes Dementia?

  • When pollutants are inhaled, the body’s immune system fights back through the release of Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS). ROS are the chemicals used by immune cells to neutralise foreign substances. When larger concentrations of pollutants are inhaled, greater amounts of ROS are released.
  • However, ROS is damaging for the body’s cells as well. Therefore, as a natural counter-defence mechanism, the body produces another set of chemicals called antioxidants, that protect the cells against ROS.
  • But Antioxidants are present in small quantities, and take time to build up. So, while they are able to effectively deal with smaller amounts of ROS, they are helpless when ROS is produced in large amounts. 
  • Thus, oxidative stress is caused by an imbalance between the production of Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) and the body’s ability to detoxify them- leading to cellular damage from excess ROS.
  • Both oxidative stress and resulting inflammation in the brain play a well-established role in the onset and progression of dementia. Air pollution triggers these processes through direct entry of pollutants to the brain or via the same mechanisms underlying lung and cardiovascular diseases.

These findings underscore the need for an interdisciplinary approach to dementia prevention. That means along with healthcare interventions, there is a need to strengthen urban planning, transport policy, and environmental regulation.

Kaziranga Tiger Reserve records third-highest Tiger Density in India

Context: As per the latest large-scale assessment of Tiger population, Assam’s Kaziranga Tiger Reserve has the third-highest density of tigers in India.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Kaziranga National Park and Tiger Reserve; Tiger Conservation initiatives; Key facts about Tigers. 

Kaziranga Tiger Reserve records third-highest Tiger Density in India

  • Assam’s Kaziranga Tiger Reserve has secured its position as India’s third-highest tiger density hotspot. 
  • The tiger population in the reserve has increased to 148, and the density of tigers stands at 18.65 tigers per 100 square kilometers, trailing only after:
    • Bandipur Tiger Reserve (19.83) in Karnataka
    • Corbett National Park (19.56) in Uttarakhand
  • The implementation of advanced technology, such as M-STrIPES, Drones, and Electronic Eye surveillance systems has significantly improved monitoring, anti-poaching measures, movement tracking, and habitat monitoring, leading to better data. 
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Kaziranga National Park and Tiger Reserve

  • Location: Assam 
  • 70% of the area of National Park is covered by grasslands.
  • The park area is circumscribed by the Brahmaputra River, which forms the northern and eastern boundaries and Mora Diphlu, which forms the southern boundary. Other notable rivers within the park are the Diphlu and Mora Dhansiri.
  • Kaziranga has an estimated 2613 one-horned rhinos and is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. 
  • Key Fauna: Tiger, Leopard, Indian Elephant, Wild water buffalo, Swamp deer, Sloth Bear, Hoolock Gibbon. 
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Key Facts about Tiger

  • Tiger is an umbrella species. Its conservation automatically ensures the conversation of a large number of flora and fauna and entire ecosystems.
  • India is home to 75% of the global tiger population. 
    • The National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA) conducts a tiger census across India every 4 years.
    • Latest Tiger Census Report (2022): India has 3682 tigers. (2967 in 2018)
    • Madhya Pradesh has the highest number of tigers (785) in India, followed by Karnataka and Uttarakhand. 
  • Conservation status: 
    • IUCN Red List: Endangered 
    • Wildlife Protection Act: Schedule 1
    • CITES: Appendix 1

First-ever Grassland Bird Census in Kaziranga Tiger Reserve 

Context: The first-ever grassland bird census was conducted in Assam’s Kaziranga National Park and Tiger Reserve with the use of passive acoustic recording monitoring technology.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Kaziranga National Park and Tiger Reserve; Key fauna. 

First-ever Grassland bird census in Kaziranga Tiger Reserve

  • Aim: To document and conserve rare and endemic grassland birds threatened by habitat loss.
  • The survey prioritised 10 species that are either globally threatened or endemic to the Brahmaputra floodplains:
    • Bengal Florican (Critically Endangered), Swamp Francolin, Finn’s Weaver, Swamp Grass Babbler, Jerdon’s Babbler, Slender-billed Babbler, Black-breasted Parrotbill, Marsh Babbler, Bristled Grassbird, and Indian Grassbird. 
  • The survey recorded a total of 43 grassland bird species, including 1 Critically Endangered, 2 Endangered, and 6 Vulnerable species.

Methodology used in the Census: 

  • Surveying these small, shy, and highly camouflaged birds is very difficult using traditional methods like visual counting. 
  • So, the acoustic recorders were placed in tall trees near grasslands during the breeding season of the birds (between March and May). This is the season when the birds are very vocal, calling out for mates and with males defending territory. The instruments recorded all the birds singing in the landscape. Then, software was used to create a spectrogram, and Artificial Intelligence (AI) was used to identify the birds based on the recordings.

An AI tool called Birdnet was used which uses machine learning to try and identify species by bird song. Grassland birds are an indicator of good health of the grassland ecosystem. The presence of these birds tells us that the habitat is healthy.

Threats to the habitats of Grassland Birds: 

  • In the past four decades, Assam has lost around 70% of its grasslands. The reasons include:
    • Anthropogenic factors such as overgrazing and clearing of grasslands for cultivation. 
    • Natural phenomenon called ecological succession (which is basically an instinct for grasslands to gradually transition to forests).
    • Climate Change 

Kaziranga National Park and Tiger Reserve

  • Location: Assam 
  • 70% of the area of National Park is covered by grasslands.
  • The park area is circumscribed by the Brahmaputra River, which forms the northern and eastern boundaries and Mora Diphlu, which forms the southern boundary. Other notable rivers within the park are the Diphlu and Mora Dhansiri.
  • Kaziranga has an estimated 2613 one-horned rhinos and is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. 
  • Key Fauna: Tiger, Leopard, Indian Elephant, Wild water buffalo, Swamp deer, Sloth Bear, Hoolock Gibbon. 

Environment Protection (Management of Contaminated Sites) Rules 2025

Context: The Union Ministry of Environment has notified Environment Protection (Management of Contaminated Sites) Rules 2025 to address chemically contaminated sites across India. 

Relevance of the Topic:  Prelims: Salient Features of Environment Protection (Management of Contaminated Sites) Rules, 2025. 

Environment Protection (Management of Contaminated Sites) Rules 2025

  • Notified by the Union Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.
  • First formal legal mechanism in India to address the issue of contaminated land.
  • Aim: To establish a comprehensive legal and procedural framework to identify, assess, and remediate chemically contaminated sites across India.

Contaminated Sites:

  • According to the Central Pollution Control Board, contaminated sites are those where hazardous and other waste had been dumped historically.
  • These sites may include landfills, dumps, waste storage and treatment sites, spill sites, and chemical waste handling and storage sites.
  • India has identified 103 such sites, but remedial operations have been initiated in only seven. 
  • Some of the sites were contaminated when there was no regulation on management of hazardous waste.

Salient Features of the Rules:

The rules define a step-by-step legal procedure to identify and clean up contaminated sites. Under these rules: 

  • The district administration would prepare half-yearly reports on suspected contaminated sites.
  • A State Board, or a reference organisation, would examine these sites and provide a preliminary assessment within 90 days of being informed. Following these, it would have another 3 months to make a detailed survey and finalise if these sites were indeed contaminated. 
  • A reference organisation, basically a body of experts, would be tasked with specifying a remediation plan. 
  • The State Board would also have 90 days to identify the person(s) responsible for the contamination. Those deemed responsible would have to pay for the cost of remediation of the site. Else, the Centre and the State, under a prescribed arrangement, would arrange for the costs of clean-up. 
  • Any criminal liability, if it is proved that such contamination caused loss of life or damage would be under the provisions of the Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita (2023).

SC panel proposes power corridors through Great Indian Bustard habitat

Context: The Supreme Court panel has proposed power corridors to reroute overhead power lines in Bustard habitats in Gujarat and Rajasthan. The idea behind creating power corridors is to ensure that birds, especially in high-risk habitats are not forced to repeatedly navigate through a maze of criss-crossing power lines.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Great Indian Bustard. 

Great Indian Bustard

  • A large bird of the bustard family, it is one of the heaviest flying birds in the world.
  • Physical characteristics and behaviour:
    • Black crown on the forehead contrasting with the pale neck and head. 
    • The body is brownish and the wings are marked with black, brown and grey. 
    • Males and females generally grow to the same height and weight but males have larger black crowns and a black band across the breast. 
    • They breed mostly during the monsoon season when females lay a single egg on open ground. 
    • Males play no role in the incubation and care of the young, which remain with the mother till the next breeding season.
    • They feed on grass seeds, insects like grasshoppers and beetles, and sometimes even small rodents and reptiles.
  • Habitat: 
    • Bustards generally favour flat open landscapes with minimal visual obstruction and disturbance, therefore adapt well in grasslands. 
    • They avoid grasses taller than themselves and dense scrub like thickets.
  • Distribution: Its population is confined mostly to Rajasthan and Gujarat. Small populations occur in Maharashtra, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh.
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Threats

The estimated population of the large bird- once considered a candidate for national bird- is below 150. 

  • Owing to its poor vision, the GIB is at high risk of injury and death due to collisions with high tension electric wires. 
  • Hunting and Occasional poaching for eggs outside Protected Areas 
  • Fast moving vehicles 
  • Free-ranging dogs in villages. 
  • Habitat loss and alteration as a result of widespread agricultural expansion and mechanised farming.
  • Infrastructural development such as irrigation, roads, electric poles, as well as mining and industrialisation.

Conservation Status:

  • IUCN Status: Critically Endangered
  • Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972: Schedule I 
  • CITES: Appendix-I 
  • Declared as the state bird of Rajasthan. 

Conservation Efforts by Government of India

  • Listed in Schedule-I of the Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972, thereby accorded the highest degree of legal protection from hunting.
  • Important habitats of Great Indian Bustards are designated as National Parks/ sanctuaries for their better protection.
  • Identified for conservation efforts under the component ‘Species Recovery Programme’ of the Centrally Sponsored Scheme- Development of Wildlife Habitats. 
  • Conservation breeding has been undertaken in collaboration with Rajasthan, Gujarat and Maharashtra Forest Departments with technical support of Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun.
  • A satellite conservation breeding facility has been established at Sam, Jaisalmer, Rajasthan.

Mangroves and role of M.S Swaminathan in Mangroves Conservation

Context: July 26 is observed as the International Day for the Conservation of the Mangrove Ecosystem. At the national level, M.S. Swaminathan was instrumental in revolutionising India's management of Mangroves.

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: Key facts about Mangroves.

Mains: Significance of Mangroves and role of M.S Swaminathan in Mangroves Conservation.

What are Mangroves ?

  • Mangroves are salt-tolerant trees and shrubs that grow in intertidal coastal zones, where the land meets the sea, especially in tropical and subtropical regions.

Key Features of Mangroves:

  • Halophytes: They thrive in salty brackish water.
  • Aerial Roots (Pneumatophores): Help in breathing in oxygen-poor (anaerobic) soil.
  • Vivipary: Seeds germinate while still on the parent tree- a unique adaptation.
  • Buttress and Prop Roots: Provide stability in loose, waterlogged soils.
  • Habitat: Found in estuaries, lagoons, backwaters, and river deltas.

Ecological Importance:

  • Coastal Protection: Act as natural barriers against tsunamis, cyclones, storm surges, and erosion.
  • Carbon Sink: Store large amounts of carbon- called "blue carbon".
  • Biodiversity Hotspots: Provide breeding grounds for fish, crabs, mollusks, and migratory birds.
  • Water Purification : Filter sediments and pollutants from water flowing to the sea.

Mangroves in India

  • According to the India State of Forest Report (ISFR) 2023, the total mangrove cover in India is 4,991.68 sq. km, which constitutes 0.15% of the country’s total geographical area.
  • Compared to ISFR 2019, there has been a net increase of 16.68 sq. km in mangrove cover across India.
  • Mangroves are known by different local names across various regions of India: Sundari Forest in West Bengal, Tivar Forest in Gujarat, Kandal Forests in Kerala etc.  
image 52

Contribution of M.S Swaminathan in Mangroves Conservation

M.S Swaminathan played a pivotal role in mangrove restoration, conservation and management. 

  • Highlighted mangroves as a key solution to rising sea levels and cyclones at a Tokyo conference on climate change, at the climate change and Human Responses Conference in Tokyo in 1989.
  • Proposed sustainable mangrove management as a climate adaptation measure, rooted in:
    • Ecology- preserving coastal ecosystems
    • Economics- protecting livelihoods
    • Equity- involving local communities
  • Proposed using mangrove genes to develop salt-tolerant crops like rice.
  • Co-founded the International Society for Mangrove Ecosystems (ISME) and served as its first president (1990-93). ISME conducts assessment of economic and environmental values of mangrove forests, organises workshops on mangrove conservation and sustainable utilization, public World Mangrove Atlas.
  • Co-created the Charter for Mangroves and included it in the World Charter for Nature, prepared by the United Nations conference on Environment and Degradation. 
  • Supported creation of the Global Mangrove Database and Information System (GLOMIS) to document mangrove experts, research, and species.
  • Guided the evaluation of 23 mangrove sites across nine countries, leading to a global network of Mangrove Genetic Resource Centres.

Revolutionised India's Management of Mangroves: 

  • Moved attention from blaming local communities to identifying ecological causes of mangrove degradation, instead highlighted clear-felling and altered bio-physical conditions as the real cause of mangrove degradation.
  • Introduced the fishbone canal method, a hydro-ecological technique successfully tested in Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, and West Bengal. This technique is used to artificially inundate areas that do not get regular tidal inundation.
  • Advocated for Joint Mangrove Management (JMM) involving local communities and State Forest Departments, 
  • His efforts led to increased government investments in mangrove conservation, especially after the 1999 Odisha cyclone and 2004 tsunami.

Tracking India’s Climate Goals

Context: As per the latest data from the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy, India has achieved 50% of its installed electricity capacity (242.8 GW) from non-fossil fuel sources out of the total 484.8 GW installed capacity five years ahead of its 2030 target. 

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims and Mains: India’s Climate Commitment Goals: Achievements, Govt. Initiatives, Challenges and Way Forward. 

India’s Climate Commitment Goals

  • India submitted its updated Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) under the Paris Agreement to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) in 2022. India aims to:
    • Achieve 50% of its installed electric power capacity from non-fossil fuel sources by 2030.
    • Reduce its GDP emission intensity by 45% by 2030 compared to 2005 levels.
    • Create an additional carbon sink of 2.5 to 3 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent from forest and tree cover by 2030. 
  • At COP26 (Glasgow, 2021), India announced its long-term goal to achieve the target of net zero greenhouse gas emissions by 2070. 
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India achieves 50% Non-Fossil Fuel Power Generation Capacity: 

As per the latest data from the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy-

  • India has achieved 50% of its installed electricity capacity (242.8 GW) from non-fossil fuel sources out of the total 484.8 GW installed capacity in June 2025, five years ahead of its 2030 target. 
  • The 50% share of non-fossil sources in installed electricity capacity was contributed by sources such as large hydropower, nuclear, and renewable energies like wind and solar. E.g., In 2024 almost 30 GW of renewable energy was installed, of which solar energy stood at nearly 24 GW.

Future Targets: 

  • India’s stated climate objective is to achieve at least 500 GW of non-fossil fuel-based electricity capacity by 2030. For the target to materialise, significant contributions need to come from nuclear power. 
  • India's current nuclear energy capacity is 8.78 GW. India is  currently building 10 nuclear reactors that are expected to become operational during this timeframe to scale this capacity to about 17 GW by 2030. 

Energy Capacity vs Generation: 

  • The 50% share of non-fossil fuels in installed capacity does not mean half of India’s electricity is clean. Electricity generation from renewable sources is intermittent and dependent on timing, seasonality, and climate. As such, the share of non-fossil fuels in electricity generation is lower than its share in installed capacity.
  • Data from the Central Electricity Authority show that in May 2025, non-fossil fuel sources, including large hydro and nuclear, accounted for 28% of electricity generation in India.
  • Electricity itself forms a small part of the energy basket. Less than 22% of India’s total energy consumption is done in the form of electricity. The rest happens through direct burning of fossil fuels such as oil, coal and gas.

Therefore, electricity forms about 22% of India’s total energy consumption, and non-fossil fuel sources account for about 28% of electricity generation. This means clean energy from non-fossil fuel sources accounts for just about 6% of India’s total energy consumption. 

Progress on Forestry Target

  • According to official data submitted to UNFCCC, about 2.29 billion tonnes of additional carbon sink has already been created by 2021. 
  • It is estimated that India has likely added 2.5 to 3 billion tonnes of additional carbon sink. (Official data is to be released soon by the next edition of India State of the Forest Report). 
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Emissions Intensity Target: 

  • There is less information on the progress being made on the emissions intensity target. India aimed to reduce its emissions per unit of GDP at least 45% from 2005 levels by 2030.
  • The latest data (2020) on emissions intensity show that India had already reduced it by 36% from 2005 levels. 

Policy-Driven Progress Fuelling Clean Energy Growth: 

The achievements reflect the success of policy design and implementation of key Flagship programmes such as:

  • PM-KUSUM (Pradhan Mantri Kisan Urja Suraksha evam Utthaan Mahabhiyan) empowered lakhs of farmers by providing solar-powered pumps enabling sustainable agriculture, and opened avenues for Agrovoltaics and feeder-level solarisation. 
  • PM Surya Ghar Yojana- brought about the rooftop revolution fostering decentralised energy generation.
  • Solar Park Development
  • National Wind-Solar Hybrid Policy 

Way Forward

India can further expand renewable power generation by- 

  • Getting access to international finance and technology that it is entitled to under the provisions of the Paris Agreement
  • Expanding the deployment of Battery Energy Storage Systems (BESS)
  • Deployment Pumped Hydro Storage
  • Accelerated investments in Green Hydrogen 
  • Accelerating the deployment of Bharat Small Modular Reactors. 

 As the country moves toward the goal of 500 GW of non-fossil capacity by 2030 and net-zero emissions by 2070, the path forward must be inclusive and driven by technology. 

Ambrosia Beetle and Fungus threat to Kerala’s Rubber Plantation

Context: Kerala Forest Research Institute has identified a serious threat to rubber plantations in Kerala from an invasive species- the Ambrosia Beetle, in mutual association with two fungi: Fusarium ambrosia and Fusarium solani. 

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: About Invasive Alien species, Ambrosia beetles, Rubber Plantations in India. 

As per the official data of 2024, India is the world’s fourth-largest producer of rubber in the world. Kerala alone accounts for 90% of India's total production and 72% of its rubber cultivation area. Threat to rubber plantations in Kerala from an invasive species- Ambrosia Beetle, is a serious concern. 

Ambrosia Beetles

  • Ambrosia Beetles is an Invasive Alien species.
  • Native to Central and South America.
  • First reported in India in the cashew trees in Goa in 2012.
  • The name Ambrosia is not taxonomic but ecological. They get their name from the ambrosia fungi that call the beetle their home. 
  • Have a mutual association with 2 fungal species - Fusarium ambrosia and Fusarium solani.

Mutual Association of Fungi with Ambrosia Beetle

  • Ambrosia beetles dig tunnels (called galleries) in tree bark and carry fungal spores with them.
  • These fungi grow inside the tunnels. The beetles and their larvae do not eat wood; instead, they feed on the nutrient-rich fungal mycelia growing inside the tunnels.
  • The fungi weaken the wood by secreting enzymes, allowing the beetles to go deeper.
image 49

How is it a threat to Rubber Plants?

  • The fungi travel deep inside the plant, especially through the xylem (the water-carrying tubes of plants), this blocks water flow making the tree dry out and die.
  • The infection also affects total latex production from rubber trees causing economic and agricultural losses.
  • Controlling the fungal infection is difficult as the Fungi reside in deeper parts of the infected plant, where insecticides or fungicides often do not reach. Once infected, the tree takes a long time to recover or may not survive at all.

A few species of ambrosia beetles, including Euplatypus parallelus, are invasive and threaten horticulture and silviculture worldwide. The infection also makes other economically significant plants such as coffee, cashew, mango, and coconut vulnerable to infections.

Being flying insects, the beetles can access a variety of trees. It can infest more than 80 species of broadleaf trees including cashew, teak, coconut, and coffee. Additionally, it may associate with other pathogenic fungi posing a bigger threat to plantations.

Way Forward

To combat the infection the experts suggest to: 

  • Sustainable treatments such as using antagonistic fungi to outcompete pathogenic Fusarium species.
  • Apply microbial consortia with a diversity of bacterial species that can live inside plants, colonise plant tissues and enhance resistance to fungal infections.
  • Remove infected parts of the trees- burn or chip away any part that displays holes.
  • Rubber farmers have called for the use of genetically modified (GM) rubber plants.

Also Read: Govt raises funding for development of natural rubber sector 

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