Context: The Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI) has launched Operation Chakra-V against Transnational Organised Cybercrime and Digital Arrests. Digital arrest is one of the many large-scale organised cybercrimes in India.
Relevance of The Topic: Prelims- Key facts about Digital Arrest.
Digital Arrest
A digital arrest is a type of cyber fraud in which scammers pose as law enforcement or government officials and use intimidation tactics to manipulate victims.
They claim that the victim is under investigation for crimes such as money laundering or other legal issues.
To make their threats more convincing, scammers may use fake video or phone calls, falsely stating the victim is "digitally arrested" or at risk of severe consequences unless they comply.
According to Indian Cyber Crime Coordination Centre (I4C), Indians are likely to lose over ₹1.2 lakh crore, roughly 0.7% of the GDP, over the next year due to cyber frauds.
Context: Recently, Sattriya dance was performed during the Rongali Bihu celebrations in Assam. Rongali Bihu (Bohag Bihu) marks the beginning of the Assamese New Year, coinciding with the first day of Hindu Solar calendar (mid April/ Baisakha).
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Sattriya Dance.
It derives its name from the ‘satras’ (Vaishnavite monasteries) of Assam.
It emerged in the 15th century as part of the neo-Vaishnavite Bhakti movement spearheaded by Srimanta Sankardev (a saint and social reformer).
It is based on the Borgeet (devotional songs) composed by Sankardev and his disciple Madhavadev.
The dance was originally practiced solely by male bhokots (monks), and its performance was strictly limited to the confines of the satras.
Now, the dance can be categorised into two styles:
Paurashik Bhangi: masculine style involves more energetic gestures and leaps.
Stri Bhangi: feminine style characterised by more delicate gestures and poised feminine movements.
The dance is a crucial part of the region’s neo-Vaishnavite worship system. It is a vibrant expression of devotion, spirituality, and tradition. It combines the elements- nritta (pure dance), nritya (expressive dance) and natya (drama).
Context: India’s new e-waste recycling regulations, aimed at formalising the sector and enhancing environmental sustainability, have triggered strong opposition from several global electronics manufacturers including Daikin, Hitachi, and Samsung.
Relevance of the topic:
Prelims: Key facts related to e-waste in India.
Mains: Issues related to e-waste recycling in India.
Current Status of E-Waste in India:
India is the third-largest e-waste generator globally, after China and the US. In FY24, the country generated 1.7 million tonnes of e-waste, more than double the amount from six years ago.
Despite rapid growth in consumer electronics (estimated at $62 billion in 2025), only 43% of the country's e-waste is officially recycled. Comparatively, the US and China have significantly higher recycling rates.
At least 80% of the sector comprises informal scrap dealers, whose methods can pose environmental and health risks.
What is E- Waste?
As per the E-Waste (Management) Rules, 2022, e-waste is defined as: electrical and electronic equipment, including solar photovoltaic modules or panels or cells, whole or in part, discarded or rejected from manufacturing, refurbishment and repair processes.
Examples: Large household appliances like Refrigerators, air conditioners, washing machines ; Consumer electronics like Televisions, computers, laptops, smartphones etc.
E-waste can contain materialof economic benefit such as plastics, iron, glass, aluminum, copper, silver, gold, platinum, palladium and indium etc. and rare earth elements.
E-Waste contains hazardous substances such as Lead, Cadmium, Mercury, Hexavalent Chromium, Polychlorinated Bi-phenyls (PCBs), Brominated Flame Retardants (BFR), etc.
Management of E-Waste in India is regulated under E-Waste (Management) Rules, 2022 under the Environment Protection Act, 1986.
India’s E-Waste Regulations
Concerned about poor waste processing practices, the Indian government has introduced a minimum floor price for recycling electronic goods to incentivise formal recycling.
The rules mandate: Rs 22/kg for consumer electronics and Rs34/kg for smartphones.
The Policy aims to:
Discourage environmentally harmful practices in the informal sector, which handles over 80% of India’s e-waste using dangerous techniques like acid leaching and open burning.
Incentivise formal recycles by ensuring a guaranteed revenues for processing e-waste.
Strengthen Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) and promote circular economy.
Firms’ Response
The firms are urging environment officials to abandon the approach, with four companies suing the Central government over the measures they say will heighten compliance woes and increased costs will cascade into higher consumer prices unsettling businesses
For example, Hitachi stated that its recycling cost has risen nearly fourfold, from Rs 6/kg to Rs22/kg, translating into millions of dollars in additional expenses.
Government’s Response:
The government has maintained that it was ‘reasonable’ and within its powers to fix prices. Allowing companies and recyclers to set their own prices could lead to cost-cutting and unsafe practices.
There are currently 322 authorised recyclers in India. The government believes the floor price will help develop scientific recycling infrastructure and attract more investments in the sector.
The stand-off marks the latest chapter in foreign companies’ battles with India over what some perceive as protectionist policies and shifting regulatory goal posts.
Context: Stubble burning is not just a result of farmers' apathy but a systemic outcome of distorted marketing systems and neo-liberal governance.
Relevance of the Topic: Mains: Factors leading to stubble burning.
Factors contributing to Pollution in Northern India
Every winter, the Indo-Gangetic Plains in India are enveloped in a dense shroud of pollution. Two major factors contributing to this alarming environmental condition are:
1. Temperature Inversion:
Withdrawal of monsoonal winds and the onset of cooler temperatures creates an Inversion Layer, an atmospheric condition conducive to pollution accumulation.
A layer of warm air traps cooler air beneath it, inhibiting vertical dispersion of pollutants such as vehicular emissions, industrial smoke, construction dust, and suspended particulate matter. These pollutants, instead of dispersing into the upper atmosphere, remain concentrated near the surface causing a dense smog.
2. Stubble Burning:
Farmers in Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh rely on stubble burning as a cost-effective and time-saving method to clear paddy residue before sowing Rabi wheat.
As per a 2023 study by IIT Kanpur, IIT Delhi, TERI, and Airshed, stubble burning contributed an average of 22% to air pollution levels between mid-October and end-November 2022, with peak contributions reaching 35%. These findings are consistent with previous estimates ranging from 20% to 40%, underscoring the recurring and significant role of agricultural residue burning in deteriorating air quality.
Complex Issue of Stubble Burning
Although often viewed as a law-and-order issue or individual farmer negligence, recent studies indicate that this is a systemic outcome of distorted marketing systems and neo-liberal governance.
Distorted Agricultural Incentives: Preferential procurement of wheat and rice under Minimum Support Price, indirectly promotes monocropping and discourages crop diversification. The narrow crop choices reduce flexibility, compelling farmers to use quick and low-cost methods like stubble burning to prepare for the next sowing cycle.
Issues in APMCs and Intermediary dependence: The agricultural marketing system is dominated by middlemen (arhtiyas), who exercise control over pricing, credit access, and market connectivity. Farmers are often forced to sell at low prices, leading to chronic indebtedness and financial stress. Low crop prices → low income → less ability to afford clean alternatives → more stubble burning.
Stagnant MSP rates (E.g., wheat prices rose only 5% over a decade) fail to cover rising cultivation costs, including labour and equipment.
Neo-liberal Governance and ‘Governmentality’: Drawing from Michel Foucault’s concept of ‘governmentality’, the IIM Amritsar study highlights that the state nudges farmers toward self-regulation without adequate institutional support. On one hand, farmers are penalised for stubble burning, while on the other, the state continues to push for higher grain production to meet food security goals. This contradictory stance fosters sub-optimal behaviours like stubble burning as coping mechanisms within a broken system.
Hence, the state and market forces create a cycle of marginalisation, pushing farmers toward stubble burning as a survival tactic.
Remedial Measures
Market Development for Stubble-Based Products: Focus on developing a market for stubble and stubble-based products, such as fodder, energy products like pellets and packaging materials, aimed to boost farmers’ income, while simultaneously addressing climate change challenges.
Policy and Market intervention: Currently, there is a significant lack of an efficient market mechanism for farm-waste, underscoring the need for policy and market interventions to bridge this gap.
Fair prices for Farmers: Ensuring that farmers receive fair prices for their produce by addressing existing inefficiencies within the market system. Digitise procurement platforms to reduce intermediary exploitation.
Addressing Aspirational consumption: Recognise the role of aspirational consumption in exacerbating farm indebtedness. Socio-cultural organisations, including religious groups, could play a role in de-marketing non-essential aspirational consumption.
Stubble burning is not merely an act of environmental negligence but a manifestation of deeper agrarian and policy dysfunctions. Addressing the issue requires a farmer-centric, market-sensitive, and ecologically sustainable integrated approach.
Context: Indian Air Force’s transport aircraft carrying relief materials to earthquake-hit Myanmar faced “GPS spoofing”. India sent relief materials to Myanmar in a C-130J aircraft and its pilots reported that the plane's GPS signal was tamperedwith, when it was in Myanmar’s airspace.
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts related to GPS Spoofing.
GPS Spoofing
GPS (global positioning system) spoofing is a form of cyberattack that includes generating false GPS signals to mislead an aircraft, ships and vehicles. The false signals result in misleading the navigation equipment, posing a significant risk to the aircraft, ships etc.
How does GPS Spoofing work?
GPS spoofing exploits the inherent vulnerabilities in the GPS infrastructure – the weak signal strength of GPS satellites. GPS systems function by sending signals from satellites to GPS receivers on Earth. These receivers then calculate their position based on the time it takes for these signals to arrive.
However, due to the weak signal strength of the GPS satellites, these signals can be easily overwhelmed by fake signals, resulting in inaccurate location data on the receiving device.
The act of GPS spoofing typically involves using a signal generator or other sophisticated equipment to transmit counterfeit GPS signals that are stronger than the genuine satellite signals. These false signals, when picked up by a GPS receiver, can cause it to calculate an incorrect position or time.
Some entities that may carry out GPS spoofing :
Governments/military: defence, sensitive facility protection, tactical warfare, espionage etc.
Criminals/hackers: illegal activities, transportation or communication systems disruption, cargo theft, victim tracking, stalking.
Private organisations: location manipulation, competitive advantage, fraud etc.
Measures to prevent GPS Spoofing:
As a response to the increasing prevalence of GPS spoofing, various countermeasures are being developed to secure GPS-based systems, including signal strength monitoring, time-of-arrival analysis, and cryptographic authentication.
Furthermore, experts suggest the use of multiple satellite navigation systems to cross-verify and validate positioning data, thus minimising the risk of spoofing attacks.
Context:Telangana has become the first State to notify subcategorisation of Scheduled Castes after the Supreme Court verdict by classifying the 59 sub-castes into three groups for implementation of the reservation.
Relevance of the Topic: Mains: Subcategorisation of SCs: Benefits and Challenges.
Background:
On 1 August 2024, a seven-judge constitution bench of the Supreme Court in the State of Punjab vs Davinder Singh judgement held that sub-classification of SC and ST categories is permissible. Also, States have power to create these sub-classifications.
Earlier, the Supreme Court in E. V. Chinnaiah vs State of Andhra Pradesh (2004) had ruled that sub-classification was not permissible in the SC category. The Davinder Singh Judgement has overturned the E. V. Chinnaiah judgement.
Karnataka has formed a commission headed by (Justice) Nagmohan Das to collect empirical data in this regard.
Present Status of Reserved Categories
Currently, the entire Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes are treated as one large class. There is no sub-categorisation among these communities.
However, even among the SCs and STs, there are communities which are relatively more backward. Thus, there has been an ongoing demand for allowing sub-categorisation in these communities enabling the relatively backward in these communities to apportion greater benefits.
Constitutional Status of Scheduled Castes
Article 366 (24): Scheduled Castes are defined to mean such castes, tribes or parts or groups within such castes, races or tribes as deemed under Article 341 of the Constitution.
Article 341(1): President has given the power to notify castes, races or tribes which shall be deemed to be Scheduled Castes for a State or UT. The President will notify the SCs for a State or UT in consultation with the Governor of the State.
Article 341(2): Parliament may by law include or exclude any caste, race, or tribe from the list of Scheduled Castes specified in the Presidential notification issued under Article 341(1).
Articles 342 and Article 342-A relate to notification of STs and SEBCs respectively and contain provisions similar to Article 341.
Judgement in EV Chinnaiah Case (2004)
The SC held that 'Scheduled Castes' (SCs) notified under Article 341 formed one homogenous group and could not be sub-categorised further.
Sub-classification would amount to tinkering with the Presidential order issued under Article 341. States have no such power to amend the Presidential order.
Sub-classification amounts to giving preference to a 'miniscule proportion' of the SCs, over other members of the SCs which would be impermissible under Article 14 (Right to Equality).
Indira Sawhney judgement permitted the sub-classification of the Other Backward Classes, but this is not applicable to SCs.
Salient Features of Davinder Singh Judgement (2024)
Sub-classification and States interference with SC list:
In the EV Chinnaiah judgement, the court opined that sub-classification amounts to states tinkering with Presidential List under Article 341. However, in the Davinder Singh Case, the SC (2024) held that sub-classification did not lead to including or excluding any caste through legislation. Thus, did not amount to tinkering with the list.
Also, States had the legislative power to create sub-classification as it did not amount to tampering with the Presidential List. This power stemmed from Article 15 and Article 16 of the Constitution.
Article 14 of the Constitution
Article 14 is an amalgamation of two expressions - equality before law and equal protection of laws.
Equality before law means absence of special privileges for any individual. However, it does not mean that the same law should apply to everyone, but that the same law should apply to those who are similarly situated.
Equal protection of laws means that laws must be administered equally among equals. This also enjoins the State with power to reasonably classify those who are differently placed.
Thus, equality under Article 14 is not 'sameness' but that there must be a parity of treatment under parity of conditions. The substantive equality under the Article calls for equality of opportunities over equality of treatment.
Sub-classification is a facet of equality and law can further classify a class that is already created by law for a limited purpose. The classification should be based on intelligible differentia and rational nexus.
Intelligible Differentia means a discernible and understandable distinction. Thus, the distinction should be based on clear criterion or standard.
Rational nexus: There should be a clear and rational link between classification criterion and intended outcome or goal of the classification.
The test to determine whether sub-classification within a class is justified under Article 14, is whether the class is homogenous or not.
Homogeneity of SCs
There is historical and empirical evidence to show that SCs are not a homogenous class.
Hardships and backwardness which SCs have suffered historically would differ from category to category.
Some communities are included in the Presidential list while the same community has not been included in SCs in other states, highlighting the non-homogenous nature of SCs.
The word 'deemed' in Article 341 was not indicative of creation of legal fiction. The intention of this legal fiction created under Article 341 was for the limited purpose of identifying the SCs and differentiating them from other groups. It was not an indicator of homogeneity.
Arguments in favour of sub-classification of SCs
Enables Social Justice: As not all SCs have equally benefited from reservation policies; sub-classification would ensure that benefits of affirmative action and policies reach those who are truly in need.
State Autonomy: It allows states to address local socio-economic disparities within the SC category, tailoring affirmative action policies to the specific needs of their populations.
Alignment with Constitutional Provisions:
Article 15(4) of the Constitution of India allows the state to make special provisions for the advancement of socially and educationally backward classes of citizens, as well as for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes. This includes making provisions for reservations in jobs and educational institutions.
Article 16(4) allows the state to make reservations in favour of backward classes who are inadequately represented in state services. This provision is specifically aimed at ensuring that these classes have adequate representation in government employment.
Gives impetus to nation-wide caste census.
Challenges in sub-classification of SCs
Undermining Unity: Sub-classification could lead to further fragmentation and undermine the unity of SCs as a single group, weakening their collective political and social identity.
Administrative Challenges: Implementing sub-classification could lead to complex administrative challenges like collection of empirical evidence, potential for disputes over which sub-castes should receive greater or lesser benefits.
Potential for Abuse: Sub-classification could be manipulated for political gain, leading to arbitrary or politically motivated decisions.
Ensuring Uniformity: Sub-classification can lead to different criteria and benefits being applied in different states, based on local socio-economic conditions. This could create inconsistencies in how affirmative action is implemented across the country. There is a risk that varying approaches could undermine objectives of reservation policies.
Way Forward
Creamy Layer among SCs: States must evolve a policy for identifying creamy layer exceptions even from SCs/STs (Indira Sawhney judgement mandated creamy layers only for OBCs).
Willing giving away of benefits: Within the SCs, certain caste groups were reaping the benefits of reservation more than others. Thus, these caste groups should walk away from special provisions making way for the needy.
Central Guidelines: Establishing broad, uniform guidelines for sub-classification that states can adapt to local conditions may help ensure consistency while allowing for flexibility.
While sub-classification can help tailor affirmative action to better meet the needs of different groups within SCs and STs, it requires careful design and implementation to ensure it enhances, rather than undermines, the overall objectives of reservation policies.
Context: Ambedkar Jayanti is observed on 14 April to commemorate the birth anniversary of Dr. Bhim Rao Ambedkar, Indian politician and social reformer. This day is commemorated as “Equality Day” owing to his invaluable contributions to social justice and the rule of law.
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Dr. Bhim Rao Ambedkar.
Dr. B R Ambedkar:
He was born in 1891.
Popularly known as Baba Saheb, he was the Principal Architect of Indian Constitution. He was the Chairman of the Drafting Committee of the Constituent Assembly.
He led several social movements to secure and safeguard human rights for the oppressed and miserable sectors of society.
He became the first Indian to get a Doctorate (PhD) degree in Economics from abroad and is the only Indian whose statue is attached to Karl Marx in the London Museum.
Important Life Events and Contributions:
Ambedkar was against caste-based discrimination and untouchability in society and advocated for Dalits to organize and demand their rights.
He condemned Hindu scriptures that he thought propagated caste discrimination.
He was part of the Bombay Presidency Committee that worked with the Simon Commission in 1928.
Ambedkar entered the Bombay Legislative Council as a nominated member in 1927 and as an elected one in 1937.
Established Bahishkrit Hitakarini Sabha in 1924 to promote education and socio-economic improvements among the Dalits.
In December 1927 he led a Satyagraha to establish the civic rights of the untouchables to draw water from a public tank in Mahad, Maharashtra.
Ambedkar conducted another Satyagraha in March 1930 to establish the rights of the untouchables to enter the famous temple of Kalaram at Nasik (Bombay Presidency).
He started magazines like Mooknayak ,Bahishkrit Bharat and Equality Janta.
Advocated separate electorates for ‘Depressed Classes’.
However, Gandhi was against a separate electorate for Depressed classes.
Later, an agreement was signed between Gandhi and Ambedkar, whereby it was agreed to give reserved seats to the depressed classes within the general electorate. (Poona Pact 1932).
Founded the Independent Labour Party (later transformed into Scheduled Castes Federation) in 1936.
Ambedkar was one of eight Indians nominated by the Viceroy on the 13-member Defence of India Council in 1941.
Ambedkar considered the Right to Constitutional Remedy as the soul of the Constitution.
Being the Law Minister, Dr Ambedkar fought vigorously for the passage of the Hindu Code Bill, the most significant reform for women’s rights to marriage and inheritance.
Context: Defence Research and Development Organisation has successfully demonstrated a 30-kilowatt (kW) MKII Laser Directed Energy Weapon system (Sahastra Shakti). It masters the technology of disabling missiles, drones and smaller projectiles.
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about the Laser-Directed Energy Weapon system.
Sahastra Shakti Laser Weapon System (MK-II)
Indigenously developed by: DRDO
The 30-kilowatt laser weapon system uses six 5 kW high-energy laser beams to damage or destroy enemy targets.
Designed to: counter aerial threats such as drones, swarm UAVs, and helicopters within a range of 5 kilometers. It can be used to destroy enemy surveillance sensors and antennae.
Effective Range: Up to 5 kilometres (under current test conditions)
Key Features
It is equipped with a 360-degree Electro-Optical/Infrared sensor enabling precision targeting of aerial threats.
It offers instantaneous engagement and low per-shot cost, making them ideal for neutralising low-Radar Cross Section threats (like drones and incoming munitions).
It features advanced electronic warfare capabilities, including jamming communication and satellite signals.
It can be adapted for both ground-based and shipborne applications.
Working of Sahastra Shakti Laser Weapon System
The Sahastra Shakti laser weapon system is mounted on two 4×4 vehicles.
The first vehicle carries a Command and Control unit (C2): It is equipped with an electro-optical (EO) targeting and tracking system which ensures real-time 360 degree tracking and targeting of airborne threats.
The second vehicle houses the Beam Control Unit: It directs the powerful laser beam toward the target based on the inputs from C2.
Significance:
The low-cost alternative reduces the reliance on expensive ammunition while also lowering the risk of collateral damage. It significantly enhances India’s counter-drone and air defence capabilities.
The success has put India in the exclusive club of nations (US, Russia and China) which have the high-power Laser-DEW system.
The advancement aligns with global trends emphasising high-power lasers for missile defense and counter-drone operations. It strengthens India's position in modern warfare.
