Context: As per the latest annual report of Gas Exporting Countries Forum (GECF), India will be the world’s largest growth market for natural gas in the next decade with China claiming the top spot till 2030.
About Gas Exporting Countries Forum (GECF)
The GECF is an intergovernmental organisation that provides a framework for exchanging experience and information among its member countries.
With its current number of member countries, the GECF enjoys a dominant position on global energy markets and among international energy organisations.
Members
Full Members: Algeria, Bolivia, Egypt, Equatorial Guinea, Iran, Libya, Nigeria, Qatar, Russia, Trinidad and Tobago, UAE and Venezuela.
Observers: Angola, Azerbaijan, Iraq, Malaysia, Mauritania, Mozambique, Peru and Senegal.
Together, they represent 69% of the world’s gas reserves, 39% of the marketed production, and 40% of global gas exports.
As the gathering of the world's leading gas exporting countries, the GECF seeks to build a mechanism for a meaningful dialogue between gas producers and consumers in order to improve the stability and security of supply and demand in gas markets around the world.
Context: Matua Community, who have migrated from Bangladesh to India over the years, possess Aadhaar cards and voter identity cards and believe that the Citizenship (Amendment) Rules are necessary.
Matua Mahasangha:
A religious reform movement that originated, around 1860 AD, in modern-day Bangladesh.
A sect of depressed class ‘AVARNA; Hindus who are Namasudras, a Scheduled Caste group.
Launched as a reformation by the followers of Harichand Thakur.
Harichand Thakur (1812-1878):
Worked among the untouchable people of Bengal Presidency.
Formed the Matua sect of Hindus along with his son Guruchand Thakur and organized downtrodden peoples of his own community under the banner of ‘Matua religion’.
They considered him as God (Param Brahma) Harichand.
Based on only three basic principles: Truth, Love, and Sanity.
After experiencing Atma darshan or self-revelation, he began to preach his own religious realization which is only based on Bhakti philosophy.
This sect opposed caste oppression and later drew members from other communities, including Malis and Telis, that was ostracised by the upper castes.
Doctrine:
All traditional rituals, except devotion to God, faith in mankind, and love for living beings, are meaningless.
It also emphasised on reforming Vaishnava devotionalism.
Matua-Namasudras in 1915, built the 'Sri Sri Harichand Mission', Orakandi in Faridpur, Bengal Presidency (now in Bangladesh).
In the early 1930s, Pramatha Ranjan Thakur, great-grandson of Harichand Thakur, rejuvenated the organization. He founded the town of Thakurnagar, which became the new headquarters of the Matua Mahasangha in 1947.
Context: The Chief Ministers of Tamil Nadu and Kerala will inaugurate the centenary celebrations of the Vaikom Satyagraha. On March 30th, 1924, in the princely state of Travancore, a non-violent agitation started, which marked the beginning of ‘temple entry movements’ across the country.
Introduction
Widespread caste discrimination and untouchability across Travancore.
Lower castes like the Ezhavas and Pulayas were considered polluting and various rules were in place to distance them from upper castes.
Idea of caste pollution worked not only on the basis of touch but also sight.
This was documented by travellers such as Portuguese Duarte Barbosa who wrote in his memoirs, “When (upper caste Nairs) walk along a street, they shout to the low caste folk to get out of their way … this they do and if one will not, the Nayre may kill him.”
They were prohibited not just on temple entry, but even on walking on the roads surrounding temples.
Social context of Travancore at the dawn of the 20th century
A number of social and political developments were leading to social change.
Christian missionaries, supported by the East India Company, had expanded their reach and many lower castes converted to Christianity to escape the oppressive system.
With pressure from the British Resident as well as the accession to the throne of Maharaja Ayilyam Thirunal, brought many progressive reforms.
Example: Introduction of a modern education system with free primary education for all, including lower castes.
Forces of capitalism and western education created new social hierarchies. Certain sections among the Ezhavas emerged as an educated class, and now they were fighting for rights of their community.
Ezhavas emerged as the most educated and organised untouchable community in Travancore. The government’s education policies were significant in this regard.
Some Ezhavas successfully pursued education as a portal to advancement, however, due to the reservation of posts for members of the upper castes, they were not able to get the jobs at upper levels.
Example: In 1918, out of 4000 jobs in the revenue department, 3800 were held by caste Hindus, a numerical minority in the population.
While a small Ezhava elite had begun to emerge, ritual discrimination was still prevalent. Continued discrimination sowed the seeds for agitations to come.
Vaikom Satyagraha
Vaikom:
Religious town located inside the Kingdom of Travancore.
The town is famous for Vaikom Shiva Temple.
City was known as Varanasi of the South.
The temple did not permit lower castes to enter it and even the roads around the Vaikom Shiva temple were closed to the polluting castes.
The issue of temple entry was first raised by Ezhava leader TK Madhavan in a 1917 editorial in his paper Deshabhimani.
Till 1917, the Indian National Congress refused to take up social reform, but with the rise of Gandhi and increased activism within lower caste communities and untouchables, social reform soon found itself front and centre of Congress’s and Gandhi’s politics.
In 1921, T K Madhavan met with Mahatma Gandhi at Tirunelveli to seek his advice and support for launching an agitation.
Gandhi’s involvement in the struggle proved crucial as it mobilised the educated upper-caste Hindu opinion in favour of temple entry.
Madhavan joined the Congress and participated in the party’s Kakinada session in 1923, where a resolution was passed for the eradication of untouchability.
The resolution also stated that temple entry was the birth-right of all Hindus and authorised the state Congress to take charge of the struggle.
Following which Kerala Congress formed an untouchability eradication council under the leadership of K Kelappan.
The council arrived in Vaikom in February 1924 to take out a procession through the prohibited roads.
March 30, 1924:
Two untouchables and an upper caste Nair community person took the road around Vaikom Shiva temple that was closed to ‘polluting castes’.
They were arrested and sentenced to six months’ imprisonment.
Gandhi approved the agitation and suggested civil disobedience and non-violent satyagraha.
Between April and September, protests reached their peak. Protestors sat in front of the barricades, undertaking rigorous fasts and singing patriotic songs.
Leaders such as Periyar, who was arrested multiple times, and C Rajagopalachari came to Vaikom to offer support and lead the protesters.
Contribution of Periyar: Social reformer and President of Madras Congress Committee E V Ramaswamy Naicker arrived at Vaikom when some leaders of the Satyagraha leaders were jailed.
Cross religious support: Even Christians and Sikhs supported the Vaikom Satyagraha. A group of 15 Akalis led by Lala Lal Singh and Kripal Singh opened a vegetarian mess for anyone who visited the Ashram where Satyagrahis stayed.
Ashram of Sree Narayana Guru: Functioned as the camp for the satyagrahis.
As volunteers and prominent leaders tried to walk through the prohibited roads, they were arrested. The arrested leaders did not seek a bail.
On the other hand, counter-agitations raged on and protesters were often met with violence and intimidation from conservative caste Hindus.
In August, 1924, the Maharaja of Travancore died, following which, the young Maharani Regent, Queen Sethulakshmi Bai, released all prisoners.
But when a large group of protesters marched to the royal palace in Trivandrum, she refused to allow all castes access to temples.
In March 1925, Gandhi began his tour of Travancore and was able to iron out a compromise:
Gandhi organised a peaceful jatha of Hindus from Vaikom to Thiruvananthapuram and back. This jatha helped raise social consciousness against untouchability.
Three out of the four roads surrounding the temples were opened up for everyone but the fourth, eastern road, was kept reserved for brahmins.
This was finally implemented in November 1925, when the government completed diversionary roads that could be used by the low castes without polluting the temple.
On November 23, 1925, the last satyagrahi was recalled from Vaikom.
The legacy and the aftermath
Vaikom satyagraha saw previously unseen unity across caste lines.
In November 1936, almost a decade after the conclusion of the Satyagraha, the historic Temple Entry Proclamation was signed by the Maharaja of Travancore which removed the age-old ban on the entry of marginalised castes into the temples of Travancore.
It showed the effectiveness of Gandhian civil disobedience as a tool for protest.
The satyagraha brought untouchability to the forefront of political issues in India.
About T. K. Madhavan:
Madhavan was an Indian social reformer, journalist and revolutionary. He was involved with the Sree Narayana Dharma Paripalana (SNDP).
About E V Ramaswamy Naicker ‘Periyar’:
Considered to be the most distinguished leader of Dravidian movement and anti-brahmin movement in South India.
His sharp speeches in Vaikom and other parts of Vaikom against untouchability created a big impact. Thus, he was conferred the title of ‘Hero of Vaikom’.
He was with Justice Party of Madras.
He led the Self-Respect Movement (opposed dominance of Brahmins in social life, especially bureaucracy) to redeem the identity and self-respect of Tamils.
About K. Kelappan (1889-1971):
He was the lead figure the Congress during India’s Independence Movement in Kerala was known as ‘Kerala Gandhi’.
Was the founding member & President of Nair Service Society & Kerala Kshetra Samrakshana Samiti.
He was an important figure in lower caste struggle particularly Vaikom Satyagraha and Guruvayur Temple Entry Movement.
Kelappan led the Guruvayur Satyagraha which was an effort for temple entry for untouchables into Guruvayur Temple. Kelappan undertook a hunger strike for 12 days when it was abandoned at the request of Mahatma Gandhi.
He led the Salt Satyagraha in Kerala. He led a batch of Congress workers on foot from Kozhikode to the beaches of Payyanur and broke the salt laws.
Context: Twenty years ago, on April 1, 2004, India embarked on a groundbreaking journey to combat HIV/AIDS by introducing Free Antiretroviral Therapy (ART) for people living with HIV (PLHIV). This landmark decision marked a significant shift in the country's approach to tackling the epidemic and has since been a cornerstone in the fight against HIV/AIDS in India.
The Beginning of HIV/AIDS and Antiretroviral Therapy
In the early 1980s, the emergence of HIV/AIDS was met with fear, stigma, and discrimination. Despite the approval of the first antiretroviral drug, AZT, by the US FDA in March 1987 and subsequent drug developments, access to these life-saving medications remained limited, especially in low- and middle-income countries.
Treatment for HIV?
The treatment for HIV is called antiretroviral therapy (ART). ART involves taking a combination of HIV medicines (called an HIV treatment regimen) every day.·
ART cannot cure HIV, but HIV medicines help people with HIV live longer, healthier lives. ART also reduces the risk of HIV transmission.
How does HIV medicines work?·
HIV attacks and destroys the infection-fighting CD4 cells (CD4 T lymphocyte) of the immune system. Loss of CD4 cells makes it hard for the body to fight off infections and certain HIV-related cancers.
HIV medicines prevent HIV from multiplying (making copies of itself), which reduces the amount of HIV in the body (called the viral load). Having less HIV in the body gives the immune system a chance to recover and produce more CD4 cells.
Even though there is still some HIV in the body, the immune system is strong enough to fight off infections and certain HIV-related cancers.
By reducing the amount of HIV in the body, HIV medicines also reduce the risk of HIV transmission. A main goal of HIV treatment is to reduce a person’s viral load to an undetectable level. An undetectable viral load means that the level of HIV in the blood is too low to be detected by a viral load test. People with HIV who maintain an undetectable viral load have effectively no risk of transmitting HIV to their HIV-negative partners through sex.
The Journey to Free ART in India
With an estimated 5.1 million PLHIV in 2004, India faced a daunting challenge. Only a handful of patients had access to ART due to the prohibitive costs and geographical barriers.
Recognizing the urgent need for intervention, the Indian government decided to provide ART free of charge, not only changing the course for adults but extending the program to children by November 2006.
Significance of free ART in India
The impact has been nothing short of remarkable:
ART is not merely about starting a person living with HIV on treatment. It is equally important to keep the viral load down and suppressed to ensure that the transmission of diseases is also halted.
The impact has been that in 2023, the prevalence of HIV in 15-49 years has come down to 0.20 (confidence interval 0.17%-0.25%) and the burden of disease in terms of estimated PLHIV has been coming down to 2.4 million.
India’s share in PLHIV globally had come down to 6.3% (from around 10% two decades ago).
As of the end of 2023, of all PLHIV, an estimated 82% knew their HIV status, 72% were on ART and 68% were virally suppressed.
The annual new HIV infections in India have declined by 48% against the global average of 31% (the baseline year of 2010).
The annual AIDS-related mortalities have declined by 82% against the global average of 47% (the baseline year of 2010). These are significant achievements consideringthat many of the other government-run public health programmes in India have failed to achieve or sustain good coverage.
Role of complementary programmes
The success in combating HIV in India is not solely due to the provision of free Antiretroviral Therapy (ART). It's a combination of initiatives including free diagnostic services, prevention of mother-to-child transmission, management of opportunistic infections and tuberculosis co-infections, and a policy evolution towards early ART initiation.
India's National AIDS Control Programme (NACP) Phase 5 aims to dramatically reduce new HIV infections and AIDS-related deaths by 2025, and eliminate vertical transmission of HIV and syphilis. It seeks to achieve the ambitious '95-95-95' targets set by UNAIDS, ensuring widespread knowledge of HIV status, ART receipt, and viral suppression among those on treatment.
Key Challenges and Suggestions in HIV/AIDS Treatment in India
Delayed ART Enrolment: A significant issue is the late presentation of patients at ART centres, with nearly a third having a CD4 count below 200, delaying effective treatment.
Non-Adherence to Treatment: Patients often discontinue or inconsistently follow their ART regimen once they start feeling better, risking their health and fostering drug resistance. Addressing this 'loss to follow-up' is essential for the success of the treatment program.
ART Supply and Accessibility: Ensuring a steady and accessible supply of ART medications across all regions, especially in remote and challenging terrains, is essential.
Private Sector Engagement: There's a need to enhance the involvement of the private sector in the care and treatment of HIV/AIDS patients to broaden access and support.
Continuous Training for Healthcare Staff: Ongoing, hands-on training for medical personnel is crucial to keep up with the evolving science and improve treatment outcomes.
Integration with Other Health Programs: Integrating HIV/AIDS programs with other health initiatives targeting hepatitis, non-communicable diseases, and mental health is critical for comprehensive care.
Reducing Preventable Mortality: Focused efforts on reducing preventable deaths through systematic reviews and advanced diagnostics are vital for improving patient survival rates.
Conclusion:
The free ART initiative in India demonstrates how government support, adequate funding, and community involvement can effectively combat public health challenges, notably turning the tide against HIV/AIDS. This success story provides a blueprint for launching similar initiatives, such as a nationwide free hepatitis C treatment program, leveraging two decades of experience to advance towards eliminating hepatitis C in India.
Context: Recently Investor Education and Protection Fund Authority (IEPFA) has released an advisory regarding diversification of investment across different assets to reduce risk.
About IEPFA:
Government of India established Investor Education and Protection Fund Authority in 2016 under the provisions of Section 125 of the Companies Act, 2013, for administration of Investor Education and Protection Fund.
It comes under Ministry of Corporate Affairs and is chaired by Secretary to the Ministry of Corporate Affairs.
The Authority is entrusted with the responsibility of administration of the Investor Education Protection Fund (IEPF), making refunds of shares, unclaimed dividends, matured deposits/debentures etc. to investors and to promote awareness among investors.
Objectives of IEFPA:
The Authority is entrusted with the responsibility of administration of the Investor Education Protection Fund (IEPF).
Make refunds of shares, unclaimed dividends, matured deposits/debentures etc. to investors.
Promote awareness among investors.
About Investor Education and Protection Fund (IEPF): IEFP has been established with a view to support the activities relating to investor education, awareness, and protection. Following are the objectives/ activities of the Fund:
Educating investors about market operations and making investors aware about market volatilities.
Equipping investors to analyze information to take informed decisions.
Empowering the investors by making them aware of their rights and responsibilities under various laws.
Disseminating information about unscrupulous elements and unfair practices in securities market.
Broadening the investors’ base by encouraging new investors to participate in securities market.
Promoting research and investor surveys to create a knowledge base that facilitate informed policy decisions.
Section 125 of Companies Act, 2013: Investor Education and Protection Fund. — (1) The Central Government shall establish a Fund to be called the Investor Education and Protection Fund.
The Fund shall be utilized for— the refund in respect of unclaimed dividends, matured deposits, matured debentures, the application money due for refund and interest thereon.
promotion of investors ‘education, awareness, and protection.
distribution of any disgorged amount among eligible and identifiable applicants for shares or debentures, shareholders, debenture-holders, or depositors who have suffered losses due to wrong actions by any person, in accordance with the orders made by the Court which had ordered disgorgement.
reimbursement of legal expenses incurred in pursuing class action suits under sections 37 and 245 by members, debenture-holders or depositors as may be sanctioned by the Tribunal.
any other purpose incidental thereto, in accordance with such rules as may be prescribed.
Context: Khooni Bhandara, built in the historic city of Burhanpur, Madhya Pradesh, has been included in UNESCO’s Tentative List of World Heritage Sites.
Architecture of Khooni Bhandara:
It is an ingenious network of 103 well-like structures called Kundis (aqueducts). As the entire system was essentially based on the law of gravity, it ensured a smooth course of water from the first to the last Kundi.
The water recharging system devised for the canal is based on the principle of intercepting the run-off in the subsoil groundwater level through underground channels and collecting it in structures, partly underground and partly above ground, called ‘Bhandaras’.
An underground water management system which is built on Persian qanat approach, in 1615 CE. Out of eight sets of these subterraneous channels, six are still intact.
The groundwater is collected from the underground springs flowing from the adjacent Satpura hills towards the Tapti.
The water coming from the reservoirs: Mool-bhandara, Chintaharan, and Sookha bhandara, are collected at a common point to flow towards Khooni-bhandara from where it was transported to Jali Karanj or Jal bhandara.
Water stored here was then distributed through pipelines to the entire city.
Khooni bhandara provided water to the entire city for as long as 300 years before it collapsed in 1977.
The hint of red colour in this mineral rich water, gave it the name khooni(bloody).
It has been declared as a state protected structure by the State Directorate of Archaeology, Archives and Museums.
(Khandesh Sultanate 1526, with neighbouring polities)
History of Khooni Bhandara
Commencement of Mughal rule in late 16th century:
Burhanpur became the centre of military activities and commerce as well as the base for the expansion of Mughals in South India.
Abdul-Rahim Khan-i-Khana was the Governor of the Subah of Khandesh during the reign of Jahangir. His capital was Burhanpur.
He planned to excavate an underground canal in the vicinity of Burhanpur, to augment the potable water supply of the city.
The canal was constructed under the supervision of Tabaqat-al-Ardh or the Department of Earth (sciences), which looked after such constructions.
A Persian geologist, Tabkutul Arz, was invited to investigate the valley in the Tapti plains. After the investigation, he devised a system.
This was based on the ancient water supply system that in Arabic is called Qanat (originated 3000 years ago in Persia).
Qanat or Kariz system: It is built for transporting water from an aquifer or water well to the surface, through an underground aqueduct.
Need of an underground water management system:
Burhanpur was situated on the river banks of the Tapti and Utavali, but its banks were so high that it was difficult and expensive to service water to different parts of Burhanpur city.
Huge Mughal armies camped here for a prolonged period and caravans engaged in transportation of goods often stopped here.
Some alternative was urgently needed to overcome the problem of water shortage.
Since the area also received a fair amount of rainfall, the real issue was to devise a system to effectively tap these sources for an adequate supply of clean water.
Downfall of the Maratha Empire: the town was given to Maratha Sardar Holkar, then Scindia, and finally in 1818, Burhanpur was handed over to the British by the Marathas.
Mughal Water Management works:
The Mughal era brought significant advances in water management due to the need to efficiently utilize scarce water resources in arid and semi-arid regions.
Qanat system: Played a crucial role in the use of groundwater.
A developed irrigation system was made possible by storing well water, surface water as well rain water.
Water from these sources was stored in tanks and then distributed across the vast agricultural lands through a large network of canals.
Some water-lifting devices were also used for utilising the stored water.
In the Doab and Haryana region, the role of canal irrigation became quite significant by the closing decades of the nineteenth century.
Water Management during Akbar’s Rule (reigned 1556-1605)
Hydraulic systems employed to control summer temperature, such as in Fatehpur Siri. Here, the Rahat/Rehat/Rehant system (sometimes called the Persian wheel) was used.
The technology employed to raise water, had been used in India prior to Mughal rule.
Thus, the achievement was an engineering feat of scale rather than innovative technology.
Innovation occurred in placing inhabitable water buildings within the two supply systems for raising water, creating buildings that were simultaneously pieces of machinery and social spaces.
‘Ain-i-Akbari’ mentioned that most of the province of Lahore was cultivated with the help of well-irrigation using technologies such as Arhat or Rahat/Saqiya (‘Persian wheel’) to lift water.
Around Agra, the ‘charas’, or the leather bucket lifted out of water by oxen, pulling rope thrown over a pulley was most common.
Dhenkli/Shadoof/Tula/lat/Latha, based on the level principle, was generally used wherever the water-level was close to the surface.
Most of the wells were ‘kachcha’, i.e., made without use of masonry.
Water Management during Shahjahan’s rule (reigned 1628-1658):
Proposed to advance nearly Rs.40,000 to cultivators in Khandesh and the Painghat portion of Berar for the purpose of erecting dams or bunds.
The old channel of the eastern Yamuna Canal was dug in the reign of Shahjahan. Shahjahan decided to re-open it from Khizrabad, to serve the new city of Shahjahanabad at Delhi. This was the famous ‘Nahr-I-Bihist’ or ‘Nahr-i-Faiz’ which irrigated a considerable area.
In Punjab, a small system of canals was brought into existence in the Upper Bari doab. The best known of these was the ‘Shahnahr’.
Taj Mahal originally had sophisticated waterworks to irrigate the garden and an elaborate water channel system was created in the Khan-i-Alam complex on the western side of Taj Mahal.
The fountain pipes were not connected directly with the copper pipes feeding them, as this would have resulted in gradual decrease of volume and pressure of water.
Instead, a copper pitcher was provided under each fountain pipe and the same was connected with the water supply line.
The water first filled the pitcher and rose in the fountains simultaneously.
Excavations at Mehtab Bagh (Charbagh complex in Agra) supposed to have been constructed by Shah Jahan, brought to light a huge tank of octagonal shape.
The digging of pits revealed that they were built of Lakhauri brick in lime mortar for installing a fountain shaft.
Water Management during Aurangzeb’s rule (reigned 1658-1707):
The Bibi-ka-maqbara, built for Dilras Banu Begum, the wife of Aurangzeb, at Aurangabad also had a remarkable water management system.
There is a huge water tank on the south-east corner of the complex which is known as Hati Haud.
The water channels run on the enclosure walls from the Hati Haud and the water is distributed from the channels to various parts of the complex through terracotta pipes.
