March 28, 2024

Current Affairs

The Bhojeshwar Mahadev Temple

Context: The Bhojeshwar Mahadev Temple, Bhojpur, in Madhya Pradesh, has been included into UNESCO’s Tentative List of World Heritage Sites.

Bhojeshwar Mahadev Temple

Introduction:

Situated: along the Betwa and Kaliasot Rivers, Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh
Constructed: during the 11th century
Patronage of: Raja Bhoja of the Paramara dynasty
Dedicated to: Lord Shiva
Paramara dynasty:
- Reigned over the Malwa region and adjacent territories from the 9th to the 14th century.
- Raja Bhoj emerged as a celebrated monarch.
- He was renowned for his architectural treatise, the “Samaranganasutradhara”.
- Inscriptions and literary works attribute King Bhoj with an extensive temple building initiative, dedicated to various aspects of Shiva.
- However, the Bhojpur temple remains the sole surviving shrine definitively linked to Bhoja.
The temple has been designated as a Monument of National Importance by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI).

Architectural features of the temple:

Architectural style reflects the evolution of temple design during the Paramara period.
Elements of the Bhumija style emerged in the 9th century and flourished until the 13th century.
Bhumija style is an evolved form of the Nagara temples.
The main structure and the shikhara in this style harmoniously blend influences from the Dravidian style of temple architecture.
The temple does not have a mandapa, which have led researchers to propose the hypothesis of it being a funerary monument.
The unfinished shikhara is decorated with small sub-shrines or kuta-stambhas and corner bands known as Lata.
The temple has a square plan and it is built on a raised plinth with ornate carvings and sculptures in its exterior.
In the centre, the garbhagriha is constructed which houses a massive lingam, carved from a single stone.
Projecting balconies are built on three sides of the temple.
The northern wall features a makara-pranala, which provided a drainage outlet for the liquid used to bathe the lingam.
The four brackets supporting the cornerstones feature four different divine couples: Shiva-Parvati, Brahma-Shakti, Rama-Sita, and Vishnu-Lakshmi.

About Paramara Dynasty (9th-14th Century):

Introduction:

Exerted dominion over Malwa and adjacent territories in west-central India.
Originated from the Parmara clan of Rajputs.
Initially served as vassals to the Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta.
They rose to sovereign power around 972 CE when Siyaka, one of the rulers, sacked Manyakheta and established Paramaras as an independent authority.
Capital: Dhara (modern-day Dhar)
The dynasty faced repeated conflicts with neighbouring kingdoms such as the Chaulukyas of Gujarat, the Chalukyas of Kalyani, the Kalachuris of Tripuri, and the Chandelas of Jejakabhukti.
Due to the challenges, the capital was shifted to Mandapa-Durga (now Mandu).
Religion:
- Predominantly followers of the Shaivite tradition.
- Also supported Jain scholars

Rulers:

Earliest known king Siyaka:
- Harsola copper plate inscription (949 CE), mentions him as vassal to the Rashtrakuta ruler Krishna III.
- As a Rashtrakuta vassal, Siyaka engaged in military campaigns against the Pratiharas and Hunas.
- He secured victory over Krishna III's successor, Khottiga, in 972 CE.
Munja (Siyaka's successor):
- Munja attained victory over various neighbouring kingdoms, such as Chahamanas, Guhilas, Hunas, and Kalachuris.
- He was defeated by Western Chalukya king Tailapa II. This resulted in loss of southern territories to the Chalukyas.
Sindhuraja (Munja’s successor):
- He reclaimed the lost territories by defeating the Western Chalukya king Satyashraya.
- He expanded the dominion by defeating Shilaharas, Somvanshi, and rulers of Lata (now South Gujarat).
- His court poet, Padma Gupta, wrote his biography, Nava-Sahasanka- Charita.
King Bhoja (Sindhuraja’s son and successor):
- Reigned from 1010–1055 CE.
- The dynasty reached its zenith during his reign.
- Bhoja's inscriptions mention his titles as Parama Bhattaraka, Maharajadhiraja and Parameshvara.
- Extended control from Chittor in the north to upper Konkan in the south, and from the Sabarmati River in the west to Vidisha in the east.
- He founded the town of Bhojpur.

Cultural Contributions of King Bhoja:

Under his rule, Malwa and its capital Dhara became one of the chief intellectual centres of India.
Chintamani-Sarnika (1055 CE) was composed by his court poet Dasabala.
Besides the Bhojeshwar Temple, he also construction of three dams in Bhojpur.
- The first dam, built on Betwa River.
- A second dam was constructed in a gap between the hills.
- A third dam diverted more water from the smaller Kaliasot river.
Bhoja established the Bhoj Shala which was a centre for Sanskrit studies and a temple of Saraswati in Dhar.
Bhoja was renowned as a scholar king, and several books are attributed to him. He was an expert on poetry, and the treatise Shringara-Prakasha was authored by him.
Some of his surviving works in Sanskrit language:
- Bhujabala-bhima, a work on astrology
- Champu-Ramayana or Bhoja-Champu, a re-telling of the Ramayana in mixture of prose and poetry (champu genre)
- Govinda-vilasa, poem
- Raja-Martaṅda or Patanjali Yogasutra Bhashya, a major commentary on the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali
- Raja Mriganka Karana, a treatise on chemistry, dealing with the extraction of metals from ores, and production of various drugs.
- Samarangana-Sutradhara, a treatise on architecture and iconography.
- Sarasvati-Kanthabharana, a treatise on Sanskrit grammar for poetic and rhetorical compositions.
- Tattva-Prakasha, a treatise on Shaivite philosophy.
- Vidvajjana-Vallabha, treatise on astronomy.
- Vyavahara-Manjari, a work on dharmasastra or Hindu law
- Yukti-Kalpataru, a work dealing with several topics including statecraft, politics, city-building etc.
His Prakrit language poems are: Kodanda-Kavya and Kurma-Sataka.
- The Kodanda-Kavya was found inscribed on stone slab fragments at Mandu.
- The Kurma-Sataka was found inscribed at the BhojShala in Dhar.

The Paramara Dynasty experienced a decline in their power, ultimately leading to the defeat and death of the final recorded ruler, Mahalakadeva, by the forces of Alauddin Khilji of Delhi in 1305 CE. However, despite this, inscriptions indicate that Paramara authority persisted for some time following Mahalakadeva's downfall.

International Astronomical Union

About International Astronomical Union:

The International Astronomical Union (IAU) is a non-governmental organisation that works to advance astronomy. It was founded in 1919 and is headquartered in Paris, France.
Primary functionsof IAU:
- Promoting astronomical research, communication, education, and development through international cooperation.
- Assigning designations and names to celestial bodies (stars, planets, asteroids, etc.) and any surface features on them.
- Establishing standards for astronomical observation and data.
The IAU is a member of the International Science Council (ISC). It has over 12,000 individual members from more than 100 countries.

Planetary Nomenclature:

Planetary nomenclature is used to uniquely identify a feature on the surface of a planet or satellite so that it can be easily located, described, and discussed.
IAU is the internationally recognised authority for assigning names to planetary surface features. It follows some rules and conventions to do so.
- The IAU’s Rule 9 states: “No names having political, military or religious significance may be used, except for names of political figures prior to the 19th century.”

Key Facts:

Recently, IAU’s working group for Planetary System Nomenclature has approved the name “Statio Shiv Shakti” for the landing site of Chandrayaan-3’s Vikram lander.
Recently, IAU has named an asteroid after an Indian astro-scientist Prof. Jayant Murthy for his contributions to astronomy, especially to the New Horizons mission. His team’s endeavour to observe ultraviolet background radiation in the outer Solar System, where the interference from the Sun and interplanetary medium is minimal, have played a crucial role in broadening understanding of cosmic phenomena.
- New Horizons is an interplanetary space probe launched by NASA's in 2006.
- It is the first spacecraft to explore Pluto, flying by the dwarf planet and its moons on July 14, 2015.
- In early 2019, New Horizons flew past its second major target – Arrokoth, the most distant object ever explored up close. (Arrokoth is a trans-Neptunian object located in the Kuiper belt)

Asteroid Belt:

Asteroids are rocky remnants from the early formation of our solar system (about 4.6 billion years ago) that mainly orbit the Sun between Mars and Jupiter.
The asteroid belt is a nearly flat ring that contains millions of asteroids, ranging in size from less than 10 metres to 530 kms (The largest asteroid is Ceres, which is about one-quarter the size of Earth’s moon).

Marginalisation of Rohingyas of Myanmar

Context: Recently, a wooden boat carrying Rohingya refugees in the Indian Ocean capsized off the coast of Indonesian coast, bringing attention to plight of Rohingyas. According to UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) over 4,500 Rohingya refugees set off on dangerous journeys across the Bay of Bengal.

About Rohingyas

Rohingyas are a Muslim minority community with their roots in Rakhine province of Myanmar.
Rakhine State (formerly known as Arakan State) situated on the west coast of Myanmar on the Bay of Bengal and sharing boundaries with Chittagong division of Bangladesh to its north-western side.
They are cultural and ethnically distinct from the majority Buddhist population on Myanmar.
Rohingyas have been living in Myanmar for generations, but governments in Myanmar see them as illegal immigrants and have been denying them citizenship since 1982. This makes them the world's largest stateless population.
In 2017: A large exodus of Rohingyas began following a massive violence in Rakhine province. More than 7.5 lakh Rohingyas went to Bangladesh to seek sanctuary.
UN has described the 2017 violence as 'ethnic cleansing' and that the Myanmar government has 'genocidal' intent against Rohingyas.

Current Status of Rohingyas

Around one million Rohingyas have fled Myanmar while around 6 lakh reside in Myanmar.

Rohingyas residing in Myanmar mostly reside in camps for internally displaced people where their movements and livelihoods are restricted.
Rohingyas residing in Bangladesh: Around 9.6 lakhs Rohingyas reside in refugee camps in Bangladesh. Most Rohingyas live near the Myanmar border in Cox's bazaar, which has grown over the years to house some of the world's largest and most densely populated refugee camps. The condition of Rohingyas in these camps is miserable with poor supply of food, healthcare, no formal education etc. These camps are also marked by gang violence and over 60 Rohingyas have been killed in violence in these camps. (Note: Bhasan Char Island Bangladesh has decided to relocate Rohingya refugees in this island)

Sea Voyages by Rohingyas

Considering the poor living conditions in Rohingya camps in Bangladesh and no option to return to Myanmar. Many Rohingya refugees have been undertaking dangerous journeys across the Bay of Bengal and Andaman Sea to reach Muslim majority countries like Indonesia and Malaysia, in search of a better life.
A network of human traffickers has emerged in the region who charge an exorbitant amounts to transport them on small boats from Bangladesh to Indonesia. These boats are cramped with people with lack of adequate food.
According to UN, one in eight Rohingya who take the sea route die or disappear in the route.

Investment Facilitation for Development (IFD) agreement

Context: The non-adoption of IFD agreement at the 13th Ministerial Conference on account of opposition by countries like India and others has raised doubts regarding the legality and future of IFD agreement.

About Investment Facilitation for Development (IFD) agreement

The negotiations for IFD agreement at WTO was launched in 2017 on a plurilateral basis by a group of developing and least-developed WTO members with a mandate to streamline investment procedures and facilitate cross-border investments. The text of agreement was finalised in 2023.
This Plurilateral agreement was launched by a China led group of around 70 countries. Today, around 120 out of 166 WTO member countries back the agreement.
The agreement aims to create legally binding provisions to facilitate investment flows.
Focuses on aspects such as augmenting regulatory transparency and streamline administrative procedures to boost foreign investment inflows.
Does not contain provisions on market access, investment protection and investor-state dispute settlement.

Issues in the Investment Facilitation for Development (IFD) agreement

The IFD was first mooted in 2017 by China and other countries who depend heavily on Chinese investments, and countries with sovereign wealth funds are party to that pact.
So, it has attracted criticism for potentially favouring countries heavily reliant on Chinese investments and those with sovereign wealth funds. So, even the USA has stayed out of it.
In this regard, India and South Africa played a crucial role in not letting the agreement become part of the WTO rulebook.

Grounds for India's Opposition:

Potentially favouring countries heavily reliant on Chinese investments and those with sovereign wealth funds.
Also, India believes that some of its provisions would put the onus on the government to consult investors on policy matters which could encroach on its policy space.
Investment is not a trade issue and it had been decided in earlier Ministerial conferences that it should be kept out. Because investment could or could not result in cross-border trade. So, WTO being a trade body should not include such negotiations or agreements on investment.
India is opposed to its inclusion in the WTO as an Agreement to Annex 4 (Plurilateral agreement) of the Marrakesh Agreement as the issue does not have a Ministerial mandate which is a fundamental requirement. India cited the WTO' General council decision of 2004 where it was decided to drop talks on relationship between trade and investment from Doha round negotiations (one of the four Singapore issues).

Singapore issues:

The term "Singapore issues" refers to the work of four working groups set up during the World Trade Organization's Ministerial Conference of 1996 in Singapore. These groups are tasked with the following issues:

Some Prelims Pointers regarding WTO:

Annexure 4 of the WTO agreement provides for Plurilateral agreements. The Plurilateral agreements bind only those WTO that accept the agreement and do not impose obligations on remaining members.
Decisions to add an agreement to the existing set of Plurilateral agreements in Annexure 4 can be made exclusively by consensus. But launch of negotiations for a Plurilateral agreement does not require a consensus.
Under the WTO's dispute settlement mechanism, only states can bring legal claims against other states.

Nimmu-Padam-Darcha Road in Ladakh

Context: The Border Roads Organisation (BRO) has achieved a major milestone by establishing connectivity on the 298-km Nimmu-Padam-Darcha Road in Ladakh.

About Nimmu-Padam-Darcha Road

It connected the strategically important all-weather 298-km long road from Manali to Leh through Darcha and Nimmu on the Kargil–Leh Highway.
It connects Nimmu in the Indus Valley to Padum, the capital of Zanskar, to Darcha village in Lahul and Spiti.
This road will become the third axis to the strategically important region, complementing the existing Manali-Leh and Srinagar-Leh routes.
It has strategic importance due to its shorter distance and the crossing of only one pass, Shinkun La.
Once the tunnel is operational, this axis will have all-weather connectivity, significantly boosting defence preparedness along the northern borders with China.
It will not only strengthen defence preparedness but also provide a significant boost to economic development in the Zanskar valley.

Shinkun La

It is a mountain pass in India, on the state boundary between Ladakh and Himachal Pradesh. It connects the Lahaul region of Himachal Pradesh with the Zanskar region of Ladakh.

Important passes of India

Ugadi festival

Context: Pre-Ugadi festivities started with vibrant 'Jatharas' (fairs) at Sri Kanakamma Ammavaru Temple in Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh.

About Ugadi festival:

Ugadi/Yugadi, also known as Samvatsaradi (beginning of the year), is New Year's Day.
Celebrated in the states of: Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Karnataka and Goa in India.
Locally known as Souramana Ugadi or Mesha Sankranti (by followers of Souramana calendar system) in Karnataka.
- Souramana, or the solar year, is a way of measuring time using the movement of the sun.
- Chandramana, or the lunar year, is a way of keeping track of the year with the moon's movement.
It is observed in these regions on the first day of the Hindu lunisolar calendar month of Chaitra (falling in late March or early April as per the Gregorian calendar).
Traditions and rituals:
- Drawing colourful patterns on the floor called Muggulu.
- Mango leaf decorations on doors called Torana.
- Preparing and sharing a special food called Pachadi.
It has been an historic festival of the Hindus, with medieval texts and inscriptions recording major charitable donations to Hindu temples on this day.
Ugadi is one of the five Hindu national public holidays in Mauritius.

Traditional News Year Festivals in India:

S.NO.	Festival	Information
1.	Puthandu	Tamil NaduFirst day of year on the Tamil calendarThe festival date is set with the solar cycle of the solar Hindu calendar. References about the festival: In Netunalvatai, by a Sangam period author, NakkirarSilappadikaram by Illango AdigalManimekalai by Seethalai Satanar
2.	Jude Sheetal/Maithili New Year	Bihar; JharkhandCelebrated by the Maithilis in Bihar, Jharkhand and even Nepal.
3.	Novruz	Novruz is the Iranian New YearIn India, it is celebrated by the Parsi community. In 2009, it was inscribed on the Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity.
4.	Vishu	KeralaFestival starts with Vishu Kani: arranging harvest's fruits, vegetables and seasonal flowers in front of a mirror.Devotees visit Sabarimala Ayyappan Temple and Guruvayur Krishna temple for prayers.
5.	Navreh/Kashmiri New Year	Celebrated by Kashmiri PanditsDedicated to their Goddess Sharika. On the eve of the Navreh, the priest of the family provides a Nechipatra, a collection of the important events and a scroll, Kreel-Pach of the Goddess.
6.	Gudi Padwa/Marathi New Year	Maharashtra and parts of Goa.People hoist Gudi dhwaja (a decorated flag to symbolize victory) outside their homes.Some believe that the festival marks the victory of Shivaji over Mughal dominance in the Maharashtra region.
7.	Shigmo/Shishirotsava	By Konkani speaking communities in Goa and parts of Karnataka.Two variants: Dhakto Shigmo (small Shigmo) and Vhadlo Shigmo (big Shigmo).Dhakto Shigmo: celebrated by the farmers, labor class, and the rural population;VhadloShigmo: celebrated on a major scale and everyone takes part.
8.	Cheti Chand	Celebrated by the Sindhi community.Marks the arrival of spring and harvestIn the Sindhi community, it also marks the birth of Uderolal in 1007. He, as Jhulelal, became the saviour of the Sindhi Hindus.
9.	Losoong	Also known as NamsoongSikkimese New Year, also observed in Darjeeling (West Bengal)Communities: Lepchas and Bhutias.Several religious dances (known as Chaams) are performed mostly in the famous monasteries.
10.	Ashadhi Beej	Celebrated by the Kutchi community in GujaratAssociated with the beginning of rains in the Kutch region.
11.	Sajibu Cheiraoba/Nongma Panba	ManipurCelebrated by Meiteis, an ethnic group who follow Sanamahism (traditional Meitei religion).Observed on first day of Manipuri lunar month Shajibu (month of April every year)
12.	Pana Sankranti/Vishuva Sankranti	Celebrated in OdishaAn earthen pot is filled with a sweet drink which is known as Pana and hung over a Basil (Tulsi) tree.

Also read for information on Harvest festivals: https://compass.rauias.com/gk/harvest-festivals/

World Inequality Report and Inequality in India

Context: The World Inequality Report has highlighted the paradox of India's development journey since independence, especially in the context of the Post-LPG era.

About: World Inequality Report

Launched by the Paris based World Inequality Lab.
Co-authored by economists like Nitin Kumar Bharti, Lucas Chancel, Thomas Piketty, and Anmol Somanchi.
The report in the context of India is titled as, Income and Wealth Inequality in India, 1922-2023: The Rise of the Billionaire Raj.

Findings at the India Level:

Inequality in India was at a lower level at the time of independence, like the top 1% got 11% of national income.
This inequality went through a phase of decline till the 1980s on account of the socialistic policies of the then government, like the share of top 1% declined to 6%.
But the 1980s marked a phase of transition from socialistic towards an open market economy model. This transition was completed with the launch of LPG reforms in 1991, thereby leading to skyrocketing inequality in India. Ex: The share of the top 1% in national income increased to 22%.

Income inequality in India

Wealth Inequality

Other dimensions of inequality in India:

The income and wealth inequality in India also has intersections with other socio-economic markers of deprivation which are imminent in Indian society. For example, Gender, Caste, Tribe, Region etc. For example, Often gender roles prevent women from actively participating in the economy, leading to lower incomes and lower wealth.

Gender: Women in India have remained under-developed in comparison to their male counterparts. Economically, women face hurdles like glass ceiling in jobs and promotions. For ex: According to the Opportunity Index Report, 85% working women in India believe that they have missed out on a raise, promotion or work offer because of their gender. Politically, women account for just around 14% of MPs in India and even when women are elected there are issues like Sarpanch Patis which hampers real women political empowerment of women. Socially, women face several health and educational issues such as eight abortion related deaths/day in India.
Caste: The IHDS findings state that untouchability is still practiced by around 27% of the households surveyed. According to IHDS (2011-12), 51% of Schedule Caste households have adult women with zero years of education and 27% for illiterate male members. For upper caste, it is 24% in case of women and 11% in case of men. Around 20% of upper caste households have access to internet and 10% in case of schedule caste households.
Age, particularly old age: LASI survey has highlighted that 70% of elderly population is below the poverty line and face several forms of daily life activity limitations. This has put them on an unequal footing vis-a-vis their younger counterparts.
Religion: Sachar committee has highlighted the backwardness among the Muslim communities in India in comparison to other religions in India.
Region: Development divide between North-South states in India reflects the regional development deficit in India. For example, during covid pandemic, only 10% of the students in Bihar got access to digital education but in Kerala, this accessibility was around 90%.
Ethnicity: Backwardness among the tribal communities in India vis-a-vis the mainstream population highlights the ethnic divide in development parameters. For ex: the tribals are over-represented in terms of population below poverty line, higher prevalence of malnutrition among them and then higher level of illiteracy too.

Reasons for persistence of inequality in India:

LPG reforms: Capital intensive model of development has led to jobless growth in India, thereby intensifying the divide between the rich and poor. For ex: Before the LPG reforms, only one billionaire in India. But, in the Post-LPG era, there were more than 160 billionaires in India.
Gaps in India’s Taxation: Abolition of Wealth Tax, loopholes in income tax regime etc allow the rich to effectively pay lower taxes than their fair share. This reduces the progressive nature of taxation and wealth distribution.
Lower expenditure on social services: Expenditure on health and education has remained way below the recommended value. For ex: Around 3% of GDP on education as compared to the recommended value of 6%.
Persistence of ascriptive identities: Gender, caste and religious discrimination have led to inequalities like 97% of manual scavengers are Dalits, lower female labor force participation rate and issues of religious communities such as Muslims as highlighted by Sachar committee.
Criminalization of politics: With increasing criminalization of politics (43% of MPs have criminal records), potential of political schemes and decisions for upliftment of downtrodden sections has drastically reduced, thereby reducing the poor and downtrodden sections as a mere vote bank group.

Steps taken by the government.

Housing- PM Awas yojana for housing to all.
Water- Jal Jeevan Mission for clean drinking water facilities for all.
Sanitation- Swachh Bharat Abhiyan to promote sanitation and minimum hygienic level among all.
Electricity- Saubhagya Yojana for access to electricity to all.
Financial- PM Jan Dhan Yojana for financial inclusion, particularly of women through opening zero balance bank acounts.
Educational- KIRAN scheme, CURIE scheme, Eklavya schools, National Educational Policy
Health- PM Matru Vandana Yojana, Janani Suraksha Yojana for better reproductive health of women.
Nari Shakti Vandana Adhiniyam (106th Constitutional Amendment) for increasing the women representation by providing 33% reservation to women in Lok Sabha and State Legislative Assembly.

Way Forward

Restructuring of the tax code to include both income and wealth. Note: wealth tax was abolished in India in 2016.
Increasing public investment in sectors of health, education, and nutrition.
Super tax of 2% on wealthiest 167 families of India which can yield 0.5% of national income of revenue.
Efficient implementation of existing schemes and programs through saturation drives and awareness creation, social audit of schemes, etc.
Decriminalization of Politics to promote participation of common citizens in election process such as contesting elections.
Addressing social disabilities and empowerment of vulnerable communities like tribals, women, old age, dalits by building robust social security framework.

Conclusion

Going Forward, it is important for India to proceed with inclusive development lens so as to achieve SDGs along with the goal of Viksit Bharat Sankalp.