Context:International Energy Agency’s executive director, stated that the organization would evaluate membership requirements for India's entry, considering additional efforts or flexibility needed, during discussions with the Indian government.
Criteria for Membership to IEA:
A candidate country to the IEA must be a member country of the OECD.
Crude oil and/or product reserves equivalent to 90 days of the previous year’s net imports, to which the government has immediate access (even if it does not own them directly) and could be used to address disruptions to global oil supply.
A demand restraint programme to reduce national oil consumption by up to 10%.
Special case of India:
India is presently the third largest consumer of oil in the world.
IEA believes that India can become a ‘superpower’ in green hydrogen production and should capitalize on the opportunity as the world makes a transition to clean fuels.
About International Energy Agency (IEA):
Established in 1974, the International Energy Agency (IEA) is an autonomous intergovernmental organization headquartered in Paris.
The IEA family is made up of 31 member countries, 11 association countries, and 4 accession countries and it represents a significant portion of global energy demand, accounting for 75%.
The organization was created within the framework of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) as a response to the 1973 oil crisis, aiming to address disruptions in global oil supplies.
It offer insights and statistics regarding the worldwide oil market and energy industry, promote energy conservation and efficiency, and foster international collaboration on innovative research and development.
Mission: The IEA works with governments and industry to shape a secure and sustainable energy future for all.
Context: The government will appoint a Finance Commission in the next few months to determine how much of the Centre’s tax revenue should be given away to States (the vertical share) and how to distribute that among States (the horizontal sharing formula).
In the pre-reform period, the Finance Commission recommendations were not that critical because the Centre had other ways to compensate States, or indeed to play favourites, through plan financing and public sector undertaking (PSU) investments. Post-reforms, fresh PSU investments have thinned out and the Planning Commission was abolished in 2014 with the result that the Finance Commission remains virtually the sole architect of India’s fiscal federalism. Its responsibility and influence are, therefore, much larger.
Before going into details of the report which shall be extremely important from the perspective of Mains examination, Let us first understand the need for any such body at the first place? Specially given that states and centre both have been enabled to levy and collect taxes in their domains.
Now finance commission is body to facilitate fiscal balance in the Indian federal structure and hence enabling Fiscal federalism.
What is a Fiscal imbalance?
Fiscal imbalance occurs when the revenues of a unit are not appropriate to carry out the responsibilities allocated to it.
Now there are two kinds of imbalances that can occur in Indian Federalism:
vertical imbalance (between state and centre)
horizontal imbalance (among the states)
FINANCE COMMISSIONS – A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE
Vertical and horizontal imbalances are common features of most federations and India is no exception to this.
So why does vertical imbalance (between state and centre) occur?
Because there is a mismatch of responsibilities and revenue sources between the Union and the States?
Now why is that?: mainly because of two reasons
Constitution assigned taxes with a nation-wide base to the Union (which earn higher revenues)
Why was this done?
This was done to make the country one common economic space unhindered by internal barriers to the extent possible.
Constitution assigned functional responsibilities involving high expenditure disproportionate to their assigned sources of revenue
Since the expenditures are incurred mainly in the executive branch, let us see the constitutional scheme for the same:
Legislative responsibility
Executive responsibility
LIST I
Union
Union
LIST II
State
State
LIST III
Both
State
So you can see that states take care of both List 1 and List II
Why was this done?
States being closer to people and more sensitive to the local needs have been assigned
These two factors have resulted in vertical imbalances.
So why does horizontal imbalance (among the states) occur?
Unlike in most other federations, differences in the developmental levels in Indian States are very sharp.
Horizontal imbalances across States are on account of factors, which include historical backgrounds, differential endowment of resources, and capacity to raise resources.
So you can say that the creation of Finance commission is the recognition of the imbalance which exists in the federalism and hence mechanisms under article 280 and 281 have been created to ensure that these imbalances are minimized.
Hence let us have a look at the constitutional provisions related to the finance commission as far as constitution of India is concerned:
So as you read in article 280, the report of the Finance Commission has to be submitted for every five years and you also know that the report of the last FC (14th) was applicable for 2015-2020 period, then why did FC 15 not submit the final report for the period 2020-2025?
At the formation of the 15th FC, It was required to submit the report by October 30, 2019 for five years for the period 2020-21 to 2024-25.
However, due to various political and fiscal developments, its term was extended.
So what are the reasons behind the extensions?
Speak: the basic reason is that the reports of the FC are based on the projections of various parameters related to taxation, GDP and deficits. the current state of Indian economy makes it difficult for any panel to successfully do a projection.
So why making medium-term projections in the current scenario would mean serious risks?
Changes in the federal units
the abolition of Statehood to Jammu and Kashmir required the Commission to make an estimation excluding the Union Territory.
Historically low Nominal growth rate
the deceleration in growth and low inflation has substantially slowed down the nominal GDP growth which is the main tax base proxy; making projections of tax revenues and expenditures based on this for the medium term could have posed serious risks.
Issues related to Tax revenues
Poor revenue performance of tax collection more particularly Goods and Services Tax
Also the compensation agreement to the loss of revenue to the States is applicable only till 2022(which means it will cover only two years of the period covered by the Commission’s recommendations hence posing uncertainties)
So these are the factors which have compelled the extension of the term of 15th FC as well as its submission of interim report.
Let us now discuss the highlighting features of the report:
14th FC
15 FC
Remarks
Vertical distribution
42
41
the Fifteenth Finance Commission continued with the recommendation of the previous Commission relating to vertical division of taxes, and adjusted the States’ share to 41% to exclude the share of Jammu and Kashmir.
Horizontal Distribution
Population
1971 (17.5%) 2011(10.0%)
2011(15.0%)
Income Distance
50.0%
45.0%
Area
15.0%
15.0%
Forest cover
7.50%
10.0%
it has used two additional factors — demographic performance and tax effort.
Demographic Performance
NA
12.5%
the inverse of fertility rate hence showing sensitivity to the concerns of these States.
Tax Efforts
NA
2.5%
So how have states fared after overall devolution?
Major observations
In terms of relative shares in tax devolution, among the major States the biggest loser is Karnataka followed by Uttar Pradesh, Kerala, Telangana and Andhra Pradesh.
Kerala and Andhra Pradesh have post-devolution gaps and hence qualify for revenue gap grants.
Karnataka and Kerala have net loss after devolution. Why?
The major reason for Karnataka and Kerala losing on devolution is that their per capita income growth has been faster than most other States.
The difference from the highest per capita income in both Karnataka and Kerala is just about 10% now as compared to 34% and 23%, respectively, for the two States when the Fourteenth Finance Commission made the recommendation.
What are recommendations of the 15th FC regarding Local body grants
Panchayats
Municipalities
Grants
₹60,750 crore
₹29,250 crore₹9,229 – million plus cities ₹20,021 – rest of the cities
Conditions
50% of the grant is tied to improving sanitation and supply of drinking water
50% of the grant is tied to improving sanitation and supply of drinking water
Did 15th FC make any recommendations regarding Disaster management?
For disaster management, a total of ₹28,183 crore has been determined of which the Central contribution will be ₹22,184 crore
The Commission has recommended the creation of Disaster Mitigation Fund at the Central and State levels.
But how is this remaining amount distributed among the states?
Inter-State allocation is made based on past expenditures, area and population and disaster risk index.
Are there any sectoral grants?
Nutrition:
The Commission has worked out a framework for giving some sectoral grants as well. For 2020-21, it has recommended ₹7,735 crore for improving nutrition based on the numbers of children in the 0-6 age group and lactating mothers
A critical mineral is a metallic or non-metallic element that has two characteristics: It is essential for the functioning of our modern technologies, economies or national security and. There is a risk that its supply chains could be disrupted.
But these supply risks exist due to rare availability, growing demand and complex processing value chain. Many times the complex supply chain can be disrupted by hostile regimes, or due to politically unstable regions.
Based on their individual needs and strategic considerations, different countries create their own lists.
However, such lists mostly include graphite, lithium and cobalt.
Utility:
These minerals are now used everywhere from making mobile phones, computers, batteries, electric vehicles and green technologies like solar panels and wind turbines.
Aerospace, communications and defence industries also rely on several such minerals as they are used in manufacturing fighter jets, drones, radio sets and other critical equipment.
Global distribution:
According to the 2019 USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries report, China is the world’s largest producer of 16 critical minerals.
China, according to a report on the role of critical minerals by the International Energy Agency, is “responsible for some 70% and 60% of global production of cobalt and rare earth elements, respectively, in 2019.
The level of concentration is even higher for processing operations, where China has a strong presence across the board. China’s share of refining is around 35% for nickel, 50-70% for lithium and cobalt, and nearly 90% for rare earth elements.”
It also controls cobalt mines in the Democratic Republic of Congo, from where 70% of this mineral is sourced.
Indian steps in this regard:
India has set up KABIL or the Khanij Bidesh India Limited, a joint venture of three public sector companies, to “ensure a consistent supply of critical and strategic minerals to the Indian domestic market”
Indo- Australia partnership
What are rare Earth Elements?
Rare Earth Elements or Rare Earth Metals are a set of 17 chemical elements in the periodic table — the 15 lanthanides, plus scandium and yttrium, which tend to occur in the same ore deposits as the lanthanides, and have similar chemical properties.
Despite their classification, most of these elements are not really “rare”. One of the Rare Earths, promethium, is radioactive.Although originally thought to be rare, many of the minerals are actually common in the Earth’s crust. However, due to the difficulties in extracting the metal from the ore, rare is a fitting term. These elements rarely exist in pure form; they are usually found within other minerals, making them costly to mine.
These elements are important in technologies of consumer electronics, computers and networks, communications, clean energy, advanced transportation, healthcare, environmental mitigation, and national defence, among others.
Scandium is used in televisions and fluorescent lamps, and yttrium is used in drugs to treat rheumatoid arthritis and cancer.
Rare Earth elements are used in space shuttle components, jet engine turbines, and drones. Cerium, the most abundant Rare Earth element, is essential to NASA’s Space Shuttle Programme.
Examining the available data, it is found that China consumes around 104,000 metric tons (MT) of rare earth, which is 67 per cent of the total consumption worldwide.
China is followed by Japan, the US, and the EU with 16 per cent, 13 per cent and four per cent respectively.
Data further suggest China controls about 90 percent of global production of rare earth metal while it possesses only 36 percent of the global reserve of this rare metal
India has the 5th largest reservoir and recognised the importance of rare earth back in 1950 and started extracting rare minerals through the establishment of the Indian Rare Earth Limited. India could not, however, make progress in this sector due to several reasons.
Why did India fail?
Lack of separate guiding policy to expand the production of rare earth.
The Indian rare earth industry keeps on operating on the downstream production process only.
Associated risks
High level of technology is required.
failure to promote entrepreneurship in this sector
Foreign investors have always kept a distance from this sector. This is mainly because the sector was reserved for the public sector.
Stiff competition from China-> Easy to import at much lower prices.
In 2016, a study, supported by the Indian government’s Department of Science and Technology (DST), provides a framework for India to assess the impact of critical minerals including rare earth in the manufacturing sector, considering both economic importance and associated supply risks. The study argues the development of this mineral will also give a fillip to India’s ambitious Make in India plan by enhancing the volume of rare earth production.
Context:UN cultural and scientific agency UNESCO announced that the United States is planning to re-join and pay more than $600mn in back dues after a decade long dispute sparked by the organisations move to include Palestine as a member. The decision was motivated by the concern that China is filling the gap left by US in UNESCO policy making. The US and Israel have stopped funding UNESCO after it voted to include Palestine as a member state in 2011 and Trump administration in 2017 decided to withdraw citing Anti-Israel bias and management issues . Before leaving the US contributed 22% of the total funding to UNESCO.
History of UNESCO
As early as 1942, in wartime, the governments of the European countries, which were confronting Nazi Germany and its allies, met in the United Kingdom for the Conference of Allied Ministers of Education (CAME). World War II was far from over, yet those countries were looking for ways and means to rebuild their education systems once peace was restored.
Upon the proposal of CAME, a United Nations Conference for the establishment of an educational and cultural organization (ECO/CONF) was convened in London in November 1945.
Purpose of UNESCO
UNESCO was originally founded to focus on rebuilding schools, libraries, and museums that had been destroyed in Europe during World War 2. Since then its activities have been mainly facilitative, aimed at assisting, supporting, and complementing the national efforts of member states to eliminate illiteracy and to extend free education.
In 1972 UNESCO sponsored an international agreement to establish a World Heritage List of cultural sites and natural areas that would enjoy government protection. The sites are designated as having “outstanding universal value” under the Convention concerning the protection of the World Cultural and Natural heritage Sites include hundreds of historic buildings and town sites, important archaeological sites, and works of monumental sculpture or painting.
UNESCO's Areas of Specialization
EDUCATION
NATURAL SCIENCES
OCEAN SCIENCES
SOCIAL AND HUMAN SCIENCES
CULTURE
COMMUNICATION AND INFORMATION
AFRICA
GENDER EQUALITY
Membership of UNESCO
Membership of UNESCO is governed by Articles II and XV of the Constitution and by rules 98 to 101 of the Rules of Procedure of the General Conference
Membership of the United Nations carries with it the right to membership of UNESCO.
States that are not members of United Nations may be admitted to UNESCO, upon recommendation of the Executive Board, by a two-thirds majority vote of the General Conference.
All Member States have established a National Commission for UNESCO. The UNESCO National Commissions are national cooperating bodies set up by the Member States for the purpose of associating their governmental and non-governmental bodies with the work of the Organization.
UNESCO gets its funding from contributions by member states, voluntary contributions, fundraising, and other, smaller sources of funding.
Top three contributors being China, Japan and Germany presently.
UNESCO is funded by two principal means. The first is a core budget based upon assessed contributions. This core budget is allocated to the biennial programme as agreed at the General Conference. Each member state pays a percentage of the overall agreed budget, based upon their overall burden share set for the United Nations family of organisations as a whole. This project covers the payment of the UK share, which is a legal obligation for members.
Funding specifically for the conservation of World Heritage Sites includes the World Heritage Fund, composed of obligatory contributions from member countries and voluntary contributions, as well as publications and funds-in-trust donated by countries that have particular goals in mind.
World Heritage Fund
The fund provides about US$4 million annually to support activities requested by States Parties in need of International assistance. It includes compulsory and voluntary contributions from the States Parties, as well as from private donations.
Rapid Response Facility
The Rapid Response Facility is a small grants programme jointly operated by the UNESCO World Heritage Centre, the United Nations Foundation and Fauna & Flora International. It aims to protect natural World Heritage sites in times of crisis - and to do so quickly, flexibly and in real time.
IMPORTANT REPORTS
Global Education Monitoring Report
Global Ocean Science Report
UNESCO State of Education Report for India: Children with Disabilities
World Trend in freedom of expression and media development
India and UNESCO
India joined the organisation in 1946 and currently participates in 19 of its conventions.
There are 40 UNESCO World Heritage Sites In India which belongs to cultural, natural and mixed slides.
Context: Recently Ministry of Skill Development and Entrepreneurship (MSDE) certifies 98 Trainers trained in the cluster-based Training of Trainers project under the SANKALP programme.
About SANKALP
Skill Acquisition and Knowledge Awareness for Livelihood Promotion (“SANKALP”) is a Ministry of Skill Development programme with loan assistance from the World Bank.
It aims to improve short-term skill training qualitatively and quantitatively through strengthening institutions, bringing in better market connectivity and including marginalised sections of society.
SANKALP was launched on 19th January 2018 and has a tenure till March 2023.
The outcomes in the project are measured through the Results Framework, and Disbursement Linked Indicators (DLIs) agreed between MSDE and World Bank.
SANKALP has three key result areas namely
(i) Institutional Strengthening at Central, State and District levels;
(ii) Quality Assurance of skill development programmes; and
(iii) Inclusion of marginalised population in skill development programmes."
Interventions under SANKALP are categorised as follows:
RESULT AREA 1: INSTITUTIONAL STRENGTHENING
RESULT AREA 2: ENHANCING MARKET RELEVANCE AND QUALITY
RESULT AREA 3: INCLUSION AND ACCESS OF MARGINALISED COMMUNITIES
PROJECTS ACROSS MULTIPLE RESULT AREAS
Disbursement Linked Indicators (DLIS)
Each DLI is supplemented with a verification protocol against which achievements.
DLI 1: Trainees who have successfully completed the NSQF-aligned, short-term Skill Development (SD) programs, and been certified.
DLI 2: Percentage of graduates who are wage-employed or self-employed within six months of completing short-term SD programs.
DLI 3: NSQF-aligned QPs translated into the model curriculum, trainers’ guide, and teaching-learning resource packs.
DLI 4: Number of trainers and assessors trained/retrained.
DLI 5: Improved performance of states on institutional strengthening, market relevance of SD programs, and access to and completion of training by marginalised populations.
DLI 6: Increase in the percentage of women participating in SD programs.
DLI 7: Improved Gram Panchayat (GP) service delivery for linking unemployed youth to local markets.
DLI 8: Strengthened District Skill Committee's (DSC) capacity to implement short-term skill programs.
Context: The United Nations Peacekeeping Ministerial 2025 concluded in Berlin, Germany in May 2025. More than 130 member states and international partners came together to reaffirm their support for UN Peacekeeping and pledged military and police units.
Relevance of the Topic:Prelims: Key facts about the United Nations Peacekeeping Mission
United Nations Peacekeeping Ministerial 2025:
The Berlin Ministerial is the latest in a series of high-level meetings aimed at galvanising political support and generating tangible commitments to improve UN Peacekeeping.
The 2025 Ministerial coincides with the 80th anniversary of the United Nations and the 10-year anniversary of the Leaders’ Summit on Peacekeeping.
Presently, there are over 61,000 military and police peacekeepers from 119 countries and more than 7,000 civilian personnel serve across 11 Peacekeeping Missions.
India and UN Peacekeeping Mission:
India is currently the fourth largest troop-contributing nation to the UN Peace Keeping missions with 5,375 personnel, after Nepal, Rwanda and Bangladesh.
In the latest ministerial, India has pledged one Quick Reaction Force Company, one male armed police (Central Reserve Police Force or mixed armed police), one women-led Police Unit, one Counter-Explosive Ordnance Disposal Unit IED/EOD Unit, one K9 Unit, and a SWAT Police Unit.
About UN Peacekeeping
United Nations Peacekeeping is an essential part of the United Nation’s efforts to maintain international peace and security. It is a unique instrument developed by the UN to help countries torn by conflict create the conditions for lasting peace.
The primary purpose of missions is to facilitate the implementation of peace agreements, protect civilians, promote human rights, and support the political and peacebuilding processes in post-conflict societies.
Peacekeeping operations are deployed to areas where armed conflict has recently ceased or where the threat of renewed conflict exists.
Peacekeeping missions can include tasks such as monitoring ceasefires, facilitating the delivery of humanitarian aid, promoting human rights, supporting the disarmament and demobilization of former combatants, and helping to rebuild institutions and governance structures.
It is guided by three basic principles:
Consent of the parties;
Impartiality;
Non-use of force except in self-defence and defence of the mandate.
Structure of UN Peacekeeping
United Nations Security Council has the primary responsibility for the maintenance of international peace and security. It authorizes the establishment of peacekeeping missions, determines their mandates, and decides on the deployment of peacekeepers.
Department of Peace Operations (DPO) is responsible for the overall planning, management, and coordination of UN peacekeeping missions. It is headed by the Under-Secretary-General for Peace Operations.
Peacekeeping missions typically consist of military, police, and civilian personnel from contributing countries.
Special Representatives of the Secretary-General (SRSGs) are appointed by the Secretary-General to lead peacekeeping missions and serve as his/her representatives on the ground. SRSGs have overall authority and responsibility for the mission's implementation and coordination.
Financing of UN Peacekeeping
The financing of United Nations Peacekeeping operations is a collective responsibility shared by all member states of the United Nations. The expenses of peacekeeping missions are funded through the UN's regular budget and assessed contributions from member states.
The peacekeeping budget is separate from the UN's regular budget and is based on the estimated costs of individual missions.
The UN also relies on voluntary contributions from member states and regional organisations to support peacekeeping activities.
Deployment of UN Peacekeeping
Peacekeeping is flexible and over the past two decades has been deployed in many configurations. There are currently 12 UN peacekeeping operations deployed on continents: Africa, Asia, and Europe.
For Example:
United Nations Organization Stabilization Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (MONUSCO) – Africa
UN Mission in South Sudan (UNMISS) – Africa
UN Multidimensional Integrated Stabilization Mission in Mali (MINUSMA) – Africa
UN Mission for the Referendum in Western Sahara (MINURSO) – Africa
UN Interim Security Force for Abyei (UNISFA) – Africa
UN Assistance Mission in Afghanistan (UNAMA) – Asia
UN Mission in the Republic of South Sudan (UNMISS) – Africa
UN Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo (UNMIK) – Europe
UN Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus (UNFICYP) – Europe
UN Interim Force in Lebanon (UNIFIL) - Middle East
UN Truce Supervision Organization (UNTSO) - Middle East
UN Mission in Liberia (UNMIL) – Africa
India and UN Peacekeeping
India has a rich legacy of contribution to UN Peacekeeping operations and is one of the largest contributors of troops. Indian peacekeepers have served in various missions worldwide, including in countries such as Congo, South Sudan, Lebanon, Cyprus, Haiti, and many others.
It has contributed approximately 2.75 lakh troops to peacekeeping missions so far and making us the largest contributor to UN peacekeeping efforts, both in terms of personnel and resources
The first commitment was in Korea in 1950.
India has actively supported the inclusion and deployment of female peacekeepers for example female engagement teams in the UN Organisation Stabilisation Mission in Congo (MONUSCO) and UN Interim Security Force for Abyei (UNISFA), besides women staff officers and military observers.
Underemployment: We believe that the cause and consequence of the widespread informal sector is commonly estimated to account for 90% of employment, but generate only a third of the value added in the economy.
Low-productivity trap: It is huge with limited efficiency because of its many constraints and is a low-productivity trap that chokes off the formation of a genuine middle class in India.
Small scale: Typically, informal workers either work as individual casual labour or in micro-enterprises with very small operations, having fewer than 10 employees under conditions of instability in both employment and income.
There is a large contingent of what we call solo service providers even among higher-skilled occupations like carpenters, tailors, and auto mechanics — and even when they are a part of digital aggregator platforms, are still largely on their own.
The International Labour Organization (ILO) has estimated that in 2017, a full one-third of Indian workers in the informal sector were the so-called “own account workers”. The result is persistently low productivity.
Lack of Security: The nature of temporary or contract workers in the informal economy disincentivises the employer from investing in productivity-enhancing tools and training workers to use them, since the payoff time horizon is longer term than the workers’ tenure; Besides, informal employers themselves do not have the wherewithal to invest in worker productivity.
Lack of stable teamwork: However, in the informal sector, because of the transient nature of the workforce, even if a person is part of a work crew of thousands (for example in delivery services or large construction projects), working with others as a stable team does not happen.
Poor access to financing: The problems of access to financing for informal workers and micro-enterprises which are not a part of any formal supply chain is well known, and we will not reiterate it.
The ratio of domestic credit to GDP, which measures how much credit has been extended to people and businesses benchmarked against the size of the economy, is far lower in India than in, say, China or the United States, and has also been stagnant for the entire decade ending in 2022, while it expanded in all the key economies in the world.
Context:Telecom Regulatory Authority of India (TRAI) has directed all Access Providers to deploy Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning based Unsolicited Commercial Communication (UCC) Detect systems to detect, identify and act against senders of Commercial Communication who are not registered in accordance with the provisions of Telecom Commercial Communication Customer Preference Regulations, 2018 (TCCCPR-2018).
About UCC
It means any commercial communication that is neither as per the consent nor as per registered preference(s) of the recipient.
It shall not include:
Any transactional message or transactional voice call;
Any service message or service voice call;
Any message or voice calls transmitted on the directions of the Central Government or the State Government or bodies established under the Constitution when such communication is in the Public Interest;
Any message or voice calls transmitted by or on the direction of the Authority or by an agency expressly authorized for the purpose of the Authority.
Direction of TRAI to detect UCC
TRAI has directed all Access Providers to deploy Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning based UCC Detect systems capable of constantly evolving to deal with new signatures, new patterns, and new techniques used by unregistered telemarketers (UTMs).
Access Providers have also been directed to share intelligence with other Access Providers using the Distributed ledger technology (DLT) platform.
Access Providers have further been directed to ensure that such UCC Detect System shall detect senders who are sending Unsolicited Commercial Communications in bulk and not complying with the provisions of the regulations.
Context:In Poothinatham village, Tamil Nadu, the Department of Archaeology made a noteworthy discovery from the Neolithic period. This find is an ancient celt, crafted from Doloraid stone, which had a dual purpose as both a plough and an axe. This discovery holds great significance in shedding light on the practices and tools used during that time.
What is a Neolithic celt?
A celt, composed of stone, is an age-old instrument utilized for cutting and shaping. This adaptable tool served as an axe, chisel, or adze,
Application: Widespread uses throughout the Neolithic era in different fields such as woodworking, agriculture, and building.
A specific variation of the celt, referred to as a shoe-last celt, was a polished stone tool extensively employed during the early European Neolithic period. Its primary purpose revolved around the felling of trees and engaging in woodworking tasks.
Early Neolithic Cultures and the Beginning of Agriculture
The advent of agriculture and animal domestication during the Neolithic period marked a significant phase in Indian history.
The crucial era witnessed the emergence of Neolithic culture in various regions such as the Fertile Crescent in Egypt and Mesopotamia, the Indus region, the Ganges Valley in India, and China.
Surplus food production:
Between 10,000 BCE and 5000 BCE, agriculture sprouted in these areas, leading to numerous cultural advancements.
The domestication of animals and plants introduced a plentiful supply of grains and animal food.
The fertile soil deposited by rivers contributed to agricultural growth, resulting in surplus grain production.
The surplus food production played a pivotal role in the rise of early civilizations, as large villages were established, pottery developed, and permanent residences were constructed.
Consequently, the cultural advancements of this era are commonly referred to as the Neolithic revolution.
The Neolithic Culture of North-Western India
The earliest evidence of plant and animal domestication in India can be traced back to the Neolithic culture in northwestern India.
Important Sites: Mehrgarh and Sarai Kala, which are presently located in Pakistan.
Mehrgarh:
It has provided evidence of early Neolithic practices dating back to around 7000 BCE.
During this time, the cultivation of wheat and barley was practiced, and sheep, goats, and cattle were domesticated. Mehrgar culture predates the Indus Civilization.
Phase I: The first cultural period of the Neolithic age at Mehrgarh spans from approximately 7000 to 5500 BCE. The people of this period did not employ pottery, but they cultivated six-row barley, wheat, and dates. These were semi-nomadic pastoral groups who constructed houses using mud and practiced the burial of the deceased.
Phase II and III: The second period at Mehrgarh covers the time from about 5500 to 4800 BCE followed by the third period from 4800 to 3500 BCE. Pottery evidence is present during these periods, and terracotta figurines and glazed faience beads have been discovered. Long-distance trade was practiced, as indicated by the presence of Lapis Lazuli, a stone that is exclusively found in Badakshan.The abandonment of the town occurred after the rise of the mature phase of the Indus Civilization.
Excavation at Mehrgarh
Significance of Mehrgarh
Mehrgarh stands out as an important site due to its provision of the earliest and most extensive evidence of cattle, sheep, goat, wheat, and barley domestication, a comprehensive combination of evidence unmatched elsewhere in the world.
Dentistry:
In addition to agricultural and domestication practices, the inhabitants of Mehrgarh demonstrated knowledge of medicinal herbs and their use for health maintenance, an essential survival skill since prehistoric times.
During the Neolithic period, people began consuming ground grain and cooked food, which gave rise to dental and other health issues.
Notably, the earliest evidence of drilling a human tooth (belonging to a living person) has been discovered at Mehrgarh, offering a glimpse into early dental practices, which can be considered a precursor to dentistry.
Neolithic Culture of South India
The Neolithic cultures of South India primarily existed in Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka, as well as the north-western part of Tamil Nadu. These sites exhibit a distinct feature of having ash mounds at their centers, surrounded by settlements.
Locations: Often situated near granite hills with access to water sources. They can be found in the river valleys of Godavari, Krishna, Pennaru, Tungabhadra, and Kaveri.
Some of the prominent Neolithic sites in South India include Brahmagiri, Maski, Piklihal, and Hallur in Karnataka; Nagarjunakonda in Andhra Pradesh and Paiyyampalli in Tamil Nadu.
Certain early Neolithic sites also exhibit the presence of ash mounds, such as Utnur and Palvoy in Andhra Pradesh. These sites showcase layers of soft ash and decomposed cow dung.
Social Organisation
Due to limited evidence, understanding the social organization of Neolithic people poses challenges. However, they transitioned to living in settled or semi-sedentary communities.
It is possible that they organized themselves into tribes or similar social units.
The presence of small houses suggests the presence of nuclear families within these settlements.
The development of ceramics and beads indicates advancements in material cultural production.
Burials within houses were practiced, and in some cases, animal burials have also been discovered, suggesting the adoption of rituals and reverence for the deceased.
It is possible that they worshipped natural forces.
The evidence for art objects is limited, but the existence of terracotta images depicting cattle implies the presence of a fertility cult or similar beliefs.
Neolithic artifact from North-east India
Pottery of the Neolithic period
The early phases of the Neolithic era are referred to as A-ceramic or Pre-Pottery Neolithic due to the absence of pottery vessels.
Containers were crafted using unfired clay, leather, wood, stone, straw, and other materials. Traces of these unfired vases are challenging to find.
The earliest instances of hand-made pottery, which are considered visually appealing, can be traced back to the Early Neolithic period. These pottery pieces were typically burnished or monochromatic, featuring painted, incised, or impressed decorations.
The most elaborate examples of painted ornamentation are observed in the Middle Neolithic period.
Archaeologists speculate that the emergence of agriculture also gave rise to the need for durable and sturdy objects for water transport in irrigation systems, although the development of farming and pottery did not always occur simultaneously.
Moreover, the accumulation of grain surpluses such as sorghum, rice, and wheat would have been essential for the sustenance of larger civilizations, with pottery playing a crucial role in storing these surplus crops.
Context: Ineffective implementation of MSP and ‘non-procurement’ of all the crops at the MSP is one of the main concerns of farmers. Such a scenario builds a strong rationale for giving ‘legal status’ to MSP as it is the floor or reference price.
Present Status of MSP
Presently, MSP does not enjoy statutory recognition. This means that there is no onus on the private sector to buy at MSP.
Legalisation of MSP would ensure that the private sector would buy commodities at MSP. Failure to do so would attract a penalty.
Need For Legalisation of MSP
Enhancement in Income Levels: Even though the Government declares MSP; procurement is quite limited to certain crops and certain regions. Most of the farmers sell commodities below MSP in the open market to the traders and middlemen.
Promote Crop Diversification: Only three to four crops (mainly wheat, paddy and cotton and at times some pulses), were being procured at MSP while the remaining crops were being procured at much below the MSP. Hence, absence of any dependable or assured market mechanism of procurement-purchase for crops on the MSP in most parts of the country discourages efforts towards crop diversification.
Challenges and Concerns
Goes against Interest of Farmers: Legalisation of MSP will encourage over-production of Rice and Wheat. This may have severe environmental costs such as decline in soil fertility, depletion of ground water etc. In the long term, this would negatively affect income levels of farmers.
Adverse Impact on Economy: Higher costs of procurement due to a statutory MSP will increase the food prices, leading to inflation in the economy. Higher prices of commodities would adversely affect exports of agricultural commodities.
Financing needs: According to some estimates, if the Government were to procure all the 23 crops at MSP, it would amount to half of the Government's Budget.
Unsustainable Food grain Management Policy: The Food subsidy bill has already become quite unsustainable at around Rs 2 lakh crores. The excess procurement of food grains by the FCI has led to surplus buffer stocks leading to higher storage costs and wastages. Legalisation of MSP would further worsen the scenario.
Administrative Challenge: Lack of government machinery to procure all crops that are under the MSP system.
Violation of WTO Agreement on Agriculture (AoA): Legalisation of MSP would further violate the limit on the subsidies under AoA and it can be challenged by other countries. India's quest for Permanent solution on public stockholding could be in jeopardy.
Promote Inequality: Only 6 percent of farmers are able to benefit from the MSP. Similarly, most of the Rice and Wheat are sourced from states such as Punjab, Haryana, MP etc. Hence, legalisation of MSP could worsen socio-economic inequality and promote regional disparity.
Environmental cost: Encourage farmers to grow more rice and wheat leading to further environmental problems.
Adverse Impact of Government's Intervention: In any free-market economy, the price of any goods and services produced in the country must be decided by market forces and not by the state. As highlighted by Eco Survey 2019-20, Government's intervention, sometimes though well intended, often ends up adversely affecting the market. For example, the regulation of prices of drugs through the DPCO 2013, has led to an increase in the price of a regulated pharmaceutical drug vis-à-vis that of a similar drug whose price is not regulated.
Conclusion
The MSP attempts to strike a balance between the interests of growers and consumers. The government’s price support policy attempts to provide a fair return to farmers while keeping in view the interest of consumers in a way that prices of food and other agricultural commodities are kept at a reasonable level.
Farming over the years, for the majority, especially small and marginal farmers, has not turned out to be remunerative. A rise in their income could be the long-term answer to farmers’ financial distress.
To ensure this rise in income, the government should focus on setting up an effective system to provide assured purchase and returns to farmers for all major crops at the MSP, as is done in the case of wheat and rice or extend subsidies on input costs.
Context: Behind extremely severe cyclone Biparjoy’s evolution is a gradual but undesirable change in the nature of the Arabian Sea: it was always relatively cooler compared to the Bay of Bengal in the north Indian Ocean.
Why traditionally West Indian Ocean experienced less number of tropical cyclones?
The ratio between Arabian Sea (A.S) and Bay of Bengal (B.O.B) has been 1:4 in terms of yearly cyclones because of the following factors:
Average temperature of B.O.B is higher than A.S. B.O.B is a warm pool region. On the other hand A.S has higher salinity and lower temperature which is disadvantageous for cyclone formation.
B.O.B has abundant water availability due to continuous influx of water from large rivers like Ganga, Brahmaputra etc. This freshwater influx makes it further impossible to mix with the cooler water below
Shape of the land around B.O.B weakens the wind speed thus allowing the winds to spin faster.
B.O.B also experiences the offshoots of tropical cyclones from Pacific-ocean.
On the other hand, Arabian Sea is calmer as stronger winds hand Arabian Sea is calmer as stronger winds help dissipate the heat and lack of constant fresh water helps the warm water to mix with the cool water underneath, reducing the surface temperature.
Changing nature of Arabian Sea:
Sea surface temperatures over the Arabian Sea have increased by 1.2 to 1.4 degrees C in recent decades compared to four decades ago.
According to a 2021 paper published in Nature, there is a significant increasing trend in the intensity, frequency, and duration of cyclonic storms (CS) and very severe cyclonic storms (VSCS) observed over the Arabian Sea during the study period, 1982 to 2019.
There is a 52% increase in the frequency of CS during the recent epoch (2001–2019) in the Arabian Sea, while there is a decrease of 8% in the Bay of Bengal, the paper highlighted.
Further, there has been an 80% increase in the total duration of cyclones in the Arabian Sea over two decades to 2021. The duration of very severe cyclones increased by 260% in the same period, the paper added.
The change in the Arabian Sea’s character has also led to more severe cyclones forming and sustaining over it which also means India’s west coast is now more vulnerable.
Climate change affecting frequency and intensity of tropical cyclones:
According to Council on Energy, Environment and Water (CEEW) India, in the last 50 years, has recorded a 12-fold surge in the number of associated cyclonic events such as extreme rainfall, floods, sea-level rise, and thunderstorms.
Increased sea surface temperature: Over the past 50 years, the global ocean has absorbed 90% of the excess heat generated due to man-made climate change leading to higher convection and rapid intensification of cyclones.
Rising sea level: on account of Antarctic melting has increased the moisture availability for cyclones.
Micro-climatic changes onland: Local heating of coastal land is pulled by adjacent ocean further heating it up.
Changing weather events: El-Nino and rising marine heat waves lead to prolonged warm periods over oceans by reducing the ocean upwelling.
Higher Atmospheric moisture: due to anthropogenic global warming increase cyclonic precipitation rates thereby increasing the frequency.
Changes in wind systems:Occasionally intense winds drive the low-pressure regions to other areas rising the frequency in those areas. Ex. Gulab cyclone shifted to Arabian sea from B.O.B.
Context: A recent study conducted by researchers from a Japanese university compared the gut microbiota of older healthy individuals in two Japanese cities. The findings indicate a potential connection between gut microbiota and longevity.
About Gut microbiome
Alsoknown as gut microbiota or gut flora.
It is the microorganisms, including bacteria, viruses, fungi, and other microbes, that reside in the gastrointestinal tract, particularly in the large intestine.
Composition of gut microbiome
Microbial colonization of the human gut begins at birth.
The types of microorganisms in our gut can differ depending on where they are in the digestive system.
The colon, which is part of the large intestine, has the most microorganisms compared to any other part of our body.
Factors such as diet, lifestyle, medications (especially antibiotics), stress, and certain diseases can influence the composition and diversity of the gut microbiota.
Role of gut microbiome in our bodies
Digestion and Nutrient Absorption: Certain bacteria in the gut help break down dietary fibers and other complex carbohydrates that our body cannot digest on its own. They produce enzymes that break down these compounds into simpler molecules that can be absorbed and utilised by our bodies.
Immune System Function: A balanced and diverse microbiota helps maintain a healthy immune system, protecting against pathogens and reducing the risk of autoimmune diseases.
Metabolism and Energy Regulation: Studies have shown that the composition of gut microbiota can influence our metabolism and energy balance. Imbalances in the gut microbiota have been associated with metabolic disorders such as obesity and type 2 diabetes.
Synthesis of Vitamins and Beneficial Compounds: Some gut bacteria are capable of producing vitamins, such as vitamin K and certain B vitamins, that our bodies cannot produce on their own.
Brain-Gut Axis: The gut microbiota communicates bidirectionally with the brain through the gut-brain axis. This connection influences various aspects of brain function, including mood regulation, stress response, and cognitive function. One particular metabolite(a substance formed in or necessary for metabolism), butyrate, has emerged as a crucial element in promoting brain health through the gut-brain axis.
More about Brain Gut Axis
Butyrate is produced when “good” bacteria in gut help the body break down dietary fiber in large intestine (colon). It’s one of several short-chain fatty acids, which are named for their chemical structure.
Butyrate being the single most demarcating factor between the longest living and the shortest life span.
