September 25, 2023

Current Affairs

NASA’s first asteroid samples land on Earth

Context: The OSIRIS-REX mission has ended with the return of regolith (space sample) from the primordial asteroid Bennu.

OSIRIS-REx Mission:

Origins, Spectral Interpretation, Resources Identification and Security-Regolith Explorer (OSIRIS REx) is an asteroid study and sample return mission by NASA.
The spacecraft set out in 2016 to study asteroid Bennu (a carbon-rich near-Earth asteroid) and return to Earth with a sample for detailed analysis in 2023.

Asteroid Bennu:

Bennu is a small asteroid, a little less than 500 metres in depth and is more than 4.5 billion years old.
It is classified as a “near-Earth object” because it passes relatively close to our planet every six years.
Over time, the asteroid has drifted closer to Earth, closely approaching it every six years, owing to which it has a small chance of impacting the Earth in future (2182 CE).

Why was Bennu chosen?

Bennu fits in three criteria: accessibility, size and composition.
For a mission like OSIRIS-REx, the most accessible asteroids are somewhere between 0.08 – 1.6 AU. Scientists needed an asteroid that could be easily travelled to, retrieve a sample from and return to Earth all within a few years. Further, Bennu had an orbit similar to Earth.
One theory is that small worlds like Bennu seeded Earth with the prebiotic ingredients for life

Significance:

Researchers believe that this pristine space dirt will reveal clues about the birth of our solar system (4.5 billion years ago) and the genesis of life on Earth.

Key Fact:

One AU (Astronomical Unit) is approximately equal to 93 million miles - the distance between the Sun and the Earth. The closest asteroids which travel within 1.3 AU of the sun are called near-Earth objects.

National Education Policy 2020, Multiple entry, exit option in higher studies may not suit India: House panel

Context: The Parliamentary Standing Committee on Education, headed by Vivek Thakur, has advised the Centre to discuss it with all stakeholders. In a report titled ‘Implementation of the National Education Policy, 2020 in Higher Education’, the panel said Indian institutions were likely to face several issues in implementing this system.

What is Multiple Entry and Multiple Exit?

It allows a student to drop their course and resume it when convenient. A student unable to continue his/her studies due to financial difficulties can exit to find a job and make money so that the studies can be resumed.
In other words, the MEES is an opportunity for financially challenged students to complete their studies on their own.
Probably the economic factor is only one among many that causes dropouts in higher education.
Other reasons like social, familial, religious, etc., are also prevalent in India. For example, girls who get married early or are pregnant while pursuing a degree and those who are experiencing physical hardship due to accidents or diseases will see the MEES as a blessing.
A more in-depth analysis of the concept shows practical complications and the attempt to turn education from a social responsibility to a personal responsibility.
The Multiple Entry and Multiple Exit (MEME) option in the New Education Policy 2020 is a provision that allows students to enter and exit academic programs at different stages while earning credits for the completed courses.
It provides flexibility to learners by enabling them to choose their academic pathway and pursue a combination of disciplines.
The MEME system aims to curtail the dropout rate, improve the Gross Enrollment Ratio (GER), and offer creative combinations of study disciplines1. Undergraduate degrees are designed to be either 3 or 4 years long, with multiple entry and exit options within this period.
Students can receive certifications such as a certificate after completing 1 year in a discipline, including vocational and professional areas; a diploma after 2 years of study; or a Bachelor’s degree after a 3-year program.

Concerns associated with MEME

If institutions allow MEME, it would be very difficult for the institutions to predict how many students would exit and how many would join midway. Since institutions would not know the in- and out-traffic, it will certainly disturb the pupil-teacher ratio.
The members of the panel also expressed concern that uneven geographical distribution of higher educational institutions would create hurdles in managing MEME in several areas, mostly the countryside.
The institutions have not thought very clearly about this problem and how they will resolve it when it is at their doorstep.
Though enrolment in higher education in India is only about 26%, the dropout rate is low compared to the school level. According to figures released by the Minister of Education in Parliament in February 2020, the dropout rate in IITs is just 1% in 2020. But with the implementation of MEES, this is likely to rise sharply. The concept of multiple exits legitimises student dropouts.
The MEES does not have the provision to ensure that the students who exited will join back.
The vast majority is likely to fall into the trap of deciding to go as far as possible with the work they are currently doing and the pay they are getting out of it. Fatalism is a major driving force for a majority of Indians.
Institutes may impose restrictions on the number of students likely to resume their studies each year. So, MEES would not ensure entry according to the will of the students, but on the conditions of the institutions.
At the same time, multiple-entry admission in government colleges and universities can be given only by following the reservation policy. Private institutions, on the other hand, would deem this a good opportunity to charge exorbitant fees to those students who seek entry back to resume their studies.
MEES may appear to be a student-friendly policy, but it implies that education is a private responsibility. While no child in a financially secure home will drop out of college due to the want of money, MEES, if implemented, will result in a distorted educational experience for financially disadvantaged students.
However, with the general consensus that students can study on their own, it will be a good justification to withdraw all such scholarships.

Suggestions

The panel recommended the Union Education Ministry have wider consultations with various universities/institutions, their regulatory bodies and other stakeholders to devise ways given the difficulties being faced in implementing the MEME options.

Govt aims to implement Reservation for Women in next LS elections

Context: The central government is planning to roll out reservation of seats for women, which is linked to the delimitation exercise, in the 2029 Lok Sabha elections.

The Nari Shakti Vandan Adhiniyam, 2023 reserves one-third of seats for women in the Lok Sabha, State Assemblies, and the Legislative Assembly of the NCT Delhi. This will also apply to the seats reserved for SCs and STs in Lok Sabha and state legislatures.

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: Key facts about Nari Shakti Vandan Adhiniyam 2023/ Women’s Reservation Act.

Mains: Political Representation of Women in India: Status, Initiatives and Challenges.

This article explores the 106th amendment to the constitution, reason for its introduction and provisions of the amendment act. It also explores the concerns associated with the amendment and suggests some way forward.

Reason for Introduction of the Bill

The representation of women in the Indian Parliament and state assemblies is significantly lower than their share of the population.

According to the Inter-Parliamentary Union, India ranks 148th out of 193 countries in terms of women’s representation while the global average is 26.5%.
Women’s representation in state assemblies is also dismal, ranging from 3.1% in Nagaland to 23.1% in Bihar.
In the Lok Sabha, women make up less than 15% of the total strength.
In the Rajya Sabha, women's representation is around 14%.

Women Reservation Act, 2023

The Constitution (One Hundred and Sixth Amendment) Act, 2023 also known as Women Reservation Act, 2023 aims to provide 33 percent reservation to women in both the Lok Sabha (House of the People) and state Legislative Assemblies.

This Act is similar to the previous attempt in 2010, The Constitution (One Hundred and Eighth Amendment) Bill, 2008, which was passed by the Rajya Sabha but not taken up by the Lok Sabha.

Highlight of the Act

The Act seeks to introduce three new articles and one new clause in the Constitution and has a sunset clause.

New Clause in 239AA: This clause mandates the reservation of seats for women in the Delhi Legislative Assembly.
Additionally, one-third of the seats reserved for Scheduled Castes (SCs) shall also be reserved for women, as well as one-third of the total number of seats to be filled by direct elections.
New Article - 330A: This article focuses on the reservation of seats for women in the Lok Sabha.
It specifies that one-third of the seats reserved for SCs and STs shall be reserved for women.
Furthermore, one-third of the total seats to be filled by direct elections to the Lok Sabha shall also be reserved for women.
New Article - 332A: This article pertains to the reservation of seats for women in every state Legislative Assembly.
It follows a similar pattern, reserving one-third of the seats for SCs and STs for women, as well as one-third of the total seats to be filled by direct elections to the Legislative Assembly.
New Article - 334A: This article deals with the implementation of the reservation.
It specifies that the reservation shall come into effect after the delimitation is undertaken following the publication of relevant census figures.
There will also be a rotation of seats for women after each subsequent exercise of delimitation.
Sunset Clause: The Act has a sunset clause, which means that the reservation for women will be in effect for a period of 15 years from the commencement of the Act.

Advantages of the Act

Gender Equality, representation and Empowerment: by ensuring that women have equal access to decision-making positions in the government.
Accommodative Decision Making: by Increased representation of women in politics bringing diverse perspectives and experiences to the table. Women's unique insights into issues such as healthcare, education, gender-based violence, and family welfare can result in better-informed legislation.
Role Models: When women hold prominent political positions, it sends a powerful message to the entire nation, inspiring women and girls to pursue leadership roles in various fields.
Social Development: Research indicates that countries with higher levels of women's political representation tend to have better outcomes in areas such as healthcare, education, and poverty reduction.
Fostering Inclusivity: By encouraging political parties to field more women candidates it can lead to a broader spectrum of women from different backgrounds, including those from marginalised communities, entering politics.
Enhanced Accountability: With increased women's representation, Women lawmakers may prioritise issues such as women's rights, healthcare, and education, leading to greater accountability in governance.
Legal Protections: Women in politics can protect women's rights, such as laws against gender-based violence, workplace harassment, and discrimination.
Global Recognition: Passage of the Act would enhance India's global image as a nation committed to gender equality and aligns with international goals, such as those outlined in the Goal 5 of Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).
Long-Term Impact: The act by reshaping traditional gender norms and expectations can contribute to a more equitable and inclusive society where women have greater opportunities for leadership and decision-making.

Case Studies on Present Reservation for Women in Local Governments 2004 paper by Esther Duflo and Raghabendra Chattopadhyay on panchayats in West Bengal and Rajasthan

It found that women leaders invest more in public goods and ensure increased women’s participation in panchayat meetings.

2008 paper by Vijayendra Rao and Radu Ban

It found that women leaders perform no differently than their male counterparts in south India and instead institutional factors such as the maturity of the State’s panchayat system were more relevant.

2010 paper by Pranab Bardhan and others

It found that women’s reservations worsened the targeting of welfare programmes for SC/ST households and provided no improvement for female-headed households.

Study in 2011 across 11 States by Ms. Duflo and others

It reaffirmed that women-led panchayats made higher investments in public services like drinking water, education, and roads.

2020 paper by Alexander Lee and Varun Karekurve-Ramachandra

It examined reservations in Delhi and found that constituencies reserved for women are less likely to elect OBC women and more likely to elect upper-caste women.

Case Study

Women Reservation: Not Just a Number Game

Different Approach: Male Members of Parliament (MPs) mostly focus on finance, defence, external affairs, the PMOs, etc. as found in different studies whereas women representatives particularly focus on critical matters such as healthcare, education, roads, and micro, small, and medium enterprises (MSMEs).
Political Affiliation and Government Accountability: Female MPs from the ruling party, as found in different studies, have demonstrated a significantly higher level of scrutiny towards their own government, holding their own ministries accountable in comparison to male MPs.
Reinforcement of other Rights: According to a report of United Nations 2011, The political empowerment of women plays a vital role in reinforcing civil and human rights through direct engagement of women in public decision-making.
Policy Formulation and Implementation Gaps: As majority of the beneficiaries of some government initiatives such as Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Yojana are women, their participation in formulation of policies and implementation ensure effective implementation of such schemes.

Concern with the Act

Legal and Constitutional Concerns:

Contingent on Delimitation: The reservation will take effect post-delimitation following the publication of the Act and post delimitation census figures.
- If the reallocation of seats between States is purely based on population, the southern States’ share in the Parliament will drastically reduce which is likely to open the fault lines of India’s delicate federal relations.
- This could also delay the implementation of women's reservation, possibly until 2029.
Identification of reserved seats: The Act does not specify the method regarding identification of the reserved seats for women.

Political Concerns:

Opposition from Political Parties: They argue that women from marginalised communities like Other Backward Classes (OBCs) should also have reserved seats within the women's quota.
Lack of Consensus: Despite support in principle by political parties, disagreements on the implementation details and sub-reservations have hindered the Act's passage.
Impact on Existing Power Structures: Increasing the representation of women may necessitate a shift in political dynamics and party hierarchies which could affect existing power structures.
Lack of Deliberation and Analysis: The introduction and passing of act surreptitiously through a “supplementary list” in a hastily organised Parliament session shows the lack of deliberation and analysis.

Social Concerns:

Representation of Diverse Groups: The concerns have been raised about the need for diversity within the women's quota from diverse backgrounds, including different castes, religions, regions, and economic strata.
Empowerment vs. Tokenism: Some critics argue that merely reserving seats may not necessarily empower women unless they have a meaningful role and voice in decision-making processes.
Social Norms and Stereotypes: Deep-rooted social norms and stereotypes about women's roles in society and politics can be a barrier to the effective implementation of the Act e.g., issue of Sarpanch Pati.
Changing perceptions about women's capabilities and roles in leadership positions is a long-term challenge.
Inclusivity of Marginalised Groups: The Act's implementation left out the marginalised groups of women, such as those with disabilities, LGBTQ+ individuals, and women from indigenous communities.

Way Forward:

The Act’s aim of providing women representation is a way to promote social justice in India. This can be supplemented by providing special quotas to marginalised women to make it more representative and inclusive.
The Act is an important step in the direction of promoting an enabling environment for the participation of women from all backgrounds in public life which can have profound, positive implications for society as a whole.
The Act is an important step towards implementation of the Sustainable Development Goals as well as India’s obligations under the UN Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women.

Fukushima N-wastewater controversy

Context: On April 13, 2021, Japan’s government announced plans to release over one million tonnes of contaminated water from the Fukushima nuclear plant into the sea over the next 30 years.

The wastewater is a by-product of the catastrophic 2011 earthquake and tsunami, which disabled the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power plant, leading to the release of radioactive materials. After more than a decade of storing this wastewater, Japan says they are running out of storage space, and allege that the, now treated water is safe for release.

How is the water being treated and what is the controversy?

The water is being treated by the Tokyo Electric Power Company (TEPCO).
The water has been treated with multiple techniques, notably the Advanced Liquid Processing System (ALPS), which removes 62 types of radioactive materials.
However, it doesn’t remove tritium.
TEPCO and the Japanese government argue that the concentration of tritium does not exceed international standards, in particular, those of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), the United Nations’ nuclear watchdog. According to TEPCO’s website, the radiation emitted by tritium is “extremely weak, and can be blocked with a single sheet of paper.” The concentration is also six times less than the limit for tritium in drinking water, set by the World Health Organization.
You can’t remove tritium because it is identical to hydrogen. So removing it, chemically extracting it from wastewater becomes quite impossible.
Fears persist within the majority. A poll conducted by Japan’s Jiji Press in September shows that 16.3% of respondents are opposed to the discharge of the treated water, and 30.8% were neither opposed nor in favour. Several protests have been held in Seoul against the release, and many hoarded seafood ahead of the discharge. Some surveys show that 8085% of South Koreans oppose the water’s release. The Chinese government, which has been against Japan’s decision since the announcement was made, has already banned seafood from Japan.

ANALYSING NUCLEAR ENRGY AS A WHOLE:

Points in favour of nuclear energy:

Nuclear is a zero-emission clean energy source: It generates power through fission, which is the process of splitting uranium atoms to produce energy. The heat released by fission is used to create steam that spins a turbine to generate electricity without the harmful by-products as emitted by fossil fuels.

Fig: A comparison of direct GHG emission (red bars) and full life cycle emissions (blue bars)
Nuclear energy’s land footprint is small: Despite producing massive amounts of carbon-free power, nuclear energy produces more electricity on less land than any other clean-air source. A typical 1,000-megawatt nuclear facility needs a little more than 1 square mile to operate which is 360 times less than wind plant and 75 times less than solar plant.
Nuclear energy produces minimal waste: Nuclear fuel is extremely dense. It’s about 1 million times greater than that of other traditional energy sources and because of this, the amount of used as nuclear fuel is not as big as you might think.

Nuclear power is not without significant disadvantages and risks that warrant consideration:

Safety concerns: Nuclear accidents like Chernobyl and Fukushima have demonstrated the catastrophic dangers of nuclear power when safety systems fail. In Indian context high population density, limited water resources and seismic instability in some regions amplify the risks and potential impacts of an accident should one occur..
Weapons proliferation: Nuclear technologies and by-products like plutonium can potentially enable weapons proliferation if misused or mishandled. India must ensure its ambitious nuclear plans strengthen oversight, safeguards and the civilian orientation of its programs to avoid enabling weapons ambitions in unstable regions.
Costs: Although nuclear energy is inexpensive once operational, nuclear power plants are highly capital intensive to construct. Project cost overruns are common. Ex: Flamanville reactor in France is 10 years behind schedule and costs have tripled to $12.7 billion. High costs could deter investment into nuclear and benefit cheaper renewable sources.
Waste disposal: Nuclear plants generate radioactive waste that remains dangerous for thousands of years and there are unresolved issues around waste storage and disposal. Any country pursuing nuclear must develop safe, long-term waste solutions to avoid contamination.
Opportunity costs: Large investments into nuclear energy could divert funds and focus away from renewable sources like solar and wind which are quickly achieving cost parity, often better matched to grid needs, and do not have the same economic, safety or waste risks as nuclear. A balanced approach is needed.
Domestic capacity: India's nuclear ambitions depend heavily on foreign reactor designs, fuel sources and technical cooperation, especially from Russia and France. This dependence could compromise India's aim for energy self-sufficiency and technology leadership. Investing in education and R&D is needed.

Recent technological developments have addressed some nuclear concerns, but not eliminated them entirely:

Safety: New reactor designs like advanced light water reactors and fast breeder reactors incorporate more passive safety features, lower meltdown risks and higher tolerance for human error or natural disasters. Ex: AP1000 reactors can withstand earthquakes, tsunamis and have a 72-hour backup system. However, severe accidents remain possible and the "fail-safe" nature of reactors is still debated. Strict regulatory oversight is still needed.
Proliferation: Technologies like laser enrichment reduce proliferation risks by making the enrichment process more difficult to replicate, while new fuel types like mixed oxide (MOX) fuel make plutonium more difficult to extract for weapons. However, determined groups could potentially overcome these barriers, indicating safeguards must still be actively pursued.
Costs: Standardized reactor designs, modular components, and improved construction techniques aim to reduce costs through replication and learning curve impacts. Ex: Modular reactors could cost 50-70% less. However, nuclear remains capital intensive, projects often run over-budget, and reliable cost reductions remain uncertain - especially where subsidies or public funds are used.
Waste: New reprocessing techniques can recycle used nuclear fuel and recover usable uranium and plutonium. The recycled fuel can power advanced reactors, minimizing waste. India uses a plutonium-uranium extraction process. However, reprocessing still results in radioactive byproducts that require storage. And it can increase proliferation risks which must be addressed.
Renewable integration: Nuclear technology startups are developing smaller, more flexible reactors to complement intermittent renewable sources, providing low-carbon baseload when needed. Ex: NuScale's small modular reactors can balance loads. However, variable renewable costs are rapidly declining as technologies and coupled with storage, could potentially reduce need for large baseload capacity from nuclear.
Domestic capacity: India has established domestic manufacturing capabilities for nuclear components like coolant pipes, centrifuges, and control mechanisms through partnerships between the NPCIL and private industry. India also has a well-developed nuclear fuel cycle, including facilities for mining, milling, conversion, enrichment, and fuel fabrication, as well as facilities for reprocessing spent nuclear fuel. India is also developing advanced nuclear technologies, such as fast breeder reactors and thorium-based reactors. However, India still imports key reactor components from Russia and France due to limited technical experience. Developing a robust domestic supply chain will take time.

CONCERNS OF NUCLEAR ENERGY	TECHNOLOGICAL ADDRESS OF THE CONCERNS
Safety concerns	New reactor designs like advanced light water reactors and fast breeder reactors incorporate more passive safety features, lower meltdown risks and higher tolerance for human error or natural disasters
Weapons proliferation	Technologies like laser enrichment reduce proliferation risks by making the enrichment process more difficult to replicate, while new fuel types like mixed oxide (MOX) fuel make plutonium more difficult to extract for weapons
High Costs	Modular reactors could cost 50-70% less.
Waste disposal	New reprocessing techniques can recycle used nuclear fuel and minimize waste. Ex: Fast breeder reactors can generate more fuel than they consume.
Opportunity costs	Renewable integration: Nuclear technology startups are developing smaller, more flexible reactors to complement intermittent renewable sources, providing low-carbon baseload when needed. Ex: NuScale's small modular reactors can balance loads.
Domestic capacity	India also has a well-developed nuclear fuel cycle, including facilities for mining, milling, conversion, enrichment, and fuel fabrication, as well as facilities for reprocessing spent nuclear fuel. India is also developing advanced nuclear technologies, such as fast breeder reactors and thorium-based reactors.

So nuclear technology offers promise but no panacea. Its viability, costs and necessity in any country's energy mix depends on a comparison to all available options - and selection of the optimal diverse, balanced and sustainable supply with fair consideration of risks and benefits. An open and honest appraisal is still most prudent with any pursuit of nuclear power.

Energy security: India has a severe energy deficit and high dependence on coal, with over 70% of electricity generated from coal. Nuclear power provides energy security by diversifying fuel sources for electricity and reducing overreliance on any single source. Ex: France derives over 70% of its electricity from nuclear, ensuring stable supply.
Energy poverty: Energy poverty is a major challenge in India, with millions of people lacking access to basic energy services. Nuclear power can help address this challenge by providing a reliable and affordable source of energy to remote and underserved areas.
Low-carbon source: Unlike coal, nuclear power does not emit greenhouse gases and particulate pollution. It can help India meet its climate change mitigation goals under the Paris Agreement as a low-carbon source for base load power. Ex: Sweden aims to phase out fossil fuels in favor of nuclear and renewable energy for a carbon-neutral grid.
Economic benefits: The nuclear power industry creates many jobs in research, reactors construction, and supporting sectors. Kudankulam nuclear plant in Tamil Nadu employs over 2000 people. Nuclear also reduces the need to import expensive fossil fuels. Operation of nuclear plants over 60-100 year lifetimes provide long-term economic value.
Energy independence: Domestically produced nuclear fuel reduces dependence on imported energy sources like coal, oil and natural gas - providing greater energy security and independence. India aims to develop its domestic uranium resources and thorium-based reactors. Ex: Canada's uranium mining industry employs over 60,000 people and sustains remote communities.
Reliable: Nuclear power plants operate at over 90% capacity for most of their lifetimes, providing a constant and stable source of baseload power to grids regardless of weather conditions or time of day. Ex: South Korea generates about 30% of its power from nuclear, operating at over 95% capacity.
Existing investments: India has invested heavily in nuclear energy, with 22 commercial reactors operating and 7 under construction. Kudankulam plant alone cost $6.7 billion. Scrapping nuclear prematurely would lead to loss of this investment and wasted capital that could have gained from the plants' operation over 60+ years.
Advanced technologies: New nuclear technologies can strengthen the case for nuclear in India, including more advanced light water reactors, fast breeder reactors, and thorium-based reactors which use domestically available fuel sources.
Technological penetration: Development of nuclear reactors can drive technological progress in India through several mechanisms:
- Materials science: Nuclear reactors require advanced materials that can withstand high temperatures, pressures and radiation over long periods. Progress in materials like zirconium alloys, graphite, and new ceramics has applications in other industries like aerospace, defense, and electronics. India aims to develop silicon carbide composites for future reactors.
- Manufacturing: High-precision manufacturing techniques are needed to produce nuclear reactor components. Electron beam welding, 3D printing processes etc require technical skills that translate to other sectors. India's Make in India initiative aims to localize nuclear supply chains to support manufacturing growth.
- Robotics: Nuclear reactors utilize robotics for inspection, maintenance and handling of radioactive materials. Developments in robotics, sensors and remote tooling have spin-off benefits for fields like space exploration, mining, and hazardous waste management.
- Sensors and monitoring: Nuclear reactors employ advanced sensors, detectors and real-time monitoring technologies to control processes, detect anomalies and prevent accidents. Technologies like optical spectroscopy, radiation mapping and ultrasonic transducers have medical, security and industrial applications.
Fusion: Research in nuclear fusion aims to develop clean, abundant energy by replicating the processes of the sun on earth. Fusion programs push boundaries in areas like advanced electromagnets, plasma physics and high-heat materials that ultimately benefit sectors like space travel, computing, and accelerator science. India operates an experimental tokamak fusion device.