Women & Women Issues

50 Years of ICDS Programme: Strengthening India’s Early Childhood Development Framework

Context: The Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) programme, India’s flagship early childhood development initiative, completed 50 years in 2025. Launched in 1975, ICDS has evolved into the world’s largest community-based child development programme. It is now restructured under Mission Saksham Anganwadi and Poshan 2.0 to modernise service delivery, nutrition outcomes, and early childhood education.

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About ICDS

ICDS is a Centrally Sponsored Scheme under the Ministry of Women and Child Development (MoWCD). It aims to address malnutrition, improve child development, and enhance maternal health through integrated, community-based service delivery.

Objectives

  • Improve the nutritional and health status of children aged 0–6 years.
  • Reduce infant mortality, undernutrition, and school dropouts.
  • Enhance early childhood care and development, especially in vulnerable communities.
  • Provide support to pregnant and lactating women through health and nutrition services.

Core Services (Six Services)

  1. Supplementary Nutrition
  2. Pre-school Non-formal Education
  3. Nutrition and Health Education
  4. Immunisation
  5. Health Check-ups
  6. Referral Services

These services are delivered through a nationwide network of Anganwadi Centres (AWCs).

Key Achievements

1. Expansive Coverage

  • Nearly 1.4 million AWCs operate across India.
  • ICDS benefits over 9 crore children and mothers annually.

2. Improved Nutrition Support

  • ~95% of registered children access supplementary nutrition, contributing to better growth monitoring and early detection of malnutrition.

3. Early Learning Improvements

  • Several independent studies show gains in early literacy and numeracy, especially in states with strong AWC education reforms.

4. Women-centred and Community Assets

  • Thousands of women’s hostels, crèches, and community centres have been established under ICDS and PMJVK-linked convergence.

Key Challenges

1. Funding Strain

  • The shift from 90:10 to 60:40 Centre–State funding has created financial stress for several states, impacting uniform coverage.

2. Infrastructure Gaps

  • Many AWCs lack permanent buildings, functional toilets, kitchens, and drinking-water facilities, affecting service quality.

3. Workforce Issues

  • Anganwadi workers remain underpaid and overburdened, often diverted to non-ICDS duties such as surveys and election work.

4. Technology-Driven Exclusion

  • Issues with the Poshan Tracker app and facial recognition-based attendance risk excluding genuine beneficiaries.

5. Persistent Nutrition Challenges

  • India still records 35.5% stunting and 18.7% wasting, indicating chronic systemic gaps.

Karnataka’s ICDS Innovations: A National Model

1. Systemic Scaling

  • Expanded ICDS from a pilot to 204 blocks, demonstrating effective administrative planning.

2. Infrastructure Upgradation

  • 47,720+ AWCs now operate from government-owned buildings with full amenities.

3. Preschool Transformation

  • 250 AWCs converted into Montessori units, enabling bilingual, activity-based foundational learning.

4. Standardised Curriculum

  • The Chilipili curriculum uses weekly themes and hands-on learning tools to improve cognitive readiness.

5. Childcare for 0–3 Years

  • Koosinamane crèches address childcare gaps for working mothers.

6. Nutrition Interventions

  • The Chiguru programme integrates community-based counselling with growth monitoring.

7. Worker Welfare

  • Enhanced honorariums and welfare measures improve motivation, retention, and service delivery.

Conclusion

As ICDS enters its fifth decade, its impact remains central to India’s human capital development. Strengthening AWC infrastructure, improving workforce conditions, enhancing nutrition quality, and scaling state-level innovations like Karnataka’s model will determine whether ICDS meets the next-generation goals of healthier, better-nourished, and better-prepared young children.

Maternity Benefit is a Fundamental Right: SC 

Context: The Supreme Court recognised maternity rights as a fundamental right under Article 21 of the Constitution, but key issues remain around financing. 

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts of recent judgment and Maternity Benefits Act 1961 Mains: Impact of the Judgment on Women empowerment 

K. Uma Devi vs State of Tamil Nadu (2025)

  • In the landmark judgment, the Supreme Court has recognised maternity rights as a fundamental right under Article 21 of the Constitution.

Key Highlights of the Judgment: 

  • The Court affirmed that maternity benefits are not just welfare measures but legal rights essential to a woman’s dignity, health, and livelihood.
  • The apex court referred to International Conventions and instruments i.e.,
    • Universal Declaration of Human Rights
    • United Nations Economic and Social Council
    • Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW)
    • Maternity Convention C183 (2000) of the International Labour Organisation (ILO) to highlight the requirement of ‘special assistance and social protection’ to working women before and after childbirth. 
  • SC acknowledged that women are now a significant part of the workforce, and the state is obligated to protect their reproductive and maternity rights in order to ensure their equal participation in the workforce.
  • The Court treated the Maternity Benefits Act 1961, as a normative framework.

Maternity Benefits Act, 1961:

  • Provides 26 weeks of paid leave for women with less than two surviving children.
  • For women with two or more children, 12 weeks of paid leave is allowed.
  • Allows for work-from-home arrangements after maternity leave, depending on mutual agreement between employer and employee.
  • Since the 2017 amendment, adoptive and commissioning mothers are entitled to 12 weeks of paid maternity leave.
  • Establishments with 50 or more employees must provide a creche facility.
  • Applies to establishments with 10 or more employees, including factories, mines, plantations, shops, and private companies.
  • A woman is eligible if she has worked in the establishment for at least 80 days in the 12 months preceding her expected delivery.

The judgment is hailed as historic for strengthening working women’s rights, ensuring job security, and guaranteeing access to maternal and child care.

India with a maximum paid leave of 26 weeks has joined the league of 42 nations that provide maximum paid leave exceeding 18 weeks i.e., surpassing C183 of ILO. Maternity Protection Convention 2000 (C183 of ILO) sets a minimum standard of 14 weeks. 

Associated Challenges

Despite being a landmark judgment, K Uma Devi Vs State of TN case also raises several pertinent questions:

  • Scope of Application: Will maternity rights as a fundamental right apply beyond public sector jobs to all forms of employment?
  • How will women in the informal sector be brought under its protection?
    • Over 90% of India’s female workforce is in the informal sector. These women are often excluded from formal maternity benefit schemes.
  • Funding Challenges: Who will bear the financial burden? 
    • Large corporations may absorb maternity costs easily. But MSMEs struggle with the financial burden of both paid leave and temporary replacement. India lacks a national maternity financing system, unlike many developed economies.

Suggestions: 

  • ILO recommends that maternity costs be shared through social insurance, public funds, or social assistance, not solely by employers- especially for informal and self-employed women.
  • Establish a Universal Maternity Fund aligned with ILO guidelines to ensure inclusive and sustainable maternity benefits financing.
  • Draw from global best practices outlined in the ILO’s World Social Protection Report 2024-26 to strengthen India’s maternity financing framework.
  • Adopt mixed financing models used by several countries combining social insurance, national social security systems, and tax-funded schemes to reduce the burden on individual employers.

Need for Gender Equity in Urban Bureaucracy 

Context: Integrating gender equity into India’s male-dominated urban governance and bureaucracy is crucial for building cities that are inclusive, safe, and responsive to all citizens.

Relevance of the Topic: Mains: Role of women in Urban Bureaucracy.  

India is in the midst of a profound urban transformation. By 2050, over 800 million people, about half the population, will live in cities, making India the largest driver of global urban growth. 

A key dimension of this transformation is how gender equity is integrated into urban governance, planning, and budgeting.

Women Representation in Governance

  • The 73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendment Acts mandated 33% reservation for women in Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs) and Urban Local Governments (ULGs). 17 States and 1 UT have increased this to 50%.
  • As of 2024, women constitute 46% of local elected representatives (Ministry of Panchayati Raj).

While women’s representation in grass-root politics has increased, administrative cadres (city managers, planners, engineers, police) are male dominated, limiting the ability of cities to respond equitably to all citizens

The Gender Gap in Urban Bureaucracy: 

  • As of 2022, women constituted just 20% of the Indian Administrative Service (India Spend 2022).
  • Women representation in urban planning, municipal engineering and transport authorities is even lower. 
  • In policing, only 11.7% of the national force are women (Bureau of Police Research and Development 2023), and often concerned with desk roles.

Impact of Gender Gap in Urban Bureaucracy: Absence of Gender Responsive Policies:  

  • An Institute for Transportation and Development Policy and Safety Study found that 84% of women in Delhi and Mumbai used public or shared transport compared to  63% of men. Yet, urban planning prioritises mega-projects over safe, accessible, neighbourhood-level mobility.
  • A 2019 Safetipin audit across 50 cities found over 60% of public spaces were poorly lit. With few women in policing, community safety initiatives often fail to resonate with women.
  • With few women in policing, community safety measures often fail to reflect the lived experiences and needs of women.

Studies by the Indian Council for Research on International Economic Relations and UN shows that women officials tend to prioritise water, health, and safety, and enhance public trust through more empathetic enforcement, underscoring the need for gender-diverse institutions in urban governance.

Gender-Responsive Budgeting

  • Gender-responsive budgeting (GRB) is a concept that integrates gender considerations into public finance.
  • Introduced globally in the 1990s, GRB recognises that budgets are not neutral and can reinforce inequalities if left unchecked.

Gender Responsive Budgeting (GRB) initiatives in India:  

  • It is a promising but underutilised tool in India’s urban governance. India adopted a Gender Budget Statement in 2005-06, with Delhi, Tamil Nadu and Kerala leading efforts.
    • Delhi has funded women-only buses and public lighting.
    • Tamil Nadu applied Gender Responsive Budgeting across 64 departments in 2022-23.
    • Kerala embedded gender goals through its People’s Plan Campaign. 
  • However, studies by UN-Women and the National Institute of Public Finance and Policy show that most such efforts suffer from weak monitoring and limited institutional capacities, especially in smaller cities.
  • For many ULGs, GRB remains tokenistic, overlooking essentials such as pedestrian safety or childcare in urban planning.

Global Best Practices:  

  • Countries such as the Philippines mandate 5% of local budgets for gender programmes. 
  • Rwanda integrates GRB into national planning with oversight bodies.
  • Uganda mandates gender equity certificates for fund approvals.
  • Mexico ties GRB to results-based budgeting.
  • South Africa pilots participatory planning to anchor GRB in lived realities.

Gender-balanced bureaucracies are not about fairness alone. They are essential for building safer, equitable, responsive cities.

Impact of Increased Women Representation in Bureaucracy can be seen globally:

  • Rwanda boosted maternal health and education spending.
  • Brazil prioritised sanitation and primary health care.
  • South Korea’s gender impact assessments reshaped transit and public spaces.
  • Tunisia’s parity laws gave women more technical roles, improving focus on safety and health.
  • The Philippines uses gender-tagged budgeting to fund gender-based violence shelters and childcare.

These examples show how representation leads to transformation when women are empowered in decision-making roles, the quality and inclusiveness of governance improves.

Way Forward

As India aims for a $5 trillion economy, its cities must aim to be engines of equity, not just growth.

Gender must be mainstreamed into urban governance through: 

  • Mandatory gender audits, participatory budgeting, and linked evaluation.
  • GRB should be institutionalised across ULGs, supported by targeted capacity-building.
  • Representation must translate into real decision-making power, breaking entrenched glass ceilings within bureaucracy.
  • Promote local gender equity councils.
  • Scale models like Kudumbashree (Kerala) which promote women-led planning.

Women are reshaping governance as leaders, they must now help shape how cities are planned and managed. When cities reflect women’s lived experiences, they work better for all. To build cities for women, we must start by building cities with women.

Towards Gender Equality: First batch of Women Graduates from NDA

Context: In a historic first, 17 women cadets graduated alongside male counterparts from the Pune-based National Defence Academy (NDA), marking the successful passing out of the first co-ed batch from the tri-services institution. 

Relevance of the Topic: Mains: Importance of inclusion of women in combat and command roles.

Inclusion of 17 women cadets in the recently graduated 148th batch of NDA is a watershed moment for the armed forces, opening a realistic path for women to reach the highest echelons of the Indian military in the coming decades. This is a major milestone in the long quest for gender equality in the armed forces.

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History of Inclusion of Women in Armed Forces 

  • 1888: British initiated the Military Nursing Service in India.
  • 1958: Women doctors were granted regular commissions in the Army Medical Corps.
  • 1992: Women Special Entry Scheme (WSES) allowed women to join non-combat branches as Short Service Commission (SSC) officers.
  • 2008-2019:  Limited expansion of roles under Permanent Commission (PC), but without command roles.
  • 2020: In a landmark judgment, the Supreme Court of India upheld gender equality by granting women PC and command roles across ten non-combat streams.
  • 2021: The apex court directed the NDA to open admissions to women, ensuring equal entry opportunities.
  • 2022: The NDA began admitting women in 2022.

Women are now being fully integrated into the NDA's 18 squadrons, the basic units of life and leadership at the academy, undergoing the same rigorous training as men.

Significance of Women inclusion into NDA:  

  • Break the gender stereotypes: Inclusion of women in combat and command roles breaks the gender stereotype that women only belong to pink collar jobs. 
  • Breaking Institutional Patriarchy: NDA training was long exclusive to men. Women’s inclusion challenges the entrenched military patriarchy.
  • Building Future Leaders: Women’s inclusion in NDA ensures equal access to elite training and command experience, enabling them to become future military leaders and service chiefs.
  • Catalyst for Social Change: Women joining NDA lead to new norms of equality, and encourage wider acceptance of women in leadership and non-traditional careers across society.

Challenges Ahead: 

  • Recent progress in women’s inclusion is encouraging but requires deeper cultural change within the armed forces. A change that would normalise having women in leadership positions. Some combat and command streams still remain closed to women.
  • Armed forces will have to make further efforts on work-life infrastructure and mechanisms for maternity policy, childcare support, spousal postings.
  • The criteria for promotion boards and evaluation, command postings will need upgrades.

Political Participation of Women in India

Context: Participation of women in Indian politics has been a subject of extensive discourse among scholars. While India has produced several influential women leaders, the overall political engagement among women remains poor. 

Relevance of the Topic:Mains: Political Participation of Women in India- Key Trends & Challenges. 

Contemporary Trends

  • Women’s voter turnout has remained significantly lower than men’s for decades. In many Western democracies the gender gap in political participation started narrowing in the 1990s, while India witnessed this shift much later in 2010, influenced by socio-political changes.
  • Despite the increase in voter turnout, their representation in legislative bodies and deeper political involvement in party affairs remains limited. 
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Reasons for Low Participation in Past:

  • Patriarchal society: In Indian society politics has been traditionally viewed as a male-dominated sphere. Women are often discouraged from engaging in political discussions or assuming leadership roles.
  • Influence of Family and Caste/Community: Women, particularly in rural areas, are often treated as passive voters. Their political and voting choices are often shaped by the male members of their families.
  • Structural challenges such as difficulties in voter registration, mobility constraints after marriage, lack of voter awareness, often contribute to lower participation rates compared to men.
  • Political violence: Women face safety concerns when participating in political events, campaigns and exercising their right to vote in certain regions where violence and intimidation are prevalent.
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Women as Voters- Emerging Trends

  • Increase in voter turnout: Women’s voter turnout has seen a steady increase since the 2010s, often surpassing male voter turnout in some states.
  • Role of Welfare Schemes: Political parties target women voters through welfare schemes such as Ujjwala (free LPG connections), PM Awas Yojana (housing benefits), and Ladli Behna (financial support) in which women are direct beneficiaries.
  • Voting choices: Studies have shown that a growing number of women are making independent voting decisions. However, about 14% still seek advice from their spouses or male family members, reflecting the influence of patriarchal norms.
  • Self-Empowerment hypothesis: Rise in female literacy and employment opportunities are often cited as a reason for increasing political participation. Educated women are more likely to vote and engage in political discourse.
  • Male migration: In many states, large-scale male migration has resulted in a higher proportion of women voters, particularly in economically backward regions where men migrate for work.
  • State-Specific voting trends: Women’s voting behavior is shaped by regional political contexts. For example, in states like Tamil Nadu and Kerala, regional political movements influence women’s electoral choices more than national trends.
  • Efforts by the Election Commission, like targeted campaigns, to ensure higher female voter registration and participation, have contributed to increased voter turnout. 

Key Data on Women Political Representation: 

  • Women had a higher turnout than men in the 2024 Lok Sabha election, with 65.8% participating compared to men's 65.6%. 
  • The total number of women contesting general elections in the country has increased from 3% in 1957 to 10% in 2024.
  • Women representation in Lok Sabha has increased from 5% in the first Lok Sabha to 15% in the 17th Lok Sabha (2019-24).
  • Women constitute approximately 14% of the Members of Parliament (75 women MPs) in the 18th Lok Sabha (2024-29). 
  •  In the Rajya Sabha, the total number of women members in 1952 was 15, which is 39 in 2024, approximately 17% of the total members. 
  •  India has about 14.5 lakh Elected Women Representatives (EWRs) in Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs), which is about 46% of the total elected representatives. 
  • There are 21 States in India that have provision for 50% reservation for women in PRIs, as against the constitutional mandate of minimum 33% reservation for women.
  • The enactment of the 106th Constitutional Amendment, 2023 (Nari Shakti Vandan Adhiniyam mandates 33% reservation for women in both the Lok Sabha and State Legislative Assemblies across the country, including the legislature of the UTs of Delhi and Puducherry.

Way Forward

  • Political parties must ensure greater inclusion of women in leadership roles, moving beyond token representation.
  • Increased awareness campaigns can help women understand their rights, interests and the significance of their political participation.
  • Policy reforms: Moving beyond welfare schemes in which women are passive recipients to policies that genuinely empower women as decision-makers and stakeholders in governance.
  • Addressing structural barriers such as voter registration gaps, mobility constraints that hinder women’s active political engagement with the help of ECI.
  • Extending women’s reservation to state and national legislatures could significantly enhance their political representation and influence. (From women development to women-led development as proposed by Nari Sakti Adhiniyam 2023). 

While women’s voter turnout has increased, their overall political participation in India remains constrained. A holistic approach is necessary to ensure that women transition from being mere voters to active political agents.

Right to Dignified Work: ASHA Workers' Struggle

Context: ASHA (Accredited Social Health Activists) workers in Kerala are protesting for better wages and working conditions. Their work is critical for public health but remains undervalued due to its association with traditional gender roles.

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: Key facts about Government Schemes, Welfare Programs, Social Issues

Mains: Can be used as an example in issues related to Health sector & Governance; Gender Issues in Employment.

Key Highlights of the Issue

  • Gendered Assumptions: Women dominate state-run welfare schemes (E.g., Anganwadi, ASHA workers). Their work is considered an extension of domestic care, leading to undervaluation and low pay.
  • Payment and Working Conditions: 
    • Despite WHO recognition (2022), ASHAs remain underpaid. Kerala pays ₹7,000 per month, among the highest in India, but still below the minimum wage for unskilled workers. 
    • Payments are often irregular due to dependence on central and state funding. Economic Survey (2022-23): India spends only 2.1% of GDP on healthcare, below the WHO-recommended 5%.
  • No legal status as Workers: ASHAs are seen as "activists" rather than "workers", denying them labour rights. Despite their role in critical health interventions, they lack social security and job stability. ILO Recommendation (2018): Urged nations to formalise care workers, but India is yet to implement.

Demands of ASHA workers (in Kerala) include

  • Formal worker status
  • ₹21,000 honorarium
  • ₹5 lakh as retirement benefits. 

Benefits of Recognising ASHA Workers as formal workers: 

  • Financial Security : Regular wages instead of incentives. E.g., 63% care workers are Women (ILO Report 2021) 
  • Better Working Conditions: Formalisation would bring job security, healthcare benefits, and social security. 
  • Women Empowerment: Economic independence and dignity at work. E.g., Only 32% women earn their own income (NFHS-5 2021-22). 
  • Strengthened Healthcare System: Motivated workforce ensures better community health services. E.g., ASHA workers played an important role in COVID-19 response.  

Way Forward

  • Formalisation of ASHA Workers: Recognise them as public health workers under labour laws. Provide fixed salaries, job security, and social security benefits.
  • Legal Recognition & Labour Rights: Implement ILO Convention 189 (Decent Work for Domestic Workers). Ensure EPF, ESI, and pension benefits.
  • Timely and Increased Payment: Kerala Model: ₹21,000 minimum wage demand should be considered nationwide.
  • Political and Social Awareness: Recognise unpaid and underpaid care work. NITI Aayog (2021): Recommended monetising unpaid care work to boost GDP. 

ASHA workers are vital to India’s healthcare system but remain undervalued. As Amartya Sen highlights, true development expands freedoms, which includes fair wages and dignity at work. Formalising their roles, ensuring social security, and increasing healthcare investment will align with PM Modi’s vision of ‘Sabka Saath, Sabka Vikas’ and create a gender-inclusive, resilient public health system.

Women in Science

Context: With India continuing to push the boundaries of scientific and technological advancement, it must ensure the full inclusion of women in this journey.

Relevance of the Topic: Mains: Essay: Women in Science- Opportunities, Challenges

Challenges faced by Women in Science

  • Limited access to quality education: In many regions, girls have limited access to quality education, especially in rural and marginalised areas.
  • Gendered societal norms: Social expectations often discourage girls from pursuing STEM education, reinforcing stereotypes about science being a male-dominated field.
  • Hiring and promotion bias: Women often face biased hiring practices. Access to high-impact research and leadership roles are often restricted, limiting career progression.
    • Matilda Effect: This concept highlights the tendency to downplay or overshadow women's scientific contributions in favour of their male colleagues.
  • Lack of role models: The absence of successful women in senior leadership roles further discourages younger women from pursuing STEM careers.
  • Harassment and discrimination: Academic and professional environments are often hostile, pushing women out of STEM fields.
  • High attrition rates: Studies show that women have higher dropout rates in STEM fields due to work-life balance issues, non-inclusive workplaces and limited institutional support.

Scenario of Indian Women in Science

  • A survey conducted across 98 institutions in India (2020-21) showed that women faculty memberscomprised only 17% of the total, with:
    • 23% in Biology 
    • 8% in Engineering
  • Women’s representation in higher-ranked institutions and senior faculty positions is alarmingly low.
  • Women are often excluded from career-enhancing opportunities like conferences, funding, and leadership roles.

Significance of retaining Women in Science: 

  • Driving innovation: Diverse teams bring multiple perspectives, leading to groundbreaking discoveries and solutions.
  • Promoting role models: Women in leadership roles can inspire young girls to pursue careers in STEM. Visible role models can help break gender stereotypes and reduce dropout rates.
  • Increase Female Labour force Participation Rate (FLFPR) and contribute in achieving the ambitious target of 70% women in economic activities by 2047. 

Government Initiatives to promote Women in Science: 

  • Gender Advancement for Transforming Institutions (GATI):
    • Launched in 2020 by the Department of Science and Technology (DST) to promote gender inclusivity in STEM fields.
    • Focuses on creating an equitable academic and professional environment for women.
  • Women in Science and Engineering - Knowledge Involvement in Research Advancement through Nurturing (WISE-KIRAN):
    • Provides funding, mentorship, and career support to women scientists.
    • Aims to increase women’s participation in STEM through research advancement.
  • Women Scientists Scheme (WOS):
    • Offers financial support and research opportunities for women re-entering the workforce after career breaks.
    • Encourages women’s participation in academic research.
  • Biotechnology Career Advancement and Re-orientation (BioCARe):
    • Launched by the Department of Biotechnology (DBT) to support women scientists returning to research after career breaks.
  • Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) Initiatives:
    • Promotes women’s health research and training opportunities for women scientists.
    • Ensures gender-sensitive approaches in scientific research and health-related studies.

Policy Recommendations for retaining Women in Science:

Institutional changes:

  • Introduce flexible work hours, remote working, and part-time employment options for women.
  • Provide affordable daycare facilities within institutions to support working mothers.
  • Formulate policies that help women balance work and family responsibilities.
  • Increasing visibility and representation:
    • Promote the achievements of women scientists through awards, public platforms, and media.
    • Monitor gender discrimination in hiring, funding, and promotions, ensuring equal opportunities.
    • Create pathways for women to occupy leadership and decision-making roles.
    • Supporting career re-entry:
      • Eliminate age-restrictions on research grants to accommodate women who have taken career breaks.
      • Offer fellowship programs for women returning to research after family or personal breaks.
      • Establish strong mentorship networks for women at all career stages.

Ensuring the retention of women in science will not only shape a more inclusive future but also inspire the next generation of women scientists, ultimately propelling India's scientific growth on a global scale.

India’s Achievements in advancing Women’s Rights

Context: As India continues its journey toward gender equality, the Beijing Platform for Action remains a guiding framework.

Relevance of the Topic: Mains: Essay: Women Empowerment in India- Achievements.

About Beijing Platform for Action

  • Beijing Declaration was a resolution adopted by the United Nations (UN) at the end of the Fourth World Conference on Women in September 1995. 
  • The resolution was adopted to promulgate a set of principles concerning the equality of men and women.
  • It covers 12 key critical matters of concern and areas for action considered to represent the main obstacles in women empowerment.
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India’s Achievements in Advancing Women’s Rights

  • Maternal and Reproductive Health:
    • Institutional Deliveries: Increased to 95% due to initiatives like PM Surakshit Matritva Abhiyan and PM Matru Vandana Yojana.
    • Maternal Mortality Rate (MMR): Declined from 130 (2014) to 97 (2020) per 1,00,000 births (Sample Registration System data).
    • Modern contraceptive use: 56.5% of married women now opt for modern contraceptives, enhancing reproductive autonomy.
  • Women’s access to Healthcare:
    • Ayushman Bharat Pradhan Mantri Jan Arogya Yojana: World’s largest government-funded healthcare scheme has provided millions of women with free medical treatment.
  • Education and Skill Development:
    • Improvement in child sex ratio: Achieved through the Beti Bachao Beti Padhao (BBBP) initiative.
    • Higher retention rates in education: National Education Policy 2020 has integrated education with skills training.
    • STEM opportunities for women: Encouragement for women in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM).
    • Menstrual hygiene support: Improved sanitation has reduced school absenteeism among adolescent girls.
  • Women’s Economic Empowerment:
    • Financial Inclusion via Self-help groups (SHGs): 
      • National Rural and Urban Livelihood Missions connected 100 million women to financial networks.
    • Deendayal Antyodaya Yojana - National Rural Livelihood Mission provided credit and livelihood opportunities.
    • Digital Financial Inclusion: 
      • Unified Payments Interface (UPI) has boosted women’s participation in digital savings and investments.
      • Pradhan Mantri Gramin Digital Saksharta Abhiyan has trained 35 million rural women in digital literacy.
  • Gender-Responsive Budgeting:
    • Gender Budget’s share in the national budget increased from 6.8% (2024-25) to 8.8% (2025-26). 
    • $55.2 billion allocated to gender-specific programs.
  • Women in Leadership:
    • Young women are emerging as leaders in climate action, digital entrepreneurship, and governance.
    • Initiatives like Gender Advancement for Transforming Institutions (GATI) Project (which supports women in STEM) and G20 TechEquity Platform (which has trained thousands of young women in emerging technologies) reflect this transformation.
  • Political Representation:
    • The Women's Reservation Act guarantees 33% representation for women in legislatures.
    • Local governance initiatives have empowered 1.5 million women leaders, creating the world’s largest cohort of women in political leadership. 
  • Actions against Gender-based Violence:
    • Persistent Issue: Despite the legal framework women continue to face violence.
    • Government measures: 
      • 770 One Stop Centres established for medical, legal, and psychological aid to survivors.
      • Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita 2023 (enforced in July 2024) strengthens legal protection for women.
      • Odisha Blockchain Initiative: Ensures swift and confidential support for survivors of violence.
      • Gender-Responsive Policing: Rajasthan Police Academy & UN Population Fund partnership has built survivor trust and access to justice.

Way Forward

  • The 30th anniversary of the Beijing Declaration highlights that gender equality is a global imperative.
  • India’s approach, backed by strong government leadership, global partnerships, and policy innovation, serves as a model for inclusive and sustainable development.
  • Key future priorities: 
    • Strengthen collaborations with local and global partners.
    • Invest in young women’s leadership in governance and economy.
    • Address systemic barriers such as digital gender divide, safety concerns, and economic dependency.

By reinforcing women-led development, India continues to set a global benchmark for gender equality and social transformation.

National Policy on Female Labour Force Participation 

Context: The Central Government is planning to bring out a National Policy document on female labour force participation (FLFP) with a focus on providing an enabling atmosphere like a viable care economy structure.

Relevance of the Topic: Mains- Present situation of FLFP in India and the need for a national policy to promote it.

Major Highlights: 

What is the Care economy? 

  • Care economy is the sector of economic activities related to the provision of care (both paid and unpaid) for the present and future populations. 
  • It includes:
    • Direct care such as feeding a baby
    • Indirect care such as cooking and cleaning, health care, education, and other personal and domestic services. 
  • One of the initiatives being explored is a core skilling package for caregivers for children. Govt. is also looking to provide child care facilities for women in the informal sector such as for workers under the National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme.
    • The Ministry of Women and Child Development already runs the ‘Palna’ scheme, or the National Programme on Anganwadi-cum-Crèche, which provides day-care facilities for children of working parents. A total of 1,000 Anganwadi creches are operational till now as part of this scheme. 

About Female Labour Force Participation (FLFPR) Rate:

  • Female labour force participation (FLFPR) rate refers to women (over 15 years) who are either working or looking for a job. 
  • FLFP Rate in India: The Periodic Labour Force Survey for 2022-23 highlights that the FLFPR for prime working age group (15 years & above) has increased from 23% in 2017-18 to 37 % in 2022-23.
    • In Rural areas: 36.6% of females aged 15 years & above are participating in the labour force, as against 78.2% male in 2021-22. 
    • In Urban areas : 23.8% of females aged 15 years & above are participating in the labour force, as against 74.7% male in 2021-22. 
    • From 2017 to 2022, women’s LFPR increased relative to men, in rural areas because of the larger engagement of rural women in agriculture and allied activities.
    • Only four states, namely Assam, Bihar, Haryana, and Delhi, have a FLFPR below 25%, with Delhi recording the lowest rate at 14.8%.
  • As per the recent World Bank report: 
    • Women face a sharp drop in their labour force participation post-marriage in India.
    • It is estimated that in India post-marriage female employment rates drop by 12 percentage points (about one-third of the female pre-marital employment rate), even in the absence of children. 

Necessitating factors for National Policy on FLFP in India:

  • Unpaid care work: Women have to bear the burden of unpaid care work (taking care of children, elderly family members, and household chores). It is often undervalued and not recognised as work, which limits women’s ability to participate in paid employment. 
  • Societal norms and cultural expectations: In India, traditional gender division of labour dictate that women should focus on household duties and raising children, while men are the primary breadwinners. 
  • Lack of access to education: Girls are often denied access to education, or they drop out of school early due to poverty or familial responsibilities. This limits their skill development, employment opportunities and earning potential. 

However, presently, more women are pursuing higher education which can delay their entry into the workforce. While education can empower women, societal expectations may still lead them to leave the workforce after education.

  • Health related issues: Health challenges, especially for older women, impact their productivity and contribute to low FLPR.
  • Limited job opportunities: Women often face discrimination in the job market, and there are fewer job opportunities available to them compared to men. For example, the technology and finance sector. 
  • Safety concerns: Women often face safety concerns and harassment in the workplace and while commuting to and from work which discourages them from seeking employment outside of the home. 
  • Lack of supportive policies: India lacks supportive policies, such as parental leave, and flexible work arrangements (especially in the informal sector), which can enable women to balance work and family responsibilities. 

According to the IMF,  if the women's participation in the workforce could match men's, the GDP of India could increase by 27%. Hence, the central government is working towards increasing the FLPR. 

Government initiatives to improve Female Work Participation: 

1. For Survival and Education of Females: 

  • Beti Bachao Beti Padhao Scheme: For creating awareness among the people to educate all girl children in the country. The initiative intends to tackle the issue of the diminishing sex ratio in recent years, raise social awareness, and improve the effectiveness of welfare benefits for girls. 
  • National Education Policy(NEP), 2020: The policy prioritises gender equity and envisions ensuring equitable access to quality education to all students, with a special emphasis on Socially and Economically Disadvantaged Groups (SEDGs). 

2.  For Safe and Convenient Accommodation:

  • Working Women Hostel: One of the main difficulties faced by working women is lack of safe and conveniently located accommodation. The objective of the scheme is to promote availability of safe and conveniently located accommodation for working women, with day care facilities for their children, wherever possible, in urban, semi urban, or even rural areas where employment opportunities for women exist. 

3. For Supporting Women affected by violence

  • One Stop Centre (OSC) and Universalisation of Women Helpline: To provide 24 hours immediate and emergency response to women affected by violence through referral (linking with appropriate authority such as police, One Stop Centre, hospital) and information about women related government schemes programs across the country through a single uniform number. 
  • Women Helpline (WHL) will be integrated with One Stop Centre Scheme (OSC) under which one OSC shall be established in every State/UT to provide integrated support and assistance to women affected by violence, both in private and public spaces under one roof.

4. Codification of the Labour Laws for harmonizing the needs of job seekers, workers and employers:

  • Labour Codes:  The four Labour Codes namely, the Code on Wages, 2019, the Industrial Relations Code, 2020, the Code on Social Security, 2020 and the Occupational Safety, Health and Working Conditions Code, 2020. Codification of the Labour Laws provides a policy framework for harmonizing the needs of job seekers, workers and employers. 
  • The Labour Codes will, inter-alia, reduce multiplicity of definitions & authorities, facilitate implementation and use of technology in enforcement of labour laws and bring transparency and accountability in enforcement, promote setting up of more enterprises, catalysing the creation of employment opportunities in the country. 

5. Equal Opportunity and Congenial Work Environment

  • Maternity Benefit (Amendment) Act, 2017: The Act increased the paid maternity leave from 12 weeks to 26 weeks, also made a provision for mandatory crèche facilities in establishments having 50 or more employees, permitting women workers in the night shifts with adequate safety measures, etc.
  • The Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace Act, 2013: To provide protection against sexual harassment of women at workplace and for the prevention and redressal of complaints of sexual harassment and for matters connected therewith or incidental thereto.

4. Promoting Entrepreneurship:

  • Female Entrepreneurship: To promote female entrepreneurship, the Government has initiated schemes like MUDRA, Stand Up India and Mahila e-Haat. 
  • Rashtriya Mahila Kosh: Provides micro-credit at concessional terms to poor women for various livelihood and income generating activities. 
  • Prime Minister’s Employment Generation Programme (PMEGP): Under the scheme, women entrepreneurs are provided 25 per cent and 35 per cent subsidies for the project set up in urban and rural areas respectively. 

Measures to improve Female Work Participation:

  • Need of National Women’s Urban Employment Guarantee Act (WUEGA): Women should form at least 50% of the programme management staff, with a vision for decentralized management and local community involvement. Includes provisions for childcare at work sites, free public transportation for women, and work availability within a 5-km radius.
Case study of WUEGA: Women-led waste management in Karnataka, demonstrates the feasibility and success of women-centric programs: In this initiative women handle end-to-end waste management in gram panchayats of selected districts including collection and driving of the ‘Swacch’ vehicles.
Japan’s ‘womenomics’:

-Japan was grappling with falling fertility rates, a declining population, and stagnant growth. A series of reforms on “womenomics” were introduced as part of the “Abenomics” era.

-Women’s labour force participation rate (WLFPR) in Japan has grown by ten percentage points, from 64.9 percent in 2013 to 75.2 per cent in 2023.

-Majority of the “womenomics” reforms have been linked to investments in the care economy and rebalancing gender norms.
  • Ensure high participation of women in MGNREGS:  Recommendations given by Parliamentary Standing Committee on Rural Development and Panchayati Raj:
    • The government must take measures for better promotion of “women-centric works” through creation or linking of existing livelihood projects under the scheme.
    • The Ministry of Rural Development needs to bridge the wage disparity among states by notifying a uniform wage rate structure.
  • Identification of niche sectors: There is a need for identification of niche sectors like countries like the United States initiative like Girls Who Code in the USA aim to close the gender gap in technology, Japan and Italy are focusing on the healthcare and social work sectors as areas of potential job growth for women.
  • Flexible Work Options as like Netherlands: Promote work models like part-time work, remote work, and parental leave policies, empowers women to manage work-life balance effectively.
  • Accounting for care work: There is a need to capture the value of care in the GDP calculation.

Conclusion:  These strategies can contribute to meeting goals of SDG 1 (end poverty); SDG 3 (ensure healthy lives); SDG 4 (ensure inclusive and equitable quality education); SDG 5 (achieve gender equality) etc.

Solar, a game changer in women’s empowerment

Context: Today, apart from solar energy being the major factor in the climate patterns, it is also a transformative, democratising force in electricity generation. Distinct from traditional sources of energy which require extensive infrastructure and intermediary transmission lines, solar energy can now be harnessed directly at its point of use  in homes. It is now a home product.

Solar energy is empowering women

  • Environmental sustainability and societal structures: Decentralized solar energy enables individuals and communities to generate power locally, significantly benefiting environmental sustainability and societal structures. 
    • It economically empowers marginalized groups, especially women, who often face limited access to energy. 
    • Examples include women salt farmers in Gujarat who shifted from diesel to solar pumps, increasing income and reducing emissions.
  • Financial inclusion and job creation: Solar energy contributes to financial inclusion and community development by integrating women across the solar value chain. 
    • In 2022, solar employed around 4.9 million people globally, 40% of whom were women. India’s renewable goals aim to create an additional three million jobs by 2030, enhancing opportunities for women and supporting societal progress.
  • Health and safety: Traditional biomass for cooking exposes women to harmful indoor air pollution. Solar-powered cookers and clean energy solutions reduce health hazards.
  • High education attainment: With reliable lighting, children, especially girls often tasked with daytime chores, can study in the evenings, boosting their educational attainment.
  • Social entrepreneurship: Solar initiatives encourage women to become solar entrepreneurs and ambassadors within their communities. Organizations like Solar Sister train women to sell solar products, providing income and fostering leadership.
  • Reduced labour: Access to solar-powered water pumps, mills, and other machinery reduces time spent on manual labour, enables women to dedicate more time to education, self-improvement, and income-generating activities.

Despite its benefits, the solar industry faces challenges, including geographical imbalances (with investments concentrated in developed nations), sectoral imbalances (large-scale farms over small applications), and manufacturing concentration. 

To ensure sustainability, the solar industry must prioritize recycling and waste management for solar materials. Establishing clear producer guidelines, fostering government collaboration, and exploring mobile recycling plants can enhance environmental health in the sector.

The need for a just energy transition necessitates gender-sensitive policies that integrate energy access with sectors like agriculture and rural development. Such inclusivity helps dismantle barriers disproportionately affecting women, promoting a sustainable and equitable energy economy.

Initiatives such as the Barefoot College (India), the Grameen Shakti (Bangladesh), and Solar Sister (Africa) empower women to become solar engineers, benefiting millions and improving community health and safety. For example, We Care Solar’s suitcases reduced perinatal deaths by 72% in Uganda’s health centres.

Why Women Don’t Come Forward to Report Sexual Misconduct

Context: Sexual harassment remains a pervasive issue across various professions, including academia, media, and corporate sectors. Despite the existence of laws such as the Prevention of Sexual Harassment (PoSH) Act, 2013, women still hesitate to report such incidents. A recent case involving a research scholar from a reputed university in Delhi highlights the challenges women face in bringing forth their complaints. This article delves into the reasons behind the reluctance to report sexual misconduct and the systemic issues that exacerbate the problem.

Key Challenges Faced by Women Reporting Sexual Misconduct

  1. Delayed Action by Internal Committees
    • Many institutions delay the process of addressing sexual harassment complaints, as seen in the case of the 29-year-old PhD scholar. Despite filing her complaint in May, the Internal Complaints Committee (ICC) took action only in July, by which time the victim had already left the university.
    • Victims often face insensitivity and delays, discouraging them from pursuing their complaints further.
  2. Fear of Repercussions and Career Impact
    • Victims of sexual harassment often worry that reporting their experience will negatively affect their careers. The PhD scholar mentioned that had the ICC acted promptly, she would not have felt the need to quit her PhD.
    • Women fear that filing a complaint could "complicate things," leading to retaliation or career setbacks.
  3. Character Assassination
    • Many women face personal attacks and character defamation after they come forward. In one case from Jamia Millia Islamia, a student alleged sexual harassment by her professor, only to face character assassination during the ICC proceedings.
    • These experiences often cause victims to feel more vulnerable, leading them to avoid reporting in the first place.
  4. Lack of Trust in Internal Complaints Committees (ICCs)
    • Although the PoSH Act mandates the establishment of ICCs in workplaces with 10 or more women employees, many women do not trust these committees to act impartially or effectively.
    • Some women, like the Jamia student, approach the police rather than the ICC because they fear the committee will not take their complaint seriously.
  5. Institutional Evasion of Responsibility
    • Many organizations or institutions treat complaints with varying degrees of seriousness. A human resources professional in Delhi noted that some companies dismiss less severe complaints, like inappropriate comments, and only act when incidents are deemed more serious.
    • Organizations may also make the process of filing complaints intimidating by suggesting reconciliation rather than taking formal action, which discourages victims from pursuing justice.
  6. Insufficient Penalties and Oversight
    • Although the PoSH Act prescribes penalties for non-compliance, such as fines or revocation of licenses, enforcement is weak. Instances of organizations losing their licenses due to non-compliance are rare.
    • Most district authorities do not rigorously enforce adherence to the guidelines, with only basic checks conducted. For example, Gurgaon district offices have introduced more thorough questionnaires, but such practices are not uniformly followed across the country.

Recommendations for Better Implementation of PoSH

Recommendations for Better Implementation of PoSH
  • Stricter Monitoring and Accountability: There should be government-mandated platforms that allow external ICC members to report inconsistencies and violations across organizations.
  • Improved Sensitivity and Timeliness of Responses: Internal committees must be trained to respond to complaints sensitively and promptly to avoid driving victims away.
  • Ensuring Victim Protection and Transparency: To encourage women to come forward, organizations need to ensure that victims are protected from retaliation and character assassination during the investigation process.

By addressing these systemic issues and fostering a culture of support and accountability, organizations and institutions can create safer environments where women feel empowered to report sexual misconduct without fear.

The Marriage Penalty

Context: Recently, an investigation highlighted anomalies related to hiring of women employees in Apple iPhone maker Foxconn assembly plant in Tamilnadu. It was alleged that married women’s are being rejected on grounds of pregnancy, family commitment and greater number of leaves.

Though Foxconn came up with the clarification statement in which it highlighted that 25% of its new recruitment comprises women and around women constitute 70% of its total workforce.

However, this news article delves into several factors responsible for low Female LFPR in India.

Labour force Participation rate (LFPR)

  • The labour force participation rate is the measure to evaluate working-age population in an economy.
  • Labour force participation rate is defined as the percentage of working population in the age group of 15- 64 in the economy, currently employed or seeking employment.
  • As per OECD, it is calculated as the labour force divided by the total working-age population.

Status of Female Labour Force Participation Rate

  • As per the Periodic Labour Force Survey 2022-23
    • LFPR for male in India increased from 75.8% in 2017-18 to 78.5% in 2022-23 and corresponding increase in LFPR for female was from 23.3% to 37.0%.

Now as per the findings of the report FLFPR is rising. However, It is still concerning when we focus on

  • Gender disparity – Male (78.5%) i.e. more than double of that of Women.
  • Rural Urban Gap – Higer in rural areas – reflects feminization of agriculture; lower in urban areas – Lack of formal employment opportunities
  • Comparison with developed economy – Europe and central Asia – 52%; North America – 56% ; East Asia and Pacific – 59%. FLFPR in India is below the global average of 47 percent for several years.

Reasons for low FLFPR in India

  • Unpaid care work: Women in India often have to bear the burden of unpaid care work, such as taking care of children, elderly family members, and household chores. It is often undervalued and not recognized as work.
  • Societal norms and cultural expectations: In India, traditional gender division of labour dictate that women should focus on household duties and raising children, while men are the primary breadwinners. Any deviation from such established norms attracts ostracization and marginalization which acts as a demotivation for women to take up formal jobs.
  • Lack of access to education: Girls are often denied access to education, or they drop out of school early due to poverty or familial responsibilities. This lack of education and skill development limits their employment opportunities and earning potential.
  • Limited job opportunities: Women often face discrimination in the job market, and there are fewer job opportunities available to them compared to men. For example, in the technology and finance sector.
  • Safety concerns: Women in India often face safety concerns and harassment at the workplace and also while commuting to and from work. It discourages them from seeking employment outside of the home.
  • Rising Household Incomes: Rising incomes allows women to escape harsh labour on farms and construction sites and focus on their families.
  • Lack of Rural connectivity: Lack of transport network to villages may prevent women from taking non-agricultural work in Neighbouring towns. Lack of transport services affects women more than men.
  • Nuclear families: The growing trend of nuclear families keeping childcare left to women with no support from family elders.
  • Lack of supportive policies: India lacks supportive policies, such as parental leave, and flexible work arrangements, which can enable women to balance work and family responsibilities.

Government initiatives to Improve Female Work Participation:

  • For Survival and Education of Females
    • Beti Bachao Beti Padhao Scheme: For creating awareness among the people to educate all girl children in the country. The initiative intends to tackle the issue of the diminishing sex ratio in recent years, raise social awareness, and improve the effectiveness of welfare benefits for girls.
    • National Education Policy (NEP), 2020: The policy prioritises gender equity and envisions ensuring equitable access to quality education to all students, with a special emphasis on Socially and Economically Disadvantaged Groups (SEDGs).
  • For Safe and Convenient Accommodation
    • Working Women Hostel: One of the main difficulties faced by working women is lack of safe and conveniently located accommodation. The objective of the scheme is to promote availability of safe and conveniently located accommodation for working women, with day care facilities for their children, wherever possible, in urban, semi urban, or even rural areas where employment opportunities for women exist.
  • For Supporting Women affected by violence
    • One Stop Centre (OSC) and Universalization of Women Helpline: To provide 24 hours immediate and emergency response to women affected by violence through referral (linking with appropriate authority such as police, One Stop Centre, hospital) and information about women related government schemes programs across the country through a single uniform number. Women Helpline (WHL) will be integrated with One Stop Centre Scheme (OSC) under which one OSC shall be established in every State/UT to provide integrated support and assistance to women affected by violence, both in private and public spaces under one roof.
  • Codification of the Labour Laws for harmonizing the needs of job seekers, workers and employers
    • Labour Codes:  The four Labour Codes namely, the Code on Wages, 2019, the Industrial Relations Code, 2020, the Code on Social Security, 2020 and the Occupational Safety, Health and Working Conditions Code, 2020. Codification of the Labour Laws provides a policy framework for harmonizing the needs of job seekers, workers and employers.
    • The Labour Codes will, inter-alia, reduce multiplicity of definitions & authorities, facilitate implementation and use of technology in enforcement of labour laws and bring transparency and accountability in enforcement, promote setting up of more enterprises, catalyzing the creation of employment opportunities in the country.
  • Equal Opportunity and Congenial Work Environment
    • Maternity Benefit (Amendment) Act, 2017: The Act increased the paid maternity leave from 12 weeks to 26 weeks, also made a provision for mandatory crèche facility in establishments having 50 or more employees, permitting women workers in the night shifts with adequate safety measures, etc.
    • The Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace Act, 2013: To provide protection against sexual harassment of women at workplace and for the prevention and redressal of complaints of sexual harassment and for matters connected therewith or incidental thereto.
  • Promoting Entrepreneurship
    • Female Entrepreneurship: To promote female entrepreneurship, the Government has initiated schemes like MUDRA, Stand Up India and Mahila e-Haat.
    • Rashtriya Mahila Kosh: Provides micro-credit at concessional terms to poor women for various livelihood and income generating activities.
    • Prime Minister’s Employment Generation Programme (PMEGP): Under the scheme, women entrepreneurs are provided 25 per cent and 35 per cent subsidies for the project set up in urban and rural areas respectively.

Measures to improve Female Work Participation:

  • Need of National Women’s Urban Employment Guarantee Act (WUEGA): Women should form at least 50% of the programme management staff, with a vision for decentralized management and local community involvement. Includes provisions for childcare at work sites, free public transportation for women, and work availability within a 5-km radius.
  • Ensure high participation of women in MGNREGS:  Recommendations given by Parliamentary Standing Committee on Rural Development and Panchayati Raj: Government must take measures for better promotion of “women-centric works” through creation or linking of existing livelihood projects under the scheme. Ministry of Rural Development needs to bridge the wage disparity among states by notifying a uniform wage rate structure.
  • Identification of niche sectors: There is need for identification of niche sectors like countries like the United States initiative like Girls Who Code in the USA aim to close the gender gap in technology, Japan and Italy are focusing on the healthcare and social work sectors as areas of potential job growth for women.
  • Accounting for care work: There is a need to capture the value of care in the GDP calculation. Flexible Work Options as like Netherlands: Promote work models like part-time work, remote work, and parental leave policies, empowers women to manage work-life balance effectively.
  • Invest in a wide range of care infrastructure and services solutions: Covering not only childcare, but also elder care, domestic work, and long-term care for highly dependent adults to reduce dependency and access the silver economy. For instance, Japan has leveraged some private sector partnerships for investments in affordable senior living and care services. As the share of elderly persons in India’s population is expected to rise from 10 per cent currently to 20 per cent by 2050, India, too will need to prioritise elder care infrastructure and service investments.

Japan’s ‘womenomics’ 

  • Japan was grappling with falling fertility rates, a declining population, and stagnant growth, a series of reforms on “womenomics” were introduced as part of the “Abenomics” era.
  • Women’s labour force participation rate (WLFPR) in Japan has grown by ten percentage points, from 64.9 percent in 2013 to 75.2 per cent in 2023.
  • Majority of the “womenomics” reforms have been linked to investments in the care economy and rebalancing gender norms. 

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