Welfare mechanism

Socio Economic and Caste Census 2011

Context: The Socio Economic and Caste Census (SECC) 2011 collected data on a range of parameters, parts of which were published in 2016. But the data on caste populations, other than the total numbers of SCs and STs, was not made public.

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: Key facts about Socio Economic and Caste Census (SECC) 2011; Caste Census

Mains: Need for caste-based census and associated challenges.

Census exercises in independent India have never collected disaggregated caste data. The most recent publicly available data on caste populations at the national level are from the 1931 Census. The 1931 Census will serve as the baseline for the caste data that the government has now decided to collect as part of the upcoming Census (most likely in 2026).

Socio Economic and Caste Census (SECC) 2011

  • The SECC is the most recent data on the populations of individual castes and tribes in India that were collected between 2011 and 2013, an exercise that followed the Census of 2011.
  • The SECC data was published in 2016, but only the socio-economic findings were made public. The data on caste populations, other than the total numbers of SCs and STs, was not made public.
  • The caste data was handed over to the Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment. An expert group led by then-NITI Aayog Vice Chairperson Arvind Panagariya was tasked with its classification — a report which remains unreleased.

Key facts about SECC 2011:

  • SECC 2011 was a study of socio-economic status of rural and urban households, and allowed the ranking of households based on predefined parameters.
  • It was conducted by the Ministry of Rural Development in rural areas, and the Ministry of Housing and Urban Poverty Alleviation in urban areas.
  • The caste census was under the administrative control of the Ministry of Home Affairs, through the Registrar General of India (RGI) and Census Commissioner of India. 
  • All personal information in SECC is open for use by government departments to grant and/ or restrict benefits to households. The data can be used for policy, research, and the implementation of various development programs.

Data collected in SECC 2011

  • Disaggregated details of Caste: SECC asked for the respondents’ “Caste/ Tribe Status”, choosing from SC (Code 1), ST (Code 2), Other (Code 3), and No Caste/ Tribe (Code 4), and for the Name of Caste/ Tribe if the respondent belonged to any of the first three categories. SECC clarified that SC can be only among the Hindus, Sikhs and Buddhists, while ST can be from any religion.
  • Economic Status: The SECC asked for information on housing/ dwelling, such as ownership and the predominant material of wall and roof (grass/ bamboo/ wood/ mud/ brick/ stone, etc). It also collected information on household amenities such as the source of drinking water and lighting (electricity/ kerosene/ solar etc), latrines, waste water outlets, and availability of a separate kitchen, and on assets such as refrigerator, telephone/ mobile phone, computer, motorised vehicles, ACs, and washing machines.
  • In Urban Areas: The SECC sought the names of both father and mother, and main source of income — from begging/ ragpicking to street vending; domestic, construction, shop, transport, etc work; to non-work (pension/ rent/ interest) and no income.
  • In Rural Areas: The SECC sought to know if any member in a household belonged to a primitive tribal group, was a legally released bonded labourer, or a manual scavenger. It collected details of the main source of household income — cultivation, manual casual labourer, foraging, begging, etc — and of land ownership and availability of mechanised agricultural equipment, etc.

Also Read: Is the caste Census a useful exercise?

Reservation in Private Educational Institutions

Context: The issue of extending reservations to Private Higher Educational Institutions (PHEIs) has gained renewed political attention, particularly with the opposition party reiterating its demand in recent times.

Relevance of the Topic:Mains: Debate: Reservation in Private Educational Institutions. 

Legal Framework supporting Reservation in Private Institutions

(a) Constitutional Provisions: Article 15(5) inserted via 93rd Constitutional Amendment Act (2005): Enables the State to make special provisions for the advancement of SCs, STs, and SEBCs (i.e., OBCs) for admissions to educational institutions, including private, aided and unaided, except minority institutions. This provision explicitly allows reservation in private educational institutions.

(b) Judicial Pronouncements:

  • Ashok Kumar Thakur vs Union of India (2008): It upheld 27% OBC reservation in Central Educational Institutions. However, it did not rule on unaided private institutions but recognised the broader legitimacy of affirmative action.
  • Indian Medical Association vs Union of India (2011): It upheld reservation in private unaided professional colleges.
  • Pramati Educational & Cultural Trust vs Union of India (2014): Upheld the validity of Article 15(5) and extended the legality of reservation to unaided private institutions.

These rulings make it clear that there is no legal bar to implementing reservation in private colleges and universities, provided minority institutions are excluded.

Need for Reservation in Private Higher Education Institutions

  • Quantitative Expansion:
    • Rise of Private Universities: In 2024, there are over 500 private universities in India. Over 75% of the HEIs in India are privately managed. 
    • Share of Enrollment: Private universities account for 26% of total higher education enrolment (2021-22). Private unaided colleges account for 45% of total college enrolment. 
  • Quality divide: Public universities are increasingly under-funded, overcrowded, short on faculty with limited learning or job prospects. In contrast, PHEIs offer better infrastructure, classroom sizes, and faculty remuneration, attracting the best and becoming elite enclaves.Skewed representation in Private Institutions: All India Survey of Higher Education (AISHE) 2021–22 shows that the representation of various marginalised communities in private institutions: 
    • SCs: 6.8% (vs ~17% population share)
    • STs: 3.6% (vs ~9%)
    • OBCs: 24.9% (vs ~45–50%)
    • Muslims: 3.8% (vs ~15%)

This indicates a clear under-representation of marginalised communities in private universities and quota-based affirmative action significantly improves social diversity in educational spaces.

Social and Economic Arguments in Favour of Reservation:

  • Breaking the Cycle of ‘Effectively Maintained Inequality’: Sociologist Satish Deshpande argues that elite social groups adapt to maintain their advantage even when the access widens. Privatisation becomes a tool to escape reservation, enabling the elite to recreate exclusivity in high-end institutions.
  • Correcting Structural Discrimination: Marginalised groups face intergenerational exclusion in education. Private institutions often offer sought-after courses (law, management, STEM), and lack of reservation excludes Dalits, Adivasis and OBCs from these tracks. If public jobs and public universities follow reservation policies, leaving private education outside the purview, weakens the overall impact of affirmative action. 
  • Recommendation of Parliament’s Standing Committee: In its 364th Report on the Demand for Grants for the Department of Higher Education, the Parliamentary Standing Committee on Education, Women, Children, Youth, and Sports also recommended a new legislation to implement Article 15(5) as well. 

Way Forward

  • Strengthen Public Education: Increase public funding, fill faculty vacancies, and improve student-teacher ratios and campus infrastructure.
  • Mandate Social Inclusion in Private Sector: Legally mandate private institutions (excluding minority-run ones) to implement quotas for SCs, STs, and OBCs. 
  • Incentivise private-sector universities: Link recognition, accreditation, and tax exemptions to reservation compliance. Robust monitoring mechanism for compliance. 

However, mandating private institutions to implement reservations may interfere with their institutional autonomy. The utmost importance should be given to improve the quality of HEIs and capacity building.  

India’s Social Security Coverage Doubles

Context: According to the International Labour Organisation’s (ILO) World Social Protection Report 2024-26, India’s social protection coverage has doubled to 48.8% in 2024. 

Relevance of the topic: Prelims: World Social Protection Report; Key Government Initiatives. 

Major Highlights:

  • India’s social protection coverage has doubled from 24.4% in 2021 to 48.8% in 2024 as per ILO’s World Social Protection Report (WSPR) 2024-26.
  • A comprehensive data pooling exercise by the Union Ministry of Labour in collaboration with ILO shows:
    • Nearly 92 crore people, or 65% of India’s population is covered by at least one form of social protection, whether in cash or in-kind, through central government schemes.
  • More than 200 crore records were processed to identify unique beneficiaries by utilising encrypted Aadhaar across 34 major Central schemes such as the MGNREGA, Employees Provident Fund and Employees State Insurance.

Criticism

  • ILO’s assessment of 48.8% is considered an underestimation as it does not include:
    • In-kind benefits like food security (E.g., PM Garib Kalyan Anna Yojana), housing, and health benefits.
    • State-administered social welfare schemes. 

World Social Protection Report

  • Comprehensive assessment published periodically by the International Labour Organisation (ILO). ILO is a specialised agency of the United Nations dedicated to labour rights and social justice. 
  • The report evaluates social protection systems globally, examining their coverage, effectiveness, and progress in ensuring social security for diverse populations.
  • Utility: key resource for governments and policymakers to work towards stronger and more inclusive welfare systems.

Expanding Social Security: Key Government Initiatives

  • Ayushman Bharat- Pradhan Mantri Jan Arogya Yojana: As of March 2025, over 39 crore Ayushman Cards have been issued, offering free health coverage of up to ₹5 lakh per family. The scheme is accessible at 24,810 empanelled hospitals nationwide.
  • Pradhan Mantri Garib Kalyan Anna Yojana: Provides free food grains to vulnerable populations. As of December 2024, over 80.6 crore people are receiving free food grains, close to the intended coverage of 81.35 crore beneficiaries.
  • eShram Portal (2021): To create a National Database of Unorganised Workers. A Universal Account Number (UAN) is given to workers for enhanced social security. As of March, 2025, over 30 crore unorganised workers have registered (53% of them being women).
  • Atal Pension Yojana (2015): Provides universal social security to underprivileged and unorganised sector workers. Along with Pradhan Mantri Jeevan Jyoti Bima Yojana and Pradhan Mantri Suraksha Bima Yojana, it strengthens the social security system.

Over the past decade, India’s social security measures have helped lift 24.8 crore people out of multidimensional poverty.  

Implementation gaps in Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana-Gramin 

Context: Parliamentary Standing Committee on Rural Development has accused the government of failing to identify “genuine beneficiaries” for its flagship rural housing scheme, Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana-Gramin (PMAY-G).

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana-Gramin (PMAY-G). 

Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana-Gramin (PMAY-G)

  • Launched on April 1, 2016, by restructuring the Indira Awaas Yojana (IAY).
  • Aim: Provide "Housing for All" in rural areas by March 2029.
  • Implemented by: Ministry of Rural Development
  • Financial assistance is provided for constructing pucca houses with basic amenities for the rural poor.
  • Key Objectives:
    • Provide permanent housing to eligible rural households.
    • Address housing deprivation identified through the Socio-Economic Caste Census (SECC) 2011.
    • Ensure basic facilities such as electricity, sanitation, and clean drinking water.
    • Promote women empowerment by mandating joint ownership in house allotment.
  • Funding:
    • 60:40 ratio between the Centre and States: for Plains. 
    • 90:10 ratio for Northeast, Himalayan States, Jammu & Kashmir, and Ladakh.   
    • 100% centrally funded for Union Territories.
  • Financial Assistance to Beneficiaries:
    • ₹1.2 lakh per unit in plains.
    • ₹1.3 lakh per unit in hilly and difficult areas.
  • Beneficiary selection based on SECC 2011 data, verified through Gram Sabha. It Includes:
    • SCs/STs and freed bonded labourers.
    • Non-SC/ST BPL families.
    • Widows and next-of-kin of defence personnel killed in action.
    • Ex-servicemen, paramilitary forces, disabled persons, and minorities.
  • Progress and Targets:
    • Target (2016-2029): 4.95 crore houses.
    • As of February 2, 2025:
      • Target allotted: 3.79 crore houses.
      • Houses sanctioned: 3.34 crore.
      • Houses completed: 2.69 crore.
    • Additional 2 crore houses approved for construction during 2024-29.

Monitoring and Transparency Measures: 

  • AwaasSoft platform: Tracks progress through geo-tagged, time-stamped photographs.
  • Regular inspections: Conducted at block, district, and national levels.
  • Social audits: Annual audits at Gram Panchayat level.
  • Direct Benefit Transfer (DBT): Ensures funds go directly to beneficiary bank accounts.
  • Performance Index Dashboard: Monitors implementation and progress.
  • Grievance redressal mechanisms: Complaints can be lodged via CPGRAMS, IGRS, and CM helplines.

Challenges highlighted by Standing Committee on Rural Development: 

  • Outdated beneficiary data: PMAY-G still relies on SECC 2011, leading to exclusion of genuine beneficiaries and inclusion of ineligible categories.
  • Financial assistance has not increased despite rising construction costs.
  • Issue of backlogs: Scheme extension mainly covers previous backlog rather than new allocations.

Way Forward

Recommendations by Standing Committee on Rural Development

  • Update beneficiary data: Conduct a comprehensive review to include newly emerging needy households.
  • Expand eligibility: Include semi-permanent structure owners.
  • Increase per-unit assistance to ₹4 lakh, considering rising construction costs and inflation.
  • Addressing backlog and fresh allocations: Increase total houses planned under extended PMAY-G to 3.46 crore (1.46 crore backlog + 2 crore fresh allocations).

Special Marriage Act 1954: Provisions and Concerns

Context: The recent incident of violence against an interfaith couple in Madhya Pradesh, marrying under the Special Marriage Act 1954, has raised concerns about its provisions and efficacy.

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: Key facts about Special Marriage Act 1954. 

Mains: Special Marriage Act 1954: Provisions and Concerns.

About Special Marriage Act, 1954: 

  • The Special Marriage Act (SMA), 1954 was enacted to provide a secular legal framework for marriages between individuals belonging to different religions, castes, or communities. 
  • SMA enables marriage between inter-faith or inter-caste couples without them giving up their religious identity or resorting to conversion.

Objective of the Act: 

  • To decolonise the pre-independence marriage laws, which were largely based on religious personal laws.
  • To empower individuals to marry outside their religion without converting to another faith.
  • To offer a legal mechanism for interfaith marriages (particularly significant in the post-Partition period when religious divisions were sharp).

Eligibility criteria for Marriage: 

The Act prescribes specific conditions that both individuals must fulfill to legally solemnise their marriage:

  • Age requirement and eligibility:
    • The male partner must be at least 21 years old.
    • The female partner must be at least 18 years old.
    • People of any faith can marry across India.
  • Marital status:
    • Neither party should have a living spouse at the time of marriage, ensuring that monogamy is upheld.
  • Mental capacity:
    • Both individuals must be of sound mind and capable of giving valid consent to the marriage.
    • Individuals with severe mental illnesses or disabilities affecting their ability to consent are disqualified.
  • Prohibited relationships: The Act prohibits marriage between close relatives as per customary restrictions, unless allowed by the personal laws of the individuals involved.

Mandatory Public Notice Requirement: 

  • One of the most controversial provisions of the Act is the requirement for public notice before the marriage can be registered.
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  • This provision was intended to allow for transparency and objections, ensuring that no fraudulent or unlawful marriages take place. However, it has led to serious privacy concerns and the misuse of personal information, particularly in cases of interfaith marriages.

Provision for raising objections to Marriage: 

Under Section 7 of the Act, any person can raise an objection to the marriage within the 30-day notice period.

  • Valid grounds for objection include:
    • Either party is below the minimum legal age.
    • One of the partners is already married.
    • The marriage falls within prohibited relationships as per their customs.
    • One or both parties are incapable of giving valid consent due to mental incapacity.
  • If an objection is raised:
    • The Marriage Officer is required to investigate the claims and decide whether the marriage can proceed.
    • If the objection is found valid, the couple cannot get married under the Act.
  • While this provision was introduced as a safeguard against unlawful marriages, it has been frequently misused by families, religious groups, and vigilantes to disrupt interfaith marriages.

Registration and legal recognition of Marriage:

  • If no valid objections are raised within the notice period, the couple can proceed with the marriage.
  • The marriage is solemnised in the presence of the Marriage Officer and three witnesses.
  • After the ceremony, a marriage certificate is issued, which provides legal recognition to the marriage under Indian law.
  • Unlike religious marriages, no religious rituals or conversions are required under this Act.

Issues with the Special Marriage Act, 1954:

1. Violation of Privacy: 

  • The public notice requirement reveals the personal details of the couple to family members, society, and vigilante groups, compromising their right to privacy.
  • In Justice K.S. Puttaswamy vs Union of India (2017) case:
    • The Supreme Court has ruled that privacy is an inalienable fundamental right.
    • It recognised that individuals have the right to make autonomous decisions about their personal lives, including marriage.
    • The public display of marriage notices violates this right, making couples vulnerable to social backlash.

2. Risk of harassment and physical violence:

  • The recent incident at Bhopal (2024) highlights the dangers posed by this provision:
    • The couple’s personal information was allegedly leaked, making them targets of violence.
  • Many interfaith couples face threats, family pressure, and even forced separation due to public disclosure.
  • The state’s failure to provide security to interfaith couples exacerbates the issue.

3. Weaponisation of Section 7 (Objection Clause):

  • Objections to marriage are frequently misused by:
    • Family members who disapprove of interfaith marriages.
    • Religious extremists and vigilantes who claim to be protecting religious purity.
    • Individuals with personal grudges or vested interests.
  • There are no safeguards to prevent false, malicious, or communal objections, leading to unnecessary delays and harassment.

4. Gender bias and patriarchal control:

  • Women, especially from the Hindu community, are often portrayed as incapable of making independent decisions.
  • The assumption that Muslim men manipulate Hindu women reinforces patriarchal and communal biases.
  • Women often face pressure from families, society, and law enforcement to withdraw from interfaith marriages.

5. Legal and social consequences of Public Notice Requirement:

  • Threats from Family and Society: Many couples go into hiding or run away to escape backlash from their families and communities.
  • Forced marriages and honor killings: There have been cases where women are forcibly married off or subjected to honor crimes to prevent interfaith unions.
  • State inaction: Law enforcement agencies often fail to protect couples from threats and violence, allowing moral policing by the vigilante groups to thrive.

Suggested reforms in this Context:

  • Abolishing the Public Notice Requirement: In 2021, the Delhi High Court has ruled that public notice is not mandatory, but this needs to be uniformly implemented across India. Privacy should be protected, and only relevant legal authorities should have access to marriage records.
  • Strengthening protection for couples: Acting against vigilante groups and not allowing them to interfere in lawful marriages.
  • Regulating the Objection Mechanism: Only valid legal objections (age, mental capacity, existing marriage) should be allowed. Authorities must reject objections based on religion, personal beliefs, or social biases as it goes against the spirit of the Act.
  • Raising awareness and legal literacy: Public awareness campaigns should challenge misconceptions about interfaith marriages. Couples should be informed about their rights and legal protections under the Special Marriage Act.
  • Strict action against moral policing: Vigilante groups should be criminally prosecuted for interfering in private matters and authorities leaking personal data should also face legal consequences.

The Special Marriage Act, 1954, was meant to protect interfaith and inter-caste couples, but certain provisions have turned it into a tool of harassment. Unless these issues are addressed, the fundamental rights of individuals to choose their partners will remain under threat.

National Commission of Safai Karmcharis

Context: The Union Cabinet approved the extension of the tenure of the National Commission for Safai Karamcharis (NCSK) for a period of three years up to March 2028. This is to facilitate socio-economic upliftment of sanitation workers, improving the working conditions in the sanitation sector, and aiming to achieve zero fatalities while performing hazardous cleaning.

Relevance of the Topic:Prelims: Key facts about the National Commission of Safai Karmcharis. 

About the National Commission of Safai Karmcharis

  • The Commission was set up as a statutory body in 1994 under the National Commission for Safai Karamcharis Act, 1993. After the lapsing of the Act in 2004, the Commission became a non-statutory body.
  • However, its scope has been expanded after the enactment of The Prohibition of Employment as Manual Scavengers and their Rehabilitation Act, 2013.

Organisation: The National Commission for Safai Karamcharis is a non-statutory body under the Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment, it comprises of-

  • Chairperson (in the rank and status of the Union Minister of State).
  • Vice-Chairperson (in the rank and status of the Secretary to the Government of India).
  •  Five members, including a lady member (in the rank and status of the Secretary to the Government of India)
  • Secretary (in the rank of Joint Secretary to the Govt. of India) along with other supporting staff.

Mandate

  • Recommending to Central government specific programmes of action towards elimination of inequities in status, facilities, and opportunities for safai karamcharis.
  •  To study and evaluate implementation of programmes and schemes relating to social and economic rehabilitation of safai karamcharis and scavengers.
  • To investigate the non-implementation programmes and schemes for safai karamcharis, and provisions of any laws in its application to safai karamcharis and take up such matters with the relevant authorities.
  • To study and monitor the working conditions relating to health safety and wages of Safai Karmacharis.
  • To make reports to the Central or State Government on any matter, difficulties or disabilities being encountered by Safai Karmacharis.
  • To ensure that compensation is paid in case of sewer deaths by the concerned agency.

Furthermore, under the provisions of the Prohibition of Employment as Manual Scavengers and their Rehabilitation Act, 2013 (MS Act 2013), NCSK has the following mandate:

(i) to monitor the implementation of the Act.

(ii) to enquire into complaints regarding contravention of the provisions of this Act and to convey its findings to concerned authorities with recommendations requiring further action.

(iii) to advise the Central and State Govt for effective implementation of the provisions of this Act.

(iv) to take suo-motu notice of matters relating to non-implementation of this Act.

Decline in Social Sector Expenditure in Budget

Context: The share of the Union Budget allocated for the social sector has declined rapidly in recent years. Concerns arise, amid the upcoming Budget, on whether further reduction in social sector expenditure will impact inclusive growth and welfare of vulnerable groups.

Relevance of the Topic: Mains: Social Sector Expenditure- Trends, Impacts

Trend Analysis of Social Sector Spending:

1. Sector-wise allocation: Allocations for various social sectors as a share of the total Budget has witnessed continuous decline.

  • Expenditure on health as a share of the total Budget declined from 2.47%-2.22% in the FY18-22 period to 1.85%-1.75% in the FY23-25 period. 
  • Allocations for higher education as a share of the total Budget declined from the 1.57%-1.37% range in FY17-20 to 1.27%-0.88% in FY21-25. 
  • Allocations for school education declined from the 2.18%-1.96% range to 1.61%-1.23%.
  • The share of total Budget allocated to the Ministry of Rural Development did not cross the 6%-mark in the last three years.
  • Allocations for social welfare schemes declined from the 1.89%-1.61% range to 1.17%-0.97% in the same period.
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2. Scheme-wise allocation: 

  • Allocations for Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (MGNREGS) have declined significantly over time.
    • ₹86,000 crore allocated for MGNREGS for 2024-25 formed only 1.78% of the total Budget, a 10-year low. 
  • Allocation for the National social assistance programme, which includes old age pension, widow pension, and disability pension, has declined as a share of the total Budget.
    • From 1.21%-0.36% in FY19-21 to about 0.2% in the last four years.
  • Allocations for Pradhan Mantri Poshan Shakti Nirman (PM-POSHAN) scheme as a share of the total Budget declined.
    • 0.26% in FY25 (Budget Estimates) — the lowest in the last nine years.
  • Exceptions: Allocations under certain schemes as a share of the total Budget were on an increasing trend or at least stagnating.
    • Ayushman Bharat-Pradhan Mantri Jan Arogya Yojana (PMJAY)
    • Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojna (PMAY)-Rural
    • PM Schools for Rising India (PM SHRI) 
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Impacts of decline of social-sector spending: 

  • Decline in Demand: Less allocations on MGNREGA/food subsidy/pensions can hinder demand revival or less consumption expenditure.
  • Impact on Human Development Indicators: Reduced spending on education and health reduce human development outcomes. It reduces productivity, employment opportunities, etc.
  • Social Exclusion and Inequality Based on Caste, Gender: According to NITI Aayog’s 2021 Multidimensional Poverty Index, SCs and STs suffer more from multidimensional poverty. Female labour force participation in India is only 32.8% (latest PLFS report)
  • Falling standards of education: India still lags behind the global standard of 6% of GDP recommended by the Kothari Commission. This affects quality and infrastructure in schools, especially in rural areas.
  • Health & Nutrition Concerns: India still spends below the WHO recommended level of 5% of GDP. This impacts healthcare infrastructure and access to services, particularly in rural and underserved regions.
  • Regional disparity and rural-urban divide: Reduced spending on the social sector can lead to regional imbalances in growth & development, which can spur security concerns in backward regions. Further, increasing gap between rural and urban development indicators can also be fuelled by decreasing social sector expenditure.

For India to achieve the vision for Amrit Kaal, it is necessary to ensure adequate access to quality and affordable education, health, nutrition and social security.

NITI Aayog proposes S.A.F.E. Accommodations

Context: The NITI Aayog recently released a report “S.A.F.E. Accommodation - Worker Housing for manufacturing growth” suggesting the Central Government to build mega housing projects near manufacturing plants where industrial workers could rent a room for as low as Rs 3000.

Relevance of the Topic: Mains: Welfare schemes for vulnerable sections of the population by the Centre and States. (S.A.F.E. Accommodations for Workers)

India’s Manufacturing Aspirations: 

  • India aims to increase the manufacturing sector’s contribution to GDP (from the current 17% to 25%) and become a global manufacturing hub, as part of its vision for ‘Viksit Bharat’ by 2047. 
  • As per the Economic Survey 2023-24, India needs to add 7.85 million jobs every year until 2030 to sustain economic growth. A productive workforce is central to attain the vision. 
  • India needs to create more jobs for women and increase Female Labour Force Participation Rate. In India, women contribute only 18% to the GDP. (In China, women’s contribution to GDP is around 41%)
India’s Manufacturing Aspirations

Issues due to Inadequate Housing near Industrial hubs: 

Why S.A.F.E. Accommodation Matters?

  • Enhance Workforce Productivity
    • Lower commute time
    • Affordable housing for workers 
    • Improves workers’ quality of life 
    • Enables labour mobility 
  • Win-Win-Win Scenario:
    • S.A.F.E. accommodation for labour, Increases FLFP rate. 
    • Lower attrition rate, lower recruitment costs and stable workforce for Companies.
    • Promotes planned Urban development. 
    • Ensures attractive returns on investment for Private developers. 
    • Promotes competitiveness of the Indian manufacturing sector & attracts global investment. 
    • Aligns with Global Labour Standards (E.g., ILO Labor Welfare Conventions)

Note: 

  • Factories Act, 1948: Mandates basic welfare amenities for workers which can be extended to housing. (As per the Act: Factories employing more than 150 workers must provide and maintain adequate and suitable shelters/restrooms, and lunchrooms for the use of workers)
  • Social Security Code, 2020: Consolidates the laws relating to social security benefits including housing to all employees either in the organised, unorganised or any other sectors. 

Challenges in Scaling Up Worker Accommodation:

  • Restrictive Zoning Laws: Residential developments are often prohibited in industrial zones unless explicitly permitted. 
  • Restrictive Building Laws: Low Floor Area Ratios (FAR) and other inefficient land-use regulations limit the potential for high-capacity housing on available land.
  • High Operating Costs: Hostel accommodations in industrial zones are often classified as commercial establishments, leading to higher property taxes and utility rates.
  • Financial Viability: High capital costs and low returns make large-scale worker accommodation projects unattractive to private developers. 

Proposed Solutions by NITI Ayog: 

1. Regulatory Recommendations:

  • Classification of S.A.F.E Accommodation: S.A.F.E accommodation should be classified as a distinct category of residential housing. This classification would ensure:
    • GST Exemption for accommodations meeting specified criteria (E.g., ₹20,000 per person per month for a continuous stay of 90 days).
    • Residential Rates: Application of residential property tax, electricity, and water tariffs to reduce operating costs. 
  • Long-term, dormitory-style affordable accommodations designed exclusively for industrial workers, located near their workplaces.
  • Zoning Reforms: Allow ‘mixed land use’ in industrial zones or designate ‘SAFE accommodation as a permitted use in industrial zones’ to enable construction of working houses close to workplaces.
  • Environment Clearance Exemption: Include S.A.F.E. accommodations under the exemptions provided for industrial sheds, schools, colleges, and hostels in the draft notification issued by the Ministry of Environment, Forest, and Climate Change (MoEF&CC).

2. Financial Recommendations:

  • Provision of Viability Gap Funding (VGF):
    • Provide up to 30-40% of the total project cost (excluding land) through VGF, with 20% contributed by the Department of Economic Affairs (DEA) and 10% by the sponsoring nodal ministry (MoHUA). Additionally, State Governments may provide a VGF up to 10%. 
    • Amend Annexure 3 of the VGF scheme to include affordable rental housing as an eligible sector.
  • Retrofitting Existing Facilities: The VGF can also be leveraged to retrofit / upgrade existing brownfield workers’ accommodation facilities. 
  • Competitive Bidding: Determine VGF support through a transparent and competitive bidding process. 

Conclusion: As India progresses towards becoming a $5 trillion economy, addressing workers accommodation challenges is a priority. By aligning the regulatory and financial frameworks, India can unlock the potential for sustainable worker housing solutions that would bolster the manufacturing ecosystem, enhance workforce productivity, and attract global investments. 

Bima Sakhi Yojana

Context: The Prime Minister of India launched the ‘Bima Sakhi Yojana’ of Life Insurance Corporation, in line with his commitment to women empowerment and financial inclusion.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Bima Sakhi Yojana

Key facts about Bima Sakhi Yojana:

  • Initiative of: Life Insurance Corporation (LIC)
  • Aim: To empower women through financial literacy and insurance awareness.
  • Target: Enrol 100,000 Bima Sakhi in 12 months to financially empower women and 200,000  over a period of three years as part of women empowerment drive.
  • Beneficiaries: Women in the age group of 18-70 years, who are Class-10 pass. 
  • Key features:  Under the scheme, women will receive specialised training and a stipend for the first three years.
    • Women will get a monthly stipend during the training: ₹7,000 in the first year, ₹6,000 in the second year, and ₹5,000 in the third year.
    • Following the completion of the training, women can serve as LIC agents and the graduate Bima Sakhis would have the opportunity to qualify for development officer roles in LIC.
    • Each Bima Sakhi will have a target of insuring 2 individuals every month or 24 individuals in a year to earn the commission.

Significance of the scheme: 

  • Helps to bridge the gap in insurance penetration in rural and semi-urban areas.
  • Foster financial independence among women while expanding LIC’s outreach in promoting insurance as a tool for economic security. 

The Yojana underscores the government’s commitment to women’s empowerment and aligns with its broader goals of enhancing financial literacy and employment opportunities for women in India.

India needs Right to Disconnect

Context: Recently, Australia has announced “Right to Disconnect”; it allows employees to refuse to monitor, read, or respond to work-related communications outside of their scheduled working hours. Parliamentarian Shashi Tharoor has remarked that “inhumanity at the workplace must be legislated out of existence.” It is to be noted that India does not have specific laws recognising the right to disconnect from work.

Relevance of the Topic: Mains: Conceptual understanding of ‘Right to Disconnect’. 

Issues and concerns regarding ‘Right to Disconnect’

  • A recent report by The Hindu reported that Indians in professional jobs, like auditing, Information Technology, and media, work more than 55 hours a week.
  • According to a study by ADP Research Institute, 49% of Indian workers said workplace stress negatively impacts their mental health. 
  • It has been observed that employees physically leave the office, but they do not leave their work. They remain attached by a kind of electronic leash.

Constitutional and Legal Provisions in India:

  • Article 38 of the Constitution mandates that “the State shall strive to promote the welfare of the people”.
  • Article 39(e) of the Directive Principles of State Policy directs the state to direct its policy towards securing the strength and health of its workers. 
  • Article 43 directs that the conditions of work must ensure a decent standard of life and full enjoyment of leisure and cultural opportunities.
  • Vishakha v State of Rajasthan (1997): The Supreme Court ruled that sexual harassment at the workplace violates fundamental rights, recognised the right to dignity at the workplace, and issued guidelines to ensure that there is a safe working environment for women and gender equality. 
  • Praveen Pradhan v. State of Uttaranchal (2012): High Court of Uttarakhand held that “under the pretext of administrative control and discipline, a superior officer cannot be left to enjoy extreme liberty to make the intense humiliation and scolding inhumanly in front of all the subordinate staff members for a little lapse.”
  • Ravindra Kumar Dhariwal v. Union of India (2021): The Court read Article 14 to include ideas of inclusive equality to reasonably accommodate persons with disabilities, an employer must consider an employee’s individual differences and capabilities. 

International Examples:

  • France: The Labour Chamber of the French Supreme Court ruled in 2001 that an employee is under no obligation to work from home or take home files and working tools.
  • Portugal: Portugal has a Right to Disconnect law, which makes it illegal for employers to contact employees outside working hours, except in emergencies.
  • Spain: Public workers and employees have the right to switch off devices in order to guarantee that, outside of legal or conventionally established working hours, their time off, leave and holidays are respected, in addition to their personal and family privacy, with the aim of promoting a good work-life balance”.
  • Australia: Australian Parliament passed the Fair Work Legislation Amendment, which gave employees the right to disconnect from work outside of working hours. 
  • Ireland: Ireland has also recognised the right to disconnect for employees.
right to disconnect

Suggestions and Way Forward:

  • Research by Harvard Business Review shows that working prolonged hours causes stress, coronary heart diseases, and impacts overall health.  There is a widespread belief that overworked human beings bring in productivity, however research by the University of Oxford found a conclusive link between happiness (ensured by work life balance) and productivity.
  • Thus, a more nuanced approach, recognising the importance of hard work, ambition, and sustained productivity, while also ensuring a healthy and motivated workforce is needed.
    • Employers can promote vacations, flexible working hours, promoting mental health and counselling, managerial restraint to respect personal time.
  • In 2018, MP Supriya Sule introduced a Private Member Bill in the Lok Sabha, delineating the right to disconnect from work after working hours. The bill included the provision of a penalty of 1% of the total remuneration of all employees to be paid by companies for noncompliance with its provisions; this bill can be brought back as a government bill to deal with this issue.

Refugee rights, the gendered nature of displacement

Context: As of January 31, 2022, 46,000 refugees and asylum-seekers were registered with UNHCR India. 46% of this population is comprised of women and girls, a disproportionately burdened and vulnerable group. The United Nations Population Fund has acknowledged that “the face of displacement is female”.

About displacement:

displacement
Photo by Ahmed akacha
  • It refers to the forced movement of people from their homes or communities, which various factors, including conflict, natural disasters, development projects and persecution can cause.
  • According to the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), by the end of 2023, 11.73 crore people, worldwide had been forcibly displaced due to persecution, conflict, violence, human rights violations or events seriously disturbing public order. Among them, 3.76 crore were refugees.
  • With the Israel-Hamas war having escalated since then, the Ukraine-Russia war continuing, and Rohingyas facing fresh threats in Myanmar, the number of refugees worldwide is only expected to multiply significantly.
  • Since independence, India has hosted over 200,000 diverse refugee groups. As of January 31, 2022, UNHCR India had 46,000 registered refugees and asylum-seekers, 46% of whom are women and girls.

Negative impact of displacement on people 

  • Loss of life and livelihood: Many displaced individuals lose family members, homes, land, and sources of income leaving them economically vulnerable.
  • Psychological trauma: Exposure to violence, witnessing deaths, sexual abuse, or being forcibly separated from loved ones leads to post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), depression, and anxiety.
  • Health crises: Refugee camps or temporary settlements can become breeding grounds for diseases due to overcrowding, inadequate sanitation, and lack of healthcare.
  • Loss of common property resources: When people lose access to shared resources that are essential for their survival, this affects not only the economic aspect of their lives but also their social and communal relationships.
  • Marginalisation: Exacerbates inequalities and reinforces the vulnerability of already disadvantaged groups, including women, children, and ethnic minorities.
  • Food insecurity: Malnutrition and hunger become critical issues, particularly for children, pregnant women, and the elderly in displaced communities.
  • Social disarticulation: The disarticulation of communities also erodes social cohesion, cultural practices, and traditions, leading to psychological distress and a loss of identity.

Challenges to female refugee 

  • Gendered responsibilities: Burdened with caregiving for children, the elderly, and family survival, often being the last to flee conflict zones.
  • Physical and mental health: Refugee women are affected by a multitude of stressors spanning deaths of partners and children, hardships of camp life, complex alterations in family dynamics, limited access to community networks, and reduced safety.
  • Gender-based abuse: Prolonged conflict, shifting gender roles, broken social support systems, and socio-economic challenges expose refugee women to higher risks of gender-based abuse, including transactional sex.
  • Psychological and psychosocial conditions: They are twice as likely to develop PTSD and four times more likely to suffer from depression than men. 
  • A study in Darfur, Sudan found 72% of displaced women experienced PTSD and distress due to trauma and camp conditions, showing their higher risk of mental health issues compared to male refugees.
  • Social and gender inequalities: Especially when refugee populations belong to patriarchal societies, lead to the experiences and testimonies of displaced women being dismissed.

Legal framework available to displaced women

Global level: 

  • The UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (UNCRPD) Recognises ‘long-term mental or intellectual impairments which, in interaction with various barriers, may hinder full and effective participation in society’ as ‘psychosocial disability’ and guarantees a plethora of rights to the affected persons. 
    • The UNCRPD also recognises that ‘women and girls with disabilities are subject to multiple discrimination’ and mandates measures to ensure ‘full and equal enjoyment by them of all human rights and fundamental freedoms’ (Article 6). 
    • These guarantees are required to be secured to all without any discrimination (Article 5).

India

  • India ratified the UNCRPD and enacted the Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act, 2016 (RPWDA). RPWDA does not explicitly use the term ‘psychosocial disability,’ it recognizes “mental illness” under the RPWDA.
  • The RPWDA guarantees rights to persons with disabilities, including healthcare (Section 25) and equal rights for women with disabilities (Section 4).
  • The Supreme Court of India has upheld the right to life under Article 21,includes the right to health, for refugees.

Measures to strengthen the protection of displaced women

Effective policy-making also depends on the collection of disaggregated data on their health conditions, necessitating swift and systematic identification and registration processes.

India may consider signing the 1951 Refugee Convention and its 1967 Protocol to protect and define refugees' rights.

Specific domestic legislation addressing refugees specifically addresses the needs of displaced women, including protection from gender-based violence (GBV), access to healthcare, and economic opportunities.

Establish safe spaces and services for women and girls in displacement settings to prevent and respond to GBV, including shelters, counselling, and support services.

To secure the implementation of the aforesaid guarantees, it is crucial to integrate refugees with disabilities into relevant policies and programmes in an accessible manner. 

What is Social Capital?

Context: Social capital in today’s world has emerged as a transformative force. The jobs situation, economic disparities and environmental degradation necessitate a re-evaluation of traditional business models. 

About social capital

  • It refers to the connections among individuals' social networks and the norms of reciprocity and trustworthiness that arise from them. It is closely related to civic virtue but emphasizes the importance of social networks in making these virtues effective.
  • It is often described as the "glue" that holds society together, consisting of trust, mutual understanding, shared values, and behaviours that enable cooperative actions.
  • It allows a group of people to work together effectively to achieve a common purpose or goal. 
  • These rely on voluntary action and may require external funding for expansion.
  • In India, social capital is evident in various community-driven initiatives and traditional practices.
    • Self-help groups (SHGs), especially among rural women, foster economic empowerment and collective bargaining. 
    • The Panchayat system strengthens local governance by promoting participation and accountability. It is considered a vital component in development theory. It helps explain why certain economic policies fail when social factors are not taken into account.
    • Handicraft-oriented cottage industries rely heavily on strong community bonds, trust, and collaboration among artisans, where skills are passed down through generations, strengthening intra-community ties.
  • India has a rich tradition of social capital, with collective social entrepreneurship evident since ancient times. The Maurya and Gupta empires saw the emergence of community organizations like Sabhas and Village Councils. These organizations played a significant role in fostering social and cultural nationalism.
  • It plays a crucial role in promoting inclusive growth, particularly by involving the poor and marginalized in development processes.
  • It broadens government accountability, encourages compromise, and fosters innovation in policy making. It also enhances the efficiency of public service delivery through the involvement of community groups like Self-Help Groups (SHGs).

Roles of social capital organizations

  • Service role: Non-profit organizations often lead the way in responding to public needs, functioning as a flexible mechanism to address critical problems.
  • Value guardian role: These organizations act as value guardians in society, promoting individual initiative for the public good and fostering pluralism, diversity, and freedom.
  • Advocacy/social safety-valve role: They mobilize public attention to societal problems and represent under-represented groups, thus preserving democracy.
  • Community building role: Nonprofits create and sustain social cohesion through bonds of trust and reciprocity, essential for the functioning of a democratic society and a market economy.

Recommendations for strengthening social capital

  • The 2nd ARC report suggests drafting a model law for Societies and Trusts, with changes to enhance independence, transparency, and dynamism in these institutions.
  • There is a call for an independent accreditation agency for the voluntary sector and for exemptions in foreign contribution regulations for smaller organizations.
  • The expansion of the SHG movement is recommended, particularly in financially underserved areas, with support from institutions like NABARD.