Context: Social capital in today’s world has emerged as a transformative force. The jobs situation, economic disparities and environmental degradation necessitate a re-evaluation of traditional business models.
About social capital
Itrefers to the connections among individuals' social networks and the norms of reciprocity and trustworthiness that arise from them. It is closely related to civic virtue but emphasizes the importance of social networks in making these virtues effective.
It is often described as the "glue" that holds society together, consisting of trust, mutual understanding, shared values, and behaviours that enable cooperative actions.
It allows a group of people to work together effectively to achieve a common purpose or goal.
These rely on voluntary action and may require external funding for expansion.
In India, social capital is evident in various community-driven initiatives and traditional practices.
Self-help groups (SHGs), especially among rural women, foster economic empowerment and collective bargaining.
The Panchayat system strengthens local governance by promoting participation and accountability. It is considered a vital component in development theory. It helps explain why certain economic policies fail when social factors are not taken into account.
Handicraft-oriented cottage industries rely heavily on strong community bonds, trust, and collaboration among artisans, where skills are passed down through generations, strengthening intra-community ties.
India has a rich tradition of social capital, with collective social entrepreneurship evident since ancient times. The Maurya and Gupta empires saw the emergence of community organizations like Sabhas and Village Councils. These organizations played a significant role in fostering social and cultural nationalism.
It plays a crucial role in promoting inclusive growth, particularly by involving the poor and marginalized in development processes.
It broadens government accountability, encourages compromise, and fosters innovation in policy making. It also enhances the efficiency of public service delivery through the involvement of community groups like Self-Help Groups (SHGs).
Roles of social capital organizations
Service role: Non-profit organizations often lead the way in responding to public needs, functioning as a flexible mechanism to address critical problems.
Value guardian role: These organizations act as value guardians in society, promoting individual initiative for the public good and fostering pluralism, diversity, and freedom.
Advocacy/social safety-valve role: They mobilize public attention to societal problems and represent under-represented groups, thus preserving democracy.
Community building role: Nonprofits create and sustain social cohesion through bonds of trust and reciprocity, essential for the functioning of a democratic society and a market economy.
Recommendations for strengthening social capital
The 2nd ARC report suggests drafting a model law for Societies and Trusts, with changes to enhance independence, transparency, and dynamism in these institutions.
There is a call for an independent accreditation agency for the voluntary sector and for exemptions in foreign contribution regulations for smaller organizations.
The expansion of the SHG movement is recommended, particularly in financially underserved areas, with support from institutions like NABARD.
Context: Odisha tribal boy from the Bonda tribe becomes the first from the community to clear NEET exam.
About Bonda tribe
Also known as the Remo, is a tribal people who currently live in the hills of Odisha's Malkangiri district in India.
They are one of the most isolated and primitive tribes in mainland India. They are one of the 75 Primitive Tribal Groups.
There are two different Bonda tribes: the Upper Bondas and the Lower Bonda.
The Upper Bondas have almost no connection to the outside world, preserving their traditional way of life.
They speak Remo, an Austro-Asiatic dialect closely related to the Gutob language.
Primarily the Bonda are agriculturists. They practise shifting cultivation (klunda chas) extensively. Their livelihood is supplemented by animal domestication and seasonal forest collections.
Bonda men wear a narrow strip of loin cloth (gosi). Women wearing a mass of brass and bead necklaces and by large heavy circular collars (neck rings) of brass and aluminium.
The unfree labour or Goti system in India is known as Gufam by the Bonda people. They are often led to bonded labour through marriage, known as diosing.
They have a matriarchal society where women prefer to marry men who are at least 5-10 years younger, ensures that the men can continue to earn for them as they grow older.
They are polytheists. They believe in the existence of a number of Gods and spirits. They worship mostly the deities of nature.
The Bonda villages are traditionally autonomous. Social order is maintained by a set of traditional functionaries - Naik- the village chief, Challan -the organiser of village meetings and Barik - the village messenger.
Context:Tuberculosis (TB) is a silent crisis that impacts the physical as well as mental health of millions of people in India. India needs to scale up investment and formulate new strategies to meet its goal of Tuberculosis eradication by 2025.
Relevance of the topic:
Prelims: Key facts about Tuberculosis; National TB Elimination Programme; Pradhan Mantri TB Mukt Bharat Abhiyan.
Mains: Challenges associated with TB control and new strategies required.
Tuberculosis (TB)
TB is an airborne communicable disease caused by the bacteria Mycobacterium tuberculosis.
Typically, the bacteria grow in the body where oxygen and blood are in high amounts.
As a result, 80% of TB cases are pulmonary which infect the lungs and 20% of cases are extra-pulmonary which infect the brain, uterus, stomach, mouth, kidneys and bones.
Mode of transmission: Airborne- through coughing, sneezing or spitting.
High-risk groups: People with weak immunity like those infected with HIV, Under-nutrition, Diabetes, Smoking and Alcohol consumption.
Drug-resistant Tuberculosis (DR-TB):
DR-TB refers to various forms of TB where the bacteria have developed resistance to at least one of the anti-TB drugs, which makes the infection harder to treat.
Types of Drug-Resistant TB: There are two main categories:
1. Multidrug-Resistant Tuberculosis (MDR-TB):
Resistant to at least isoniazid and rifampicin (the two most powerful first-line drugs).
Treatment is longer, more expensive, and has more side effects.
Resistant to isoniazid, rifampicin, at least one fluoroquinolone, and at least one of three injectable second-line drugs.
Extremely difficult to treat and has a high mortality rate.
Causes of Drug Resistance:
Improper or incomplete treatment: Not taking all prescribed medication or stopping treatment prematurely.
Poor-quality medicines: Counterfeit or substandard drugs.
Overuse of antibiotics: Contributing to the development of drug resistant bacteria.
Present Status of TB:
India tops the list of 20 TB high-burden countries in the world. India accounts for 27% of the total TB patients in the world. In 2022, 2.42 million Indians were diagnosed with tuberculosis.
Target for TB elimination:
The United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals has a target to ending the TB epidemic by 2030.
India aims to eliminate TB in the country by 2025.
WHO has acknowledged India’s success on two major fronts:
Inreducing TB incidence by 16% from 2015 to 2022 (close to double the pace at which global TB incidence is declining).
In reducing TB mortality by 18% during the same period, keeping in line with the global trend.
Early diagnosis is extremely important in fighting TB.
Widely followed diagnosis methods include- Sputum smear microscopy which studies the phenotype of the pathogen from the sputum sample of infected patients.
Treatment:
Strategy: DOTS strategy (Directly Observed Treatment Short Course) is a WHO-recommended cost-effective strategy to reduce the disease burden of TB.
Antibiotics: Administering commonly used antibiotics like rifampin.
Challenge: Mycobacterium tuberculosis has developed drug resistance.
Existing challenges associated with TB:
High-prevalence of TB: The reasons include-
Lack of widespread awareness about the disease, lack of access to quality care, under-reportion of cases.
The National TB Prevalence Survey (in India) found that 64% of people with infectious TB did not seek care. This results in under-reporting of TB incidences and hence, widespread TB prevalence.
Excessive focus on affected patients only, while ignoring the ‘potential’ patient who might be in contact with the patients.
Non-compliance to Follow-up period: Premature treatment cessation fosters the development of drug-resistant strains like multi-drug resistant TB (MDR-TB) and extensively drug resistant TB (XDR-TB).
Mental Health crisis: TB is associated with a deep stigma, and those affected are still ostracised and mistreated by families, communities, and even the health system. All of this has a significant impact on their mental health.
Gendered issue: There is a significant difference in how males, females and transgenders receive such health care services. Females and transgenders have greater risk of discontinuing treatments, facing greater stigma from society and apathy of healthcare systems.
Re-lapse of TB: The healthcare crisis during the COVID-19 pandemic has reversed the previous gains and increased the TB burden.
Efforts towards eradicating TB:
Global initiatives:
End TB Strategy: Global strategy developed by WHO that aims to reduce TB deaths by 90% and to cut new cases by 80% by 2030..
Global Fund to Fight AIDS, TB and Malaria (2003): Single largest channel of additional money for global TB control.
Stop TB Partnership: Global partnership of organisations, governments, and individuals working to eliminate TB advocating political commitment & technical assistance.
India’s Initiatives:
National TB Elimination Programme (NTEP):
Adopted in 1997 after WHO declared TB as a global epidemic in 1993.
Previously known as the Revised National Tuberculosis Control Programme or RNTCP.
RNTCP focuses on Early Diagnosis and Treatment in accordance with DOTS strategy.
Under RNTCP about 4 lakh DOTS centres have been established so far. Patients are supported with free diagnostics and medicines.
NTEP implements key activities as under:
-State and District Specific Strategic plan for targeted interventions in high-burden areas. -Provision of free drugs and diagnostics to TB patients including for drug-resistant TB. -Active TB case-finding campaign in key vulnerable and co-morbid populations. -Integration with Ayushman Bharat - Health & Wellness Centres to decentralise screening and treatment services closer to the community. -Private sector engagement including incentives for notification and management of TB cases. -Scale-up of molecular diagnostic laboratories to sub-district levels. -Intensified IEC campaigns to reduce stigma, raise community awareness and improve health-seeking behaviour. -Multi-sectoral response with involvement of line ministries. -Scale up TB preventive therapy to contacts of pulmonary TB. -Tracking of notified TB cases through a case-based web-based portal namely Ni-kshay. Nikshay Portal [Ni-Kshay-(Ni=End, Kshay=TB)] is the web enabled patient management system for TB control under the National Tuberculosis Elimination Programme (NTEP). -Ni-kshay Poshan Yojana for nutritional support to TB patients. It has been implemented from April 2018, wherein 500 rupees per month is being provided to All TB patients towards nutritional support for the duration of their treatment.
National Strategic Plan for TB Elimination 2017-2025:
Adopted in 2018 in line with the TB Elimination Strategy of the WHO and SDG of the UN. (India has set ambitious targets for reducing TB incidence, prevalence and mortality rates by 2025).
0% patients having catastrophic expenditure due to TB.
Pradhan Mantri TB Mukt Bharat Abhiyan:
Launched in September 2022 where the community is encouraged to adopt TB patients and support them.
Support can be provided in the form of nutritional support, nutritional supplements, additional investigations, and vocational support for a minimum period of six months or maximum period of up to three years.
Establishment of Centres of Excellence:
Facilitates collaboration between Indian Council of Medical Research laboratories and the private sector to strengthen and expand research and development efforts for TB.
Way Forward:
Prioritise TB vaccine trials: Bacille Calmette-Guérin (BCG) vaccine for TB does not adequately protect adolescents and adults who are at the highest risk for developing and spreading TB. Streamline clinical trials for over 15 TB vaccine candidates in the pipeline.
Leveraging technology and innovation:
Diagnosing TB needs to become more accessible and affordable: E.g.,
New innovations such as nasal and tongue swab-based tests for TB can reduce diagnostic delays. E.g., Scaling up Nucleic Acid Amplification Test (NAAT) coverage.
Handheld digital X-ray machines (with artificial intelligence-based software) can offer mobility to test risk-risk individuals in villages.
Develop new therapeutic models: Invest more in drug discovery, introduction and development of new therapeutic molecules which have short time-periods.
Adoption of AI and digital health solutions for TB diagnosis, adherence and surveillance.
Regulatory frameworks: Need to create regulatory and policy frameworks for strict enforcement of drug control and non-compliance with treatment regimens to tackle antibiotic resistance.
Address socio-economic determinants of TB: Multi-sectoral approach is needed like poverty alleviation, improvement in nutritional status, well-ventilated housing and better air quality.
Nucleic Acid Amplification Test (NAAT):Nucleic Acid Amplification Tests (NAATs) are molecular diagnostic tests that detect the presence of specific genetic material (DNA or RNA) from pathogens such as bacteria and viruses. It is a powerful tool for diagnosing a wide range of infections, including, COVID-19, influenza, HIV, hepatitis, tuberculosis etc.
In case of TB, NAAT is used to detect the DNA of Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex (MTBC) in a sputum or other respiratory sample.
How does NAAT work?
Sample Collection: A sample is collected from the patient, such as a swab from the nose or throat, blood, or urine.
Extraction: The nucleic acid (DNA or RNA) is extracted from the sample.
Amplification: The target nucleic acid sequence is multiplied (amplified) millions of times using specific techniques like Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR).
Detection: The amplified nucleic acid is detected and identified, confirming the presence of the target organism.
Context: Opposition leaders demanding the withdrawal of 18% Goods and Services Tax (GST) on life insurance and health insurance premiums.
GST on health and life insurance premiums
GST replaced all indirect taxes like service tax and cess and is currently set at 18% for health and life insurance policies.
Prior to GST, life insurance premiums were subject to a 15% service tax, including Basic Service Tax, Swachh Bharat cess, and Krishi Kalyan cess. The increase to 18% has raised premium costs for policyholders.
Markets for life and health insurance in India:
General insurance industry: Collected Rs 1,09,000 crore in premiums under the health portfolio for fiscal 2023-24.
Life Insurance Companies: Mobilized Rs 3,77,960 crore in premiums in FY2024, with LIC accounting for a significant portion.
Regional contributions: Five states (Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, and Delhi) contributed 64% of the total health insurance premiums.
Insurance penetration: Life insurance penetration decreased from 3.2% in 2021-22 to 3% in 2022-23, with non-life insurance remaining at 1%. Overall insurance penetration dropped to 4% from 4.2% during the same period.
Arguments for GST on health insurance:
Revenue generation: GST applies to all insurance policies as a service tax, generating significant revenue for the government, which can be used for public welfare and infrastructure development.
As government collected around Rs 21,000 crore in GST over the last 3 FYs, with an additional around Rs 3,000 crore from the reissuance of health policies.
Tax exemption: Insurance policies allow certain deductions while computing income tax under Sections 80C and 80D of the Income Tax Act, 1961.
Section 80C allows deductions of up to Rs 1.5 lakh on the total premium, including GST, while Section 80D provides additional deductions for medical riders with life insurance policies.
Simplification and uniformity: GST replaces multiple indirect taxes, simplifying the tax structure and providing uniformity across states, making it easier for insurers to comply with tax regulations.
Transparency:GST compliance often encourages digital record-keeping and transactions, lead to more transparency and efficiency in the insurance industry.
Constitutional framework: GST rates and exemptions are determined by the GST Council, which includes both central and state representatives. This ensures that decisions are made based on comprehensive inputs from various stakeholders.
Arguments against GST on health insurance:
Increasing out-of-pocket expenses for healthcare: High GST rates on insurance, acts as a deterrent to buying policies, making it less affordable for individuals and families, especially for those already facing high medical costs and increasing out-of-pocket expenses for healthcare.
Premium increases: Significant increases in health insurance premiums have led to a decline in policy renewals and unable to achieve the goal of "Insurance for All by 2047."
Impact on vulnerable populations: Low-income groups and senior citizens may find it particularly challenging to afford insurance with the added GST, potentially leaving them without financial protection in medical emergencies.
Contradiction to public health goals: May contradict government efforts such as Swasth Bharat Viksit Bharat to promote healthcare access and financial protection for all citizens.
Potential for reduced coverage: Individuals may opt for lower coverage or higher deductibles to offset the increased costs due to GST, may undermine the effectiveness of their insurance in covering medical expenses.
Way forward:
Parliamentary Standing Committee Recommendations:
GST rates applicable to health insurance products, particularly retail policies for senior citizens and microinsurance policies (up to limits prescribed under PMJAY, presently Rs 5 lakh), and term policies may be reduced.
It recommended that the Ayushman Bharat scheme can be expanded by allowing people who are not covered by the scheme to opt for it on a paid basis to achieve public health goal.
Sector-specific adjustments: Consideration of lower GST rates for specific categories such as retail policies for senior citizens, microinsurance policies, and health insurance could help in addressing affordability concerns.
Global scenario
In countries like Singapore and Hong Kong, there is no GST or VAT on insurance, making it more accessible to consumers.
Context: Ministry of Ayush is implementing operationalisation of Ayushman Arogya Mandir in the country to provide holistic health coverage based on Ayush to citizens of India.
About Ayushman Arogya Mandirs
Ayushman Arogya Mandirs will be created by transforming existing sub-health centres/Ayush dispensaries to Ayush Health & Wellness Centres to ensure universal access to expanded range of Primary Health Care services as appropriate to people's needs.
Implemented by: Ministry of Ayush as a sub-component of the centrally sponsored scheme, National Ayush Mission (NAM) which provides for operationalization of Ayush Heath & Wellness Centres (AHWC).
Under the National Ayush Mission, proposals are sent by State/UT Governments according to their State Annual Action Plans (SAAPs).
In total, 12,500 units of existing Ayush dispensaries and sub-health centres have been approved to be upgraded as Ayushman Arogya Mandir (Ayush) in the States/UTs.
According to reports from States/UTs, 12121 Ayushman Arogya Mandirs have been functional till date.
Context: With the government planning to launch the U-Win digital vaccination registry on August 15, the Universal Immunization Programme (UIP) is set to be significantly strengthened. This portal replicates the Covid-19 vaccine management system, Co-WIN.
About U-Win portal
It aims to maintain an electronic registry of routine immunisations.
Also aims to reduce zero-dose and left-out children through a name-based tracking mechanism and empower citizens with anytime, anywhere access to vaccination services, particularly benefiting migratory Populations.
Target Population and Coverage
Captures every vaccination event for pregnant women and children aged 0-6 years under the Universal Immunization Programme (UIP).
Targets 2.9 crore pregnant women and 2.6 crore infants (0-1 years) annually.
Provides 11 vaccines against 12 vaccine-preventable diseases such as diphtheria, measles, rubella, and tetanus.
Conducts more than 1.2 crore vaccination sessions across the country annually.
Vaccination is free of cost at all Government Vaccination Centers.
Features ofU-Win portal:
The platform generates a uniform QR-based, digitally verifiable e-vaccination certificate, similar to Covid vaccination certificate, which can be accessed anytime by the citizens through a single click. It will enable the digitisation of session planning, and updating vaccination status on a real-time basis.
Vaccination records under UIP are being maintained manually as of now. So this will do away with the hassle of keeping a physical record.
Records pregnancy details and outcomes, newborn registration, and immunisation at birth.
Citizens can self-register for vaccinations via the U-WIN web portal or its Android mobile application. Allows selection of preferred vaccination centres and scheduling of appointments.
Facilitates on-spot registration during ongoing vaccination sessions.
Up to 10 people can be registered for vaccination using the same mobile number.
Sends automated SMS alerts for registration confirmations, administered doses, and upcoming dose reminders, ensuring timely and age-appropriate vaccinations.
Facilitates the creation of Ayushman Bharat Health Account (ABHA) IDs for comprehensive health record maintenance.
Context: According to the NITI Aayog's 4th edition of Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) India Index 2023-24, India's overall Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) score increased to 71 in 2023-24, compared to 66 in 2020-21.
AboutSDG India Index
The SDG India Index, which evaluates progress made across 16 goals on a scale of 1 to 100, and if a State/UT achieves a score of 100, it signifies it has achieved the targets. The higher the score of a State/UT, the greater the distance covered to the target.
The latest SDG India Index, now in its fourth edition since its inception in 2018, uses 113 indicators to evaluate the performance of each state aligned to the Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation’s (MoSPI) National Indicator Framework (NIF).
Key finding of the report:
Overall SDG score for the country is 71 for 2023-24, significant improvement from 66 in 2020-21 and 57 in 2018.
Kerala and Uttarakhand as the best performing states with a score of 79 points each followed by Tamil Nadu, Goa and Himachal Pradesh , while Bihar emerged as a laggard with 57 points, followed by Jharkhand at 62 points. While Chandigarh took the top spot among Union Territories.
Significant progress in Goals 1 (No Poverty), 8 (Decent Work and Economic Growth), 13 (Climate Action) and 15 (Life on Land)
Goal 13 (Climate Action) records highest increase in score from 54 in 2020-21 to 67 in 2023-24 followed by Goal 1 (No Poverty) from 60 to 72
While goals like “Gender Equality” (Goal 5) and “Peace, Justice, and Strong Institution” (Goal 16) saw the smallest increase in points.
Gender Equality goal received the lowest score of 49 points among all goals, recording a marginal increase of 1 point from 2020-21.
“Reduced Inequalities” (Goal 10) was the only goal to record a reduction in points to 65 in 2022-23 from 67 in 2020-21.
Context: Division bench of Supreme Court has held that a Muslim woman is entitled to seek maintenance from her husband under Section 125 of the CrPC, a secular legislation even if they were divorced under religious personal law.
The Governing Personal Laws
About Maintenance: It is an amount payable by the husband to the wife (or wife to husband) who is unable to maintain herself either during the marriage or after divorce. Maintenance should include basic necessities such as food, clothing, and shelter and cover rational needs to lead a normal living and to ensure financial sustenance and wellbeing.
Laws governing Maintenance:
Various laws governing maintenance are:
Hindu Marriage Act, 1955 and Hindu Adoption and Maintenance Act, 1956
Muslim Women (Protection of Rights on Divorce) Act, 1986
Parsi Marriage and Divorce Act, 1936 Indian Divorce Act, 1869
Special Marriage Act,1954
Criminal Procedure Code, Section 125, 1973.
About Section 125 CrPC: If any person having sufficient means; neglects or refuses to maintain, his wife (including divorced woman who has not remarried) who is unable to maintain herself, and his legitimate or illegitimate child or a child with physical or mental abnormality, a magistrate can pass order to make a monthly allowance for the maintenance of his wife or child.
Reasoning behind the provision of maintenance:
It is a statutory right to seek maintenance under Section 125 of the CrPC which is embedded in the text, structure, and philosophy of the Constitution. Article 15(3), read with Article 39(e) manifests a constitutional commitment towards special measures to ensure a life of dignity for women at all stages of their lives.
It is supposed to be irrespective of the faith a woman belongs to (in this case a Muslim woman)
Maintenance is considered as a critical source of support for the destitute, deserted and deprived sections of women.
Constitutional philosophy of social justice seeks to liberate the Indian wife, including a divorced woman, from the shackles of gender-based discrimination, disadvantage, and deprivation.
Judicial Interpretation in this context:
Shah Bano Case (1985): The Supreme Court ruled that a Muslim woman was entitled to maintenance under Section 125 of CrPC, raising controversy and leading to the enactment of Muslim Women (Protection of Rights on Divorce) Act, 1986.
Danial Latifi Case (2001): The Supreme Court interpreted the 1986 Act in a manner consistent with Section 125 of CrPC. The court held that a Muslim woman is entitled to a reasonable and fair provision and maintenance, and this should be provided during the iddat period and should be sufficient to sustain her for future. Essentially, it upheld that the 1986 Act does not take away the right to maintenance under Section 125 of CrPC beyond the iddat period but ensures a lump sum or appropriate provision for the woman’s future during the iddat period itself.
Md. Abdul Samad vs Telangana: A Muslim divorced wife is entitled to maintenance under Section 125 CrPC irrespective of her personal law, moreover, Muslim women, who are divorced through the illegal method of triple talaq, are also entitled to claim maintenance under Section 125 CrPC.
Context: Peter Drucker famously said, “Only what gets measured gets managed.” The problems of social groups that have been historically discriminated against (be it by caste, race, religion, gender, disability etc.) cannot be resolved without collecting data group-identity wise. Doing so is not a capitulation to identity politics but a vital step towards informed policymaking and inclusive development.
Caste-Based Census Timeline
Pre-Independence:1871 Census was the first attempt to measure the population and enumerate caste data across India. 1931 Census was the last exercise to enumerate caste data.
Post-Independence:
Union of India after Independence, decided as a matter of policy not to enumerate caste wise population other than SCs and STs.
Thus, India’s largest caste bloc – Other Backward Classes – have not figured in the any census from 1951-2011.
There is no proper estimate for the population of OBCs, various groups within the OBCs, and others.
In 1961, the GOI advised States to conduct their own surveys and draw up State-specific OBC lists if they so desired.
Aftermath of Mandal Commission:
In 1979, Mandal commission (Socially and Educationally Backward Classes Commission) suggested expansion of affirmative action to include other backward classes.
OBCs, as per 1931 census, amounted to 52% of Indian population. Based on which a 27% reservation was given to the OBCs in 1990.
Later appeared demand for introduction OBC category in the decennial census to count them.
Socio-Economic Caste Census 2011:
SECC 2011 was first caste-based census since 1931.
It was conducted by Ministry of rural development (MoRD) and Ministry of housing and urban poverty alleviation in rural and urban areas respectively.
This was first time such a comprehensive exercise has been carried out for both rural and urban India, which included caste-wise population data.
2011 SECC data, excluding the caste data, was finalised and published by the government.
Demand being raised to enumerate castes as part of Census 2021 itself. To make available authentic data on caste-wise population and their socio-economic conditions.
Need For Caste-Based Census
Social imperative : Caste continues to be a foundational social construct in India. Only about 5% of Indian marriages were inter-caste as of 2011-12. The use of caste surnames and caste marks is still widespread. Residential segregation by caste persists. Choices of candidates for elections and ministers for Cabinets continue to be dictated by caste considerations.
Legal imperative : Constitutionally-mandated policies of social justice which include reservations in electoral constituencies, education and public employment cannot be pursued effectively without detailed caste-wise data. Even though the Constitution uses the word class instead of caste, various rulings of the Supreme Court have held caste as a ‘relevant criterion’, ‘sole criterion’ or ‘dominant criterion’ for defining a backward class, and have demanded detailed caste-wise data for upholding reservation policies.
Administrative imperative : Detailed caste-wise data is necessary to avoid/correct wrongful inclusions of undeserving castes and exclusions of deserving castes, and to guard against a few dominant castes in a reserved category crowding out others. It is also needed for sub-categorising castes within a reserved category and to determine the income/wealth criterion for the creamy layer.
Moral imperative: The absence of detailed caste-wise data has helped a coterie of elites, among upper castes and dominant Other Backward Classes (OBCs), to corner a disproportionate share of the nation’s assets, incomes, and positions of power. Such situation leads to the demands of OBC subcategorization for ensuring a more equitable distribution of benefits. - The Justice Rohini Commission is working on sub-categorization within OBCs to address this issue.
Estimate change in demography: The current reservations and welfare schemes for OBCs (Other Backward Classes) are based on population estimates from the 1931 census. Since then, India's demographic landscape has significantly changed. A caste-based census can provide updated data to ensure that policies and schemes are aligned with the current population dynamics.
Rationalize Reservation Policy: Land fragmentation and agricultural stagnation have turned many upper-caste landowners into marginal farmers, while rising rural wages have benefited some backward classes, including Dalits. This shift necessitates a review and rationalization of the reservation policy. Accurate data can ensure that reservations are based on the current socio-economic realities of different castes. For example, the Patidar agitation in Gujarat and the Jat agitation in Haryana highlight the demand for reservations based on contemporary socio-economic conditions
Assess impact of Affirmative action: A socio-economic caste census can help assess the impact of reservations on OBCs and identify the relative deprivation of some castes. This assessment can inform future policy decisions and ensure that affirmative action achieves its intended goals. For example, data from such a census could reveal whether reservations have improved educational and employment outcomes for specific OBC groups.
Concerns Against Caste Based Census
Reinforces Caste Identities: Enumerating castes in a census might reinforce the caste identities prevalent in society, which could perpetuate social divisions. For instance, identifying individuals by caste in official documents could entrench these identities and exacerbate caste-based discrimination.
Vote bank politics: Caste-wise data could be used as a tool for caste-based political mobilization, leading to vote bank politics. Politicians might exploit this data to garner support from specific caste groups, undermining the broader goals of social cohesion and national integration. For example, political parties might promise caste-specific benefits to secure votes, leading to divisive politics.
New demands for Reservation: Numbers about OBCs might provide a new issue for regional parties to pressure the central government for an OBC quota in central government jobs and educational institutions. This could lead to increased demands for reservations, potentially beyond the current 50% cap. For instance, if the census reveals a higher OBC population, it could lead to demands for a higher reservation quota, as seen with the recent protests by various communities.
Federal concerns: According to the 7th Schedule of the Constitution, the census is under the domain of the Union government. State governments conducting their own caste censuses could be against the constitutional spirit and create conflicts between the center and states. For example, the Bihar government's decision to conduct its own caste census led to debates on constitutional propriety and federal authority.
Concerns lack logical backing (As per the Article)
Socially divisive exercise: Critics argue that a caste census could be socially divisive. However, India's census already enumerates religion, language, and region, which are as divisive as caste, if not more. Casteism will not disappear by avoiding its enumeration any more than communalism or regionalism will by ignoring religion or language.
Administrative nightmare: While some claim that a caste census is an administrative nightmare, India's census has successfully enumerated 1,234 castes in the SC category and 698 tribes in the ST category. Therefore, it is difficult to understand why the enumeration of the 4,000-odd other castes, most of which are State-specific, should pose an intractable problem.
Demands for increased reservations : On the contrary, the availability of caste-wise Census data would help curb arbitrary demands from caste groups and capricious decision-making by governments. Policy makers would be able to objectively debate and address the claims of, say, the Marathas, Patidars, Jats, or any other groups for reservations.
But governments prefer fuzzy data because it gives them the latitude to implement reservations arbitrarily for electoral considerations.
Conclusion A caste-based census has the potential to provide valuable data for social justice and policy formulation.
However, it also poses significant risks, including reinforcing caste identities and promoting divisive politics.
A balanced approach, with robust safeguards and a focus on using the data to promote equality and social cohesion, is essential.
Key Take Away from Article
Why caste-wise Census data of the OBCs is essential?
Inclusion of OBCs in the Census
The OBCs, like SCs and STs, have constitutional provisions for reservations in education(Article-15(4)) and public employment(Article 16(4)).
However, there is no reservation for OBCs in electoral constituencies for MPs and MLAs. For this, caste-wise Census data of the OBCs is essential, which should have been included in the 2001 Census, but it was not.
Further, When states like Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh etc attempted to implement OBC reservations in local body elections, the High Courts and Supreme Court stayed these efforts due to the lack of caste-wise data. The judiciary demands such data to uphold reservations, while the executive has avoided collecting it.
Authority of Census Data: While the Census is a Union subject, the Collection of Statistics Act, 2008 allows states and local bodies to gather necessary statistics. So Census data carries more authority and is less contested. How an Attempt at Caste Census Failed
In 2010, after lobbying by OBC leaders, Parliament unanimously resolved to include caste enumeration in the 2011 Census.o However, the Socio Economic and Caste Census (SECC)-2011 was poorly executed, resulting in an unreliable figure of 46 lakh castes, and the results were never released.
The SECC-2011's failure stemmed from its execution outside the Census Act, 1948, by the Union Ministries of Rural Development and Urban Development, which lacked experience in sociological surveys.
Despite the 2010 resolution, the Central government announced in 2021 that it would not include caste enumeration in the next Census.
The Way Forward
To ensure an effective and reliable caste census, the following steps are recommended:
Amend the Census Act, 1948 to make caste enumeration mandatory.
Enlist sociological and anthropological experts to draft state-specific caste lists.
Design a detailed questionnaire to capture sub-caste, caste, larger caste group, and caste surname.
Utilize internet-enabled hand-held devices to facilitate accurate data collection.
Review and improve upon the SECC-2011 approach based on lessons learned.
Context: The 1960 Indus Waters Treaty (IWT), facilitated by the World Bank, is a landmark transboundary water-sharing mechanism between India and Pakistan. But disagreements persist.
In an unprecedented move, India called for amendments to the agreement last year due to its dissatisfaction with the dispute resolution process. It blamed Pakistan’s continued “intransigence” in implementing the treaty — particularly its material breach. Pakistan sought arbitration at The Hague for resolution of its differences and objections over India’s Kishenganga and Ratle hydroelectric projects, bypassing the treaty-compliant Neutral Expert proceedings.
This topic is crucial for the understanding of India-Pakistan Relations under GS II.
General Studies- II: Governance, Constitution, Polity, Social Justice and International relations.
India and its neighbourhood- relations.
Hence in the ensuing discussion we are going to understand:
Geographical locations (Rivers)
The need for a treaty
Mains provisions of the treaty
Current challenges with the treaty
Way forward
Indus Water Treaty Explained
Indus Waters Treaty, treaty, signed on September 19, 1960, between India and Pakistan and brokered by the World Bank. The treaty fixed and delimited the rights and obligations of both countries concerning the use of the waters of the Indus River system.
The Need for water sharing:
Geographical Context:
The waters of the Indus system of rivers begin mainly in Tibet and the Himalayan mountains in the states of Himachal Pradesh and Jammu and Kashmir. They flow through the states of Punjab and Sindh before emptying into the Arabian Sea south of Karachi and Kori Creek in Gujarat.
Partition Impact
The partition of British India, based on religion not on geography basis, created a conflict over the waters of the Indus basin. The newly formed states were at odds over how to share and manage what was essentially a cohesive and unitary network of irrigation.
Furthermore, the geography of partition was such that the source rivers of the Indus basin were in India. Pakistan felt its livelihood threatened by the prospect of Indian control over the tributaries that fed water into the Pakistani portion of the basin. Where India certainly had its own ambitions for the profitable development of the basin, Pakistan felt acutely threatened by a conflict over the main source of water for its cultivable land.
Agriculture Dominance:
Irrigation and cultivation in the Indus plains are central to both economies. The Indus is responsible for over 90 per cent of Pakistan’s agricultural output and accounts for 25 per cent of the GDP. Given the ballooning population and corresponding consumption, deteriorating water quality poses an additional threat to food and nutritional security, human health and biodiversity.
Sharing of water (Treaty):
Eastern rivers: Ravi, Beas, and Sutlej were allocated to India for unrestricted use.
Western rivers: Indus, Jhelum, and Chenab were allocated largely to Pakistan. India is permitted certain agricultural uses and can build 'run of the river' hydropower projects with limited storage.
Permanent Indus Commission (PIC): Commissioners are appointed by both countries for cooperation and information exchange regarding their use of the rivers.
The treaty provides a 3-tier dispute resolution mechanism:
PIC is the first stage.
A neutral expert is the second stage.
The Court of Arbitration is the third stage.
IWT does not have a unilateral exit provision: The treaty is supposed to remain in force unless both countries ratify another mutually agreed pact.
Issues:
Dissatisfaction over water apportionment: There is long lasting dissatisfaction in India because 80% of the water is allocated to Pakistan.
Suboptimal data sharing: Diplomatic tensions lead to suboptimal data sharing, and the quality of shared data is often questioned. There is no mechanism for the research community to access this data.
Ambiguous and room for conflict: The technical nature of the treaty and the fact that the western rivers flow through the conflicted region of Jammu and Kashmir pave the way for conflict. Perceived impacts of infrastructure development on downstream flows, and Pakistan’s concerns as a lower riparian state.
Changing realities such as climate change also fuel the need for amending the treaty.
In 2015, the Indus basin was ranked by NASA as the world’s second most over-stressed aquifer. An estimated 31 per cent of the net basin flow originates from climate-impacted glaciers and snow melts, making mean annual flows more volatile and seasonal. Other factors like unpredictable monsoons also contribute to increased variability of flow volume.
Lack of mutual trust: There is a lack of trust-building mechanisms between India and Pakistan. Perceived impacts of infrastructure development on downstream flows, and Pakistan’s concerns as a lower riparian state.
A recent case in point is Pakistan’s accusation of “water terrorism” against India for the Shahpurkandi barrage project. But Ravi’s water-flow from India into Pakistan is not substantial in the first place, and the dam would streamline the river’s flow — as legally permitted within the IWT — to support power supply and agricultural growth in Punjab and Jammu & Kashmir.
Limited role of the Guarantor: In disputes like those involving the Krishanganga and Ratle Hydroelectric Projects, the World Bank had to appoint the Neutral Expert and chairman of the CoA simultaneously. This concurrent appointment poses practical and legal risks. Moreover, the World Bank lacks the power to decide which one should take precedence.
Lack of adequate environmental safeguards: The treaty lacks sufficient provisions to protect the environment.
To resolve these conflicts:
It's essential to view the Indus river system as a cohesive geographical unit, benefiting all stakeholders.
An ecological perspective should be integrated into the governance framework of the Indus Waters Treaty (IWT), including the institutionalization of Environmental Flows (EF).
According to the Brisbane Declaration (2018), EFs are necessary to sustain aquatic ecosystems, which support human cultures and economies. Harmonizing EFs with the 1997 UN Watercourses Convention principles—equitable use and prevention of transboundary harm—is crucial.
International customary law, such as the 2004 Berlin Rules on Water Resources, also emphasizes sustainability and ecological flows. The 2013 Permanent Court of Arbitration's verdict on India's Kishanganga project underscores the obligation to release EFs in transboundary basins, setting a precedent for similar cases.
Ratification of the UN Water Convention to ensure the sustainable use of transboundary water resources by facilitating cooperation.
Promoting open data policy encouraging open data policies to international supervisory bodies and other stakeholders to promote transparency and applied scientific research.
Both countries should undertake joint research on the rivers to study the impact of climate change for future cooperation, as underlined in Article VII of the IWT.
Additionally, a nuanced understanding of climate change and population pressures on the Indus basin's hydrology is needed. This includes developing a robust mechanism for real-time data-sharing between India and Pakistan, supervised by the World Bank, to ensure accountability and enhance policy-making. Recognizing climate change as a shared vulnerability and focusing on holistic basin management will strengthen the IWT, improving India-Pakistan relations and serving as a model for global transboundary climate cooperation.
Context: The recently released NSS 78th round of the Multiple Indicator Survey (conducted in 2020-21) is a household survey that highlighted low computer literacy in India.
Importance of computer literacy
Critical services: Banking, healthcare, and government services are increasingly digital.
Quality of life: Access and effective use of technology enhance individuals' quality of life.
COVID-19 Impact: The pandemic underscored the importance of computer and internet access for everyday needs., from ordering groceries and online education to managing banking and health-care services.
Employment opportunities: Enhances employability and productivity, providing individuals with a competitive edge in the job market, reducing socio-economic inequalities.
Computer literacy in India:
Computer literacy, defined as the ability to use a computer. Key findings of NSS 78th round of the Multiple Indicator Survey (conducted in 2020-21):
Computer literacy among individuals aged 15 years and above stands at 24.7%. This marks an increase from 18.4% in 2017-18 to 24.7% in 2020-21. In rural areas, computer literacy increased from 11.1% to 18.1%, while in urban areas, it rose from 34.7% to 39.6%. Among those aged 20-24, the literacy rate is 45.9%, while it is 4.4% for the age group of 65-69 years.
The survey shows that computer literacy decreases with age, with younger people being more computer literate. This common trend highlights the gap in computer education between younger and older generations, known as a "cohort effect" or "generation effect."
Significant differences in computer literacy rates, with Kerala at 72.7% and Assam at 17.6% for ages 20-39.
Reason for India’s modest progress:
Lack of Infrastructure: Many schools and colleges across India do not have the necessary infrastructure.
Shortage of qualified teachers: Limits the quality and reach of computer literacy programs.
Gaps in education system: Although computer education is part of the school curriculum, there are disparities in access and instructional standards, particularly in rural and economically disadvantaged areas. E.g: Assam (17.6%), Bihar (20.4%), Madhya Pradesh (21%).
Limited access for older demographics: Older age groups often lack motivation or access to learning resources for computer literacy.
Unequal distribution of resources: There is a significant disparity in resource allocation for computer literacy initiatives, leading to unequal progress across different states and regions.
Government initiative to promote computer literacy:
Digital India campaign 2015: To transform the country into a digitally empowered society.
Education integration: Computer education is being integrated into the formal education system from an early age.E.g: Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA)
Skill development: Various programs target underprivileged communities to bridge the digital divide. E.g: Pradhan Mantri Gramin Digital Saksharta Abhiyan (PMGDISHA).
Way forward:
The government should allocate resources towards the training of computer personnel and ensure sufficient staffing levels.
For the older population outside the formal education system, targeted programmes are essential through involving various institutions, including local governing bodies such as panchayats and non-governmental organisations, to effectively reach and empower older individuals with computer literacy skills.
The government should also conduct a thorough review of such computer literacy and develop strategies to achieve higher literacy and reduce disparities in the coming years.
Context: 15-member Governing Board and a 16-member Executive Council of the Anusandhan National Research Foundation (ANRF), lack representation from or any entrepreneurs from the country or eminent academics from the Central and State universities on the committee, especially when the ANRF plans to raise more than 70% of its funding from non-government sources and industry.
About National Research Foundation (NRF):
It is an apex body to provide high-level strategic direction of scientific research in the country as per recommendations of the National Education Policy (NEP).
The Department of Science and Technology (DST) is the administrative Department of NRF which will be governed by a Governing Board consisting of eminent researchers and professionals across disciplines.
The Prime Minister will be the ex-officio President of the Governing Board and the Union Minister of Science & Technology & Union Minister of Education will be the ex-officio Vice-Presidents.
NRF’s functioning will be governed by an Executive Council chaired by the Principal Scientific Adviser to the Government of India.
Mission and Vision
The NRF is entrusted with the mission of catalysing the transformation of Indian institutions into world-class Centers of Excellence (CoEs).
Its vision is to provide high-level strategic direction for research, innovation, and entrepreneurship across a wide spectrum of fields, including natural sciences, engineering and technology, environmental and earth sciences, health and agriculture, and the interfaces of humanities and social sciences with science and technology.
Functions and Responsibilities
Formulating Comprehensive Roadmaps: The NRF is responsible for developing comprehensive research and development roadmaps that guide India’s scientific and technological progress.
Fostering R&D Infrastructure: It actively works towards facilitating and financing the growth of research and development infrastructure in universities, colleges, and research institutions.
Grant Provision:
The NRF plays a crucial role in providing grants for research proposals, enabling scientists and researchers to undertake innovative projects.
Funding competitive peer-reviewed grant proposals to eligible persons.
International Collaboration:
Evolving participation in international collaborative projects and fostering exchange of scientific information.
Encouraging collaboration with scientists from within and outside India, including scientists of Indian origin, with a view to enrich the Indian scientific ecosystem.
Coordination at National Level: Evolving nationally coordinated programmes to identify scientific and practical solutions for societal, developmental, financial and techno-economic challenges.
Public and Private Investment: The NRF aims to foster investments from both the public and private sectors, further boosting the growth of India’s research ecosystem.
Translation of Research: Supporting translation of research undertaken into capital intensive technologies.
Global Participation: Increasing India’s role and participation in key areas of national and global importance.
Way forward:
The board and the council need representatives who understand the bottlenecks in the current system, especially in the university system, and know how to get things done on the ground rather than being in an advisory role.
The ANRF must function unlike any other current government science department. It should have more diverse representations of practising natural and social scientists from the university system, with more women and young entrepreneurs in its committee.
The future chief executive officer of the ANRF must have a background in both industry and academia, and be someone who can raise money for the ANRF and understand the global innovation ecosystem.
ANRF needs to avoid the confusion that can arise from multiple committees. Therefore, creating a single committee to formulate and implement strategies on the ground is crucial.
To achieve the research and development budget to 4% of GDP , the ANRF must:
be adequately staffed;
implement a robust grant management system;
have an internal standard peer-review system with an incentive for reviewers;
ensure timely disbursal of research grants and student fellowships with a quick turn-around time (less than six months) between application and fund disbursal;
have a system free from bureaucratic hurdles both at the funding body and at grantee institutions;
provide flexibility of spending money without following the government’s stringent general financial rules (GFR), and permit purchases without going through the Government e-marketplace (GeM) portal.
