Science & Technology

Endocrine Disruptors in Plastic Waste

Context: Plastic pollution is no longer a distant environmental concern but has become a biological invasion with profound implications for human health. Infiltration of microplastics and plastic-derived endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) into our bodies is triggering hormonal disruption, reproductive dysfunction and chronic diseases.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Basics of Microplastics, EDCs, Plastic Waste Management Rules. Mains: Issues related to Plastic Pollution.

Impact of Microplastics on Human Health

Microplastics are plastic particles less than 5 millimeters in diameter. Once considered inert pollutants, microplastics are now recognised as biologically active.

Microplastics have been found in human lungs, hearts, placentas, breast milk, ovarian follicular fluid, and semen.
A 2024 study reported the presence of microplastics in nearly 89% of blood samples in India, with an average concentration of 4.2 particles per milliliter.
Animal studies (Food and Chemical Toxicology 2023) found:
- Low-dose polystyrene microplastics disrupted testosterone, impaired sperm, and damaged the blood-testis barrier.
- Similar effects in ovaries included- reduced anti-Müllerian hormone, oxidative stress, and cell death.
A 2025 study found microplastics in 14 of 18 follicular fluid samples from women undergoing fertility treatment in Italy, linking them to poor egg quality, menstrual irregularities, low estradiol levels, and higher miscarriage.

What are Endocrine-Disrupting Chemicals (EDCs)?

EDCs are chemicals that interfere with our hormonal systems- damaging reproductive health and increasing our susceptibility to chronic diseases, including cancer.
EDCs are commonly used as additives in plastic manufacturing to enhance flexibility, durability, or heat resistance. Over time, these chemicals leach out of plastic products into food, water, air, and the human body.

Plastics contain EDCs such as:

Bisphenol A (BPA) and BPS used in water bottles, food containers, and thermal paper.
Phthalates (E.g., DEHP, DBP) used to soften plastics and found in cosmetics, toys and IV tubing.
PFAS (Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances) found in food packaging and non-stick cookware.

Impact of EDCs on Human Health:

Disrupt Hormonal Function:
- These chemicals mimic or block natural hormones such as estrogen, testosterone, thyroid hormones, and cortisol.
- They interfere with receptor binding, disrupt gene expression in reproductive organs, and induce oxidative stress, inflammation, and apoptosis (cell death).
- Exposure to BPA and phthalates has been associated with lower testosterone levels and elevated luteinizing hormone (LH) levels- both indicators of endocrine disruption.
Reproductive and Gynecological disorders: Epidemiological studies have also linked exposure to phthalates and BPA with conditions such as polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS), endometriosis, and spontaneous abortions.
Carcinogenic potential: Studies from India have shown that women with elevated levels of DEHP in their urine face nearly a threefold increased risk of breast cancer. Exposure to BPA and phthalates has also been linked to higher incidences of prostate, uterine, and testicular cancers.
Chronic and Metabolic disorders: PFAS exposure has been associated with metabolic syndrome, cardiovascular disease, and thyroid dysfunction, as reported in a 2024 study. EDCs mimic cortisol, disrupt insulin sensitivity, and promote fat storage, contributing to obesity and type 2 diabetes.

India - Epicentre of Plastic Health Crisis:

India, now the world’s largest generator of plastic waste, stands at the epicentre of this escalating public health emergency.

India generates over 9.3 million tonnes of plastic waste each year. Of this, approximately 5.8 million tonnes are incinerated, releasing toxic gases, while 3.5 million tonnes end up polluting the environment.
Studies have shown that residents in cities like Mumbai are exposed to between 382 and 2,012 microplastic particles daily through air, food, and water.
Health burden associated with EDCs in India is staggering, costing over ₹25,000 crore annually due to increased healthcare spending and lost productivity.
Case study: In Nagpur, doctors are reporting an increase in cases of early puberty, respiratory problems, obesity, and learning disorders in children, conditions increasingly linked to plastic pollution.
The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) detected phthalate concentrations in drinking water samples from Delhi, Jabalpur, and Chennai that exceeded European Union safety limits.

Policy Gaps and Challenges:

Despite progressive policies like the Plastic Waste Management Rules (2016, updated in 2022 and 2024), enforcement remains inconsistent.
Current regulations do not account for low-dose effects or the complex interactions of EDCs, nor do they address the specific vulnerabilities of children and pregnant women.

Way Forward

Biomonitoring and surveillance are crucial for establishing national programmes that measure EDC levels in blood, urine, and breast milk.
Fund longitudinal studies to assess the health impacts of EDC exposure on fertility, neurodevelopment, and chronic diseases.
Spread public awareness and educate people on the risks of microwaving food in plastic containers and promoting the use of glass, stainless steel, and EDC-free alternatives.
Encourage antioxidant-rich diets to oxidative stress.
Enforce plastic segregation, recycling, and safe disposal, and invest in microplastic filtration systems for water treatment plants.
Incentivise the development of biodegradable, non-toxic materials.

Moon Dust is less harmful than Earth's Dust

Context: According to a study, published recently in Space Research, moondust is less harmful than the particulates found on the Earth.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: About the key findings of the study.

In the study, the researchers used two laboratory-generated versions of lunar dust called LMS-1 and LHS-1, mimicking dust from the moon’s mare and highland regions, respectively in their experiments.

Key Findings of the Study

Moondust is less toxic than PM2.5: Laboratory-simulated moondust particles (LMS-1 and LHS-1) were found to be less harmful to bronchial lung cells than fine particulate matter (PM2.5) commonly found in urban pollution on Earth.
Larger moondust particles are toxic at high concentrations: Large particles from both lunar simulants (LMS-1 and LHS-1) caused toxicity and inflammation, but only at very high exposure levels.
Small moondust particles are less toxic to bronchial cells: The smaller particles in both dust types that a human could breathe deep into the lungs were found to be less toxic to bronchial cells than PM2.5 particles on the earth are known to be.
Both lunar dust and Earth dust have potential health risks: Both the moondust simulants and earth dust caused alveolar cells to die. Despite being less toxic to bronchial cells, both large and small moondust particles caused the death of alveolar cells, similar to or worse than PM2.5. Alveoli are critical for oxygen exchange, making this a serious concern for prolonged exposure.

The findings resonate with the experiences of Apollo astronauts between 1969 and 1972, who frequently reported lunar dust clinging to their spacesuits and causing irritation to their eyes and respiratory systems. Lunar dust is known to be statically charged, contributing to its pervasive nature and ability to adhere to surfaces.

Significance of the findings:

The study helps us understand how breathing in moondust might affect astronauts' lungs, especially when they live and work on the Moon for longer periods.
This knowledge can be used to make dust-proof suits, helmets, and air filters to protect astronauts from inhaling harmful particles.
As missions like NASA’s Artemis II (2026) and future lunar bases are being planned, this study gives early warnings about possible health risks.

Indian Navy commissions stealth frigate INS Tamal

Context: Recently, the Indian Navy commissioned INS Tamal (F71), a multi-role stealth guided missile frigate at the Yantar Shipyard in Kaliningrad, Russia.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about INS Tamal; Project 1135.6.

Krivak-class Frigates

Krivak-class frigates are a series of multi-role warships originally designed by Russia. India operates its variant called the Talwar-class frigates, customised for the Indian Navy.
The ship is eighth in the series of Project 1135.6 (Talwar class) and the second of the follow-on Tushil-class frigates. All seven previous ships of the class are part of the Navy’s Western Fleet under the Western Naval Command.
In 2016, under Project 1135.6 (Talwar-class) Follow-on Frigates, India and Russia signed an Inter-Governmental Agreement to procure four additional Krivak-class frigates.
- Two were to be imported from Russia, while two were to be built in India at GSL, Goa under technology transfer.
- Built in Russia: INS Tushil (commissioned 2024), INS Tamal (commissioned in 2025).
- Built in India: INS Triput (launched 2024), INS Tavasya (launched 2025).

About INS Tamal:

INS Tamal is an upgraded Krivak III class frigate.
Specification: 125-metre-long, 3900-tonne ship.
Achieve speeds exceeding 30 knots (55 km/h).
Operational capabilities: Designed for blue water operations with multi-dimensional attack capabilities in all four dimensions- air, surface, underwater and electromagnetic.
Armament and Technology: It is armed with a range of advanced weapons, including:
- Brahmos supersonic cruise missiles (jointly developed by India-Russia)
- Vertically-launched Shtil Surface-to-Air missiles with enhanced ranges
- Medium-range anti-air and surface gun with advanced stealth features
- Optically-controlled close-range rapid fire gun system
- Anti-submarine torpedoes and rockets
- Advanced electronic warfare and communication suite
It is also capable of embarking upgraded anti-submarine and airborne early warning helicopters, the Kamov 28 and Kamov 31.
Speed: Powered by an advanced gas turbine propulsion plant with state-of-the-art controls, it is capable of achieving speeds in exceeding 30 knots.

Strategic Importance:

Strengthening India’s Naval Power: These stealth frigates enhance the Indian Navy’s operational capabilities in the Indian Ocean Region (IOR).
Push for Self-Reliance: Technology transfer from Russia helps develop India's shipbuilding industry.
India-Russia Defence Ties: Despite geopolitical shifts (Russia-Ukraine war, US sanctions on Russia), India continues its strong defence cooperation with Russia.
Strategic Importance: The frigates are crucial for India’s maritime security, countering China’s presence in the Indo-Pacific and reinforces the Indian Navy’s role as a net security provider in the Indian Ocean Region.

The commissioning of Tamal marked a key milestone in India’s maritime defence capability and bilateral ties with Russia.

INS Udaygiri: Navy inducts second Indigenous Stealth Frigate

Context: Recently, INS Udaygiri, the second ship of Project 17A’s stealth frigates, was delivered to the Indian Navy.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about INS Udaygiri; Project 17A.

About INS Udaygiri

INS Udaygiri is the second of seven frigates in Project 17A. INS Nilgiri is the lead ship of the Project 17A stealth-guided frigate class.
Built indigenously by: Mazagon Dock Shipbuilders Limited (MDL) and Garden Reach Shipbuilders and Engineers (GRSE).
The Nilgiri-class frigate or Project 17A class is the successor of the currently-operational Project 17 or the Shivalik-class stealth frigates.

Key Features of INS Udaygiri:

Length: 142 metres.
The multi-mission frigate is capable of dealing with both conventional and non-conventional threats.
The ship is fitted with:
- Supersonic Surface-to-Surface Missile system
- Medium Range Surface-to-Air Missiles (MRSAM) system
- 76 millimetre upgraded gun
- Combination of rapid-fire close-in weapon systems.
- Enhanced stealth features
Significance: With its versatile weapons and capabilities, the ships can play a crucial role in anti-surface, anti-air, and anti-submarine warfare.
Note: Other five ships of this class- Himgiri, Taragiri, Dunagiri, Vindhyagiri and Mahendragiri are at various stages of construction at MDL and GRSE.

Significance:

Project 17A class frigates represent a ‘quantum leap’ in the Indian Navy’s in-house design and military manufacturing capabilities.
Enhance India’s naval power by its capability to operate in the open ocean dealing with both conventional and non-conventional threats.

What are Stealth Frigates?

A frigate is a medium-sized warship used by the Navy for escorting larger vessels, patrolling, and combat operations.
Stealth frigate is designed with advanced stealth technology to minimise its radar cross-section and overall visibility to enemy detection systems, making it harder to detect by radar, visual, sonar, and infrared methods.

Can a GI tag prevent cultural misappropriation?

Context: Recently, at its Spring/Summer 2026 menswear show in Milan, Italian luxury brand Prada unveiled footwear inspired by India’s Geographical Indication (GI) tagged Kolhapuri chappals, sparking accusations of ‘cultural misappropriation’.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about the Geographical Indications (GI) tag.

What is a GI tag?

Geographical Indications of goods refer to the place of origin of a product.
GI tags are a form of Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) that identifies goods as originating from a specific country, region or locality, where their distinctive qualities, characteristics, or reputation are essentially linked to that ‘place of origin’.
Awarded by: Department for Promotion of Industry and Internal Trade, Ministry of Commerce and Industry.
In India, there are currently 658 registered GI-tagged goods, including Chanderi sarees (Madhya Pradesh), Madhubani painting (Bihar), Pashmina shawls (J&K), Kancheepuram silk (Tamil Nadu), and Darjeeling tea (West Bengal).

Key features of GI registration:

Unlike trademarks, which are owned by enterprises, GIs are public property belonging to the producers of the concerned goods and cannot be assigned, transmitted or licensed.
GI registration is given to an area, not a trader. Once a product gets the registration, traders dealing in the product can apply to sell it with the GI logo.
Any trader’s body, association, or organisation can apply for a GI tag. The applicants need to prove the uniqueness of the item with historical records and a complete breakdown of how the product is made. Authorised traders are each assigned a unique GI number.
Raw materials for such products do not have to come from that region (unless it is an agricultural tag). E.g.,
- Leaf in Banarasi paan is not grown in Varanasi; it comes from Bihar, West Bengal, or Odisha.
- Mulberry silk used in Kancheepuram sarees comes from Karnataka and the gold zari from Surat.

Significance of GI tag:

GIs serve as a powerful marketing tool, driving rural development, boosting exports, enhancing consumer confidence, and preserving ‘cultural knowledge’ of local communities, farmers and indigenous groups.

Can an unauthorised trader sell the GI product?

Legal protection of GIs stem from international instruments like:
- Under the Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property (1883) GIs are covered as an element of IPRs.
- Clearer definition under the Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) Agreement, 1995.
India, as a TRIPS signatory, enacted the Geographical Indications of Goods (Registration and Protection) Act, 1999, which came into force in 2003. The Act provides for GI registration, enforcement of rights, prohibition of unauthorised use and penalties for infringement.
If any unauthorised trader tries selling the product under that name, they can be prosecuted under the Geographical Indications of Goods (Registration and Protection) Act, 1999. However, GI rights are primarily ‘territorial’ and consequently limited to the country (or region) where protection is granted. At present, no automatic ‘world’ or ‘international’ GI right exists.

Indian traditional products have time and again suffered exploitation by global corporations. To prevent such cases in the future, one could start by expanding the Traditional Knowledge Digital Library to include wider traditional grassroots expressions.

Making a ‘searchable database’ would allow brands to conduct due diligence and searches to identify right holder communities for collaboration.

India set to integrate Rare Blood Donor Registry with e-Rakt Kosh

Context: National Institute of Immunohaematology (NIIH), Mumbai under the India Council of Medical Research (ICMR) has launched India’s first national rare blood donor registry to support patients with rare blood types who require frequent transfusions, particularly those with thalassemia or sickle cell disease.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about ICMR-Rare Donor Registry of India; E-RaktKosh

ICMR-Rare Donor Registry of India

NIIH has for the first time created a national 'rare blood donor registry' for patients with rare and uncommon blood types who need frequent transfusion especially in conditions such as thalassemia and sickle cell disease.
The portal called the ICMR-Rare Donor Registry of India (RDRI) already includes over 600 donors with rare antigen combinations and 250 very rare blood donors, including 170 Bombay blood group donors.
ICMR-NIIH is now in talks with the Director General of Health Services (DGHS) so that the rare donor registry portal can be integrated with e-Raktakosh, the Centralised Blood Bank Management System platform which provides information about blood availability.

Estimated Daily Blood Requirement in India is ~40,000 to 50,000 units per day or 15-18 million units of blood per year, but we have a shortage of 3-5 million units/year (approx. 10,000-14,000 units/day).

Need for integrating Rare Blood Donor Registry with e-Rakt Kosh

Rare blood groups occur in less than 1 in 1000 individuals, often characterised by absence of high-frequency antigens (HFA), or have a null phenotype (absence of all antigens in a group). E.g., Bombay Blood group, Rh-null (Golden blood) etc.
In the majority of blood banks in India, only ABO and RhD antigens are matched before issuing red blood cell components. However, the International Society of Blood Transfusion (ISBT) has recognised over 360 antigens across 47 blood group systems.
Blood banks do not routinely test for minor blood group antigens. As a result, a mismatch of minor antigens between donor and recipient blood group profiles can lead to red cell alloimmunisation (immune response against foreign RBC antigens after blood transfusion). This reduces the effectiveness of blood transfusions. As a result, about 25% of all immunised patients have reported unsatisfactory transfusion support.

To overcome this challenge, an inventory of extensively typed blood donors and rare blood type donors is required.

Significance:

The integration will help people with rare blood groups easily trace blood banks and procure blood.
It will also assist the blood banks manage their stock and donors through a centralised system.

Cooking oils can help recover Silver from e-waste

Context: Scientists have developed a groundbreaking technique to recover silver from electronic waste using organic fatty acids found in cooking oils. This offers a safer, cost-effective, and environmentally friendly alternative to traditional chemical recycling processes.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Silver; Applications of Silver in the clean energy transition.

Cooking oils can help recover Silver from e-waste

Traditional silver recovery methods involve toxic chemicals like cyanide and strong acids, which are highly toxic, corrosive and harmful to the environment.
The newly discovered method uses natural fatty acids (like those in sunflower or olive oil) to recover silver from electronic waste without releasing harmful toxins.
To dissolve silver, the most commonly used unsaturated fatty acids- oleic, linoleic and linolenic- were combined with an aqueous hydrogen peroxide (30%) solution as a green oxidant under mild conditions. This combination effectively dissolved silver into the fatty acids. This dissolved silver can be later recovered.
Utility: The method can be applicable to urban mining, to retrieve silver from waste electrical and electronic wastes (WEEE) from discarded computer motherboard pieces.

Need for better recycling methods:

Silver is used to capture sunlight through rooftop solar panels across India, generating about 108 GW of clean and green electricity yearly across the nation (about 10% of what is generated from coal). Silver is also used in Mobile phones and laptops.
It is estimated that about 7,275 metric tonnes of silver are used across the world for these purposes, but barely 15% is recovered (When a phone or a computer is damaged or discarded, the silver content is lost).
With the global shift toward renewable energy and electric vehicles, the demand for silver is expected to rise by 170% by 2020. This calls for better recycling methods.

The research team concludes that fatty acids may become the next generation of solvents for treating precious multi-metal waste substrates.

What is Synthetic Aperture Radar?

Context: NASA and ISRO are set to launch the NISAR (NASA-ISRO SAR) satellite, a $1.5 billion Earth-observing mission in July 2025. NISAR has arrived at ISRO’s spaceport in Sriharikota, Andhra Pradesh.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Synthetic Aperture Radar; Advantages & Applications of SAR

Synthetic Aperture Radar:

Synthetic aperture radar (SAR) is a form of active remote sensing that uses microwave radar signals to create high-resolution images of Earth.

How does SAR work?

SAR systems send out microwave pulses towards Earth. These signals bounce off from surfaces like ground, ocean, ice, vegetation, buildings etc.
These echoes (reflected signal) are collected by the antenna carried on a moving platform like a satellite. Since the satellite is moving, each echo is recorded at a slightly different position.
Via complex signal processing those echoes are stitched together into detailed images. Usually, the longer a physical antenna, the better is the resolution. However, a large antenna is hard to build and maintain. Hence, SAR mimics the effect of having a single giant antenna (hundreds of metres long).

Advantages of SAR:

Since microwaves penetrate clouds, smoke, dense vegetation, and even light rainfall, SAR can collect data 24/7.
If a SAR unit is mounted on an orbiting satellite, it can map swaths of land hundreds of kilometres wide in a single overpass.
Different materials like soil, vegetation, water, and metals reflect microwaves differently, allowing SAR to detect changes invisible to optical sensors.

Applications of SAR:

SAR can observe natural processes and changes in earth’s complex ecosystems.

Study Earth’s dynamic land and ice surfaces in greater detail and observe subtle changes in Earth’s surfaces. E.g., Track flow rates of glaciers and ice sheets, landslide-prone areas and changes in the coastline etc.
Spot warning signs of natural disasters, such as earthquakes, tsunamis, volcanoes and landslides.
Measure groundwater levels, agricultural mapping, vegetation biomass, natural resource mapping and monitor Earth’s forest and agricultural regions to improve understanding of carbon exchange.

NISAR will scan nearly all of Earth’s land and ice surfaces twice every 12 days, providing an unprecedented amount of information about our planet’s environment.

Also Read: NASA-ISRO Synthetic Aperture Radar

What happens if Iran Withdraws from the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty?

Context: Amid the heightened military tensions between Iran and Israel, Iran's Parliament is preparing a Bill to potentially leave the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT).

Relevance of the Topic : Prelims: Key facts about Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty. Mains: Crisis in West Asia- Key Developments.

Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT)

NPT is a multilateral treaty, signed in 1968, aimed at limiting the spread of nuclear weapons including three elements:
- Non-proliferation
- Disarmament
- Peaceful use of Nuclear Energy.
It defines nuclear weapon states (NWS) as those that had manufactured and detonated a nuclear explosive device prior to 1 January 1967. Five NSW are China, France, Russia, the UK and the US. All the other states are non-nuclear weapon states (NNWS).
The Treaty does not affect the right of state parties to develop, produce, and use nuclear energy for peaceful purposes.
The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) verifies NNWS compliance with commitments under the NPT not to acquire nuclear weapons.
India, Israel, and Pakistan possess nuclear weapons but have never accepted the NPT. India considers NPT as flawed and as it does not recognise the need for universal, non-discriminatory verification and treatment.

Iran is a signatory to NPT, and is obligated to allow IAEA inspections and limit enrichment. Recently, the IAEA’s Board of Governors has censured Iran for breaching its non-proliferation obligations.

According to the IAEA, Iran has 400 kg of uranium that is already enriched to 60%, just a few steps away from further enrichment to weapons-grade level of 90% or more. The total stockpile of uranium and other nuclear material would be much more.

Can Iran leave the NPT?

The United States has attacked three key nuclear installations in Iran- Fordow, Isfahan and Natanz. This marked the entry of the US into the ongoing conflict between Israel and Iran. Iran has the legal right to withdraw from the NPT owing to the US strikes.

Article 10 of NPT: Each Party shall in exercising its national sovereignty have the right to withdraw from the Treaty if it decides that extraordinary events, related to the subject matter of this Treaty, have jeopardised the supreme interests of its country.
A notice of withdrawal must be given to other parties and the United Nations Security Council (UNSC), three months in advance, and such notice shall include a statement of the extraordinary events it regards as having jeopardised its supreme interests.

Exiting the treaty raises two major concerns:

Increased opacity in Iran’s Nuclear program: It will keep Iran out of the IAEA’s purview and regular inspections. IAEA would lose access to visit nuclear-sites in Iran.
Set a precedent to exit NPT: It could set a precedent for other states to leave the global framework and weaken cooperation on nuclear non-proliferation.

However, remaining in the NPT does not necessarily signal an intention to build nuclear weapons, because signatories (like North Korea) have also developed weapons in the past.

Small Satellite Launch Vehicle

Context: Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL) has bagged a Transfer of Technology deal from the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO), valued at ₹511 crore, to build and operate Small Satellite Launch Vehicles (SSLVs). This deal will enable commercialisation of SSLV launches.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Small Satellite Launch Vehicle (SSLV).

About Small Satellite Launch Vehicle

The Small Satellite Launch Vehicle (SSLV) is the new small satellite launch vehicle developed by Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) to cater to the emerging global small satellite launch service market.
It is designed to meet 'Launch on Demand' requirements in a cost-effective manner.
It is a three-stage Launch Vehicle configured with three Solid fuel Propulsion Stages. It also has a liquid propulsion based Velocity Trimming Module (VTM) as a terminal stage.
SSLV is capable of launching Mini, Micro, or Nanosatellites (10 to 500 kg mass) up to 500 km in the Low Earth Orbit (LEO).
It is capable of multiple orbital drop-offs i.e., launch multiple microsatellites in one launch.
SSLVs will cost 1/10th of a PSLV and will need only 72 hours for launch in comparison to 70 days for PSLV.
Manufacturing of SSLV will be through Indian industry partners led by New Space India Limited, ISRO's commercial arm.

Advantages:

Reduced Turn-around time
Launch-on-Demand i.e., it can be launched on a short-time based on the demand for launch services
Flexibility in accommodating multiple satellites in one launch (Ride Sharing/ multiple orbital drop-offs)
Minimum launch infrastructure requirement
Cost optimisation i.e., provides low-cost access to Space.

FASTag Annual Pass Scheme

Context: The Union Ministry of Road Transport and Highways (MoRTH) has announced a FASTag-based annual pass for hassle-free-highway travel for a given duration.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about FASTag; How does the FASTag system work?

FASTag Annual Pass Scheme:

The annual pass would cost Rs 3000 and will allow free passage of non-commercial private vehicles- car, jeep or van at National Highway (NH) and National Expressway (NE) fee plazas for the given duration, without per-trip user fee charges.
FASTag-based passes will be effective from August 15, 2025 and valid for one year or 200 trips or crossings, whichever comes earlier.
The user may re-purchase the Annual Pass once the 200-trip limit is exhausted, even if the one-year validity period has not yet ended.
The pass is non-transferable and is valid only for the vehicle on which the FASTag is affixed and registered.
Valid only at National Highway and National Expressway fee plazas. At plazas on Expressways, State Highways managed by state governments or local bodies, the FASTag will operate as a regular FASTag.
Key Benefits: Address the long-standing concerns regarding toll plazas; Economical as the average cost of crossing one toll plaza will be only Rs 15.

What is FASTag?

FASTag is an electronic toll collection system.
Launched in 2014 as a pilot project and made mandatory at every toll plaza in the country in 2021.
Managed by: National Payments Corporation of India (NPCI) and the National Highways Authority of India (NHAI).

How does the FASTag system work?

The FASTag uses Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) to collect toll tax payments on the road.
A FASTag sticker is usually pasted on the windscreen of a car. When a FASTag-attached vehicle approaches a toll plaza, a scanner at the plaza identifies the tag via RFID, and deducts tax from the linked bank account or the prepaid card.

Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) Technology

RFID technology refers to a wireless system comprising two components: tags and readers.
Reader is a device that has one or more antennas that emit radio waves and receive signals back from the RFID tag. Readers can be mobile so that they can be carried by hand, or they can be mounted on a post or overhead.
RFID Tag is embedded on the windscreens of the vehicles for transporters. It can store a range of information from one serial number to several pages of data. The tags use radio waves to communicate their identity and other information to nearby readers.

The new FASTag annual pass is a strategic step toward modernising India’s highway toll system with smarter mobility and efficient toll management. It enhances user experience, promotes digital infrastructure, reduces environmental impact, and provides a cost-effective solution for frequent travelers.

Also Read: Satellite-based toll collection

Step-and-shoot spot-scanning Proton Arc Therapy for Cancer

Context: A technique called step-and-shoot spot-scanning proton arc therapy (SPArc) has been successfully used to treat a patient’s adenoid cystic carcinoma for the first time. SPArc works by targeting tumours with protons while sparing surrounding tissue.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about New Emerging Technologies: Cancer Treatment.

Step-and-shoot spot-scanning Proton Arc Therapy (SPArc)

SPArc is an advanced radiation therapy that delivers precise proton beams to target tumours in sensitive areas.
The treatment includes a computer programme that scans through all possible spots and energy layers where the proton beams could be delivered.
- An energy layer is a slice of tissue that receives proton beams of a specific energy. It determines the proton beam’s range, i.e., how far it is able to penetrate the tissue.
When the machine fixes one energy level, it deposits the radiation dose in that energy layer. Then the machine switches to the next energy level and repeats the process.

Advantage:

The team compared the techniques: SFO-IMPT (standard proton therapy) and step-and-shoot SPArc.

Reduces radiation exposure: Owing to its spot-scanning and precision, the SPArc method reduced radiation delivered to the brainstem (by 10%), optical chiasm (56%), oral cavity (72%), and spinal canal (90%) over SFO-IMPT. This is particularly significant to treat cancers (tumours) of the head and neck, as it can reduce radiation exposure to sensitive areas like the brain stem and spinal cord.

Concerns: The full clinical implementation of the technology is under development. It is very expensive and is often suitable for a small patient population.

Important Cutting-Edge Technologies for Cancer Treatment:

S.No.	Technology	Details
1.	Chemotherapy	Involves administration of drugs that interfere with cell division to slow down the growth of tumours. Limitations: These drugs can disrupt the cell division of normal cells too, causing complications.
2.	Radiation Therapy	Radiation therapy directs high-energy radiation at the part of the body where a tumour is located. Limitations: The radiation process is not perfect and the nearby tissues are often harmed.
3.	Image-guided Radiation Therapy	Form of radiation therapy that uses imaging techniques to precisely locate and treat cancerous tissue. Allows for higher doses of radiation to be delivered to tumour while minimising exposure to surrounding healthy tissues.
4.	Proton Therapy	Type of radiation therapy that uses high-energy proton beams to destroy cancerous cells. Particularly useful to treat tumours located in sensitive areas (brain, eyes and spinal cord) where traditional radiation therapy can cause severe side effects.
5.	Precision Medicine	Uses genomic information (genetic profile of their tumour) to personalise treatment for cancer patients.
6.	Immunotherapy	i. CAR-T Cell Therapy (cell-based gene therapy which involves genetically modifying T-cells to help them attack cancer cells)ii. Utilising Monoclonal Antibodies iii. Injecting Cancer Vaccines