Prelims Nuggets

India may allow 49% foreign ownership in Nuclear Power Plants

 Context: India is considering allowing foreign firms to hold up to 49% ownership in its Nuclear Power Plants, aiming to boost its nuclear sector and reduce carbon emissions.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about India’s Nuclear Energy Sector; Atomic Energy Act, 1962. 

India’s Nuclear Energy Sector

  • As of 2024, the total Indian nuclear generation is just over 8 GW, which is just 2% of the country’s installed electricity capacity. 
  • India aims to expand nuclear power capacity by 12 times to 100 gigawatts by 2047. 
  • The government is considering changing its nuclear foreign investment framework. It would increase India’s nuclear capacity and replace carbon-intensive coal with cleaner energy.
  • Necessary legal changes are required in the Atomic Energy Act, 1962. The amendments to the Act would allow the government to issue licences to private companies to build, own and operate a plant and mine and manufacture atomic fuel.

Atomic Energy Act, 1962

  • The Act provides for the development, control and use of atomic energy for the welfare of the people of India and for other peaceful purposes. 
  • The central government through NPCIL (Nuclear Power Corporation of India) holds the authority for activities related to nuclear energy, including its production, development, use, and disposal.
  • The Act restricts private companies from owning and operating nuclear power plants in India.
  • The 2015 amendment to the Atomic Energy Act, allows NPCIL to form joint ventures with other public sector units (PSUs) to secure funding for new projects. However, this does not extend to private or foreign companies. 
  • Currently, private companies can participate in specific areas like supplying components and reactors, but not owning or operating plants. Discussions are ongoing about allowing Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs). This would require amendment to the Act.

Also Read: Nuclear Energy Sector in Union Budget 2025-26 

However, the foreign nuclear investments would still require prior government approval rather than be allowed automatically. 

What is the 1972 Simla Agreement?

Context: Pakistan has suspended the 1972 Simla Agreement, a crucial peace treaty established after the 1971 war between India and Pakistan.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts related to Simla Agreement.

Simla Agreement 

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  • Bilateral treaty signed on July 2, 1972, in Simla, Himachal Pradesh between India and Pakistan, by former Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi and then Pakistani President Zulfikar Ali Bhutto. 
  • It came in the immediate aftermath of the 1971 Indo-Pakistani war, which led to the secession of East Pakistan and the creation of an independent Bangladesh.
  • Aim: To promote peace, avoid future conflict, and lay down the framework for bilateral relations between India and Pakistan.
  • It primarily deals with: 
    • How bilateral relations are to be conducted between the two countries?
    • Recognition of the Line of Control (LoC) as the de facto border.
  • It does not create legally binding obligations and does not include a formal dispute resolution mechanism, making its enforcement dependent on mutual trust and political will.

Key provisions of the Simla Agreement: 

  • Guided by UN Charter: India and Pakistan agreed that their relations would be based on the principles of the United Nations Charter which promotes peace, sovereignty, and non-aggression.
  • Peaceful bilateral resolution: Both nations committed to resolving disputes through bilateral negotiations, without involving third-party mediation — a clause India has consistently highlighted in opposing international interference, especially in the Kashmir issue.
  • Line of Control: The 1971 ceasefire line was redesignated as the Line of Control (LoC), marking a de facto border in Jammu and Kashmir. Neither party would attempt to alter it unilaterally, nor use force to change the status quo.
  • Return of Territory: India returned over 13,000 km² of land captured during the war, demonstrating goodwill and commitment to peace. However, it retained strategic zones like Turtuk and Chalunka in the Chorbat Valley.
  • Non-Interference and Mutual Respect: Both nations agreed to refrain from interfering in each other’s internal affairs and reaffirmed commitment to sovereign equality and territorial integrity.
  • Recognition of Bangladesh: Though not immediate, the agreement set the stage for Pakistan's eventual diplomatic recognition of Bangladesh.

Pakistan has frequently violated the spirit and letter of the Simla Agreement, it has repeatedly violated the ceasefire, tried to annex positions on the Indian side of the LoC in Kargil in 1999, and frequently sponsored non-state actors to breach India’s sovereignty.

Potential Impact of Suspension

  • Increase ceasefire violations in militarised regions like J&K and Ladakh, and attempts to alter the LoC status. 
  • Undermines bilateralism: The suspension could mark a strategic shift in Pakistan's approach. It might now seek third-party involvement — possibly from the United Nations or allies like China or the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC) to internationalise the Kashmir conflict.
  • Contravention of Vienna convention: Pakistan’s unilateral suspension of the Simla Agreement may breach the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (1969). 
  • Sets a precedent for unilateral exit of other regional/ bilateral agreements. 

The Simla Agreement has been dead for a long time. In fact, even the ongoing suspension of talks between the two nations can be seen as a breach of the Simla Agreement. Pakistan suspending the treaty only means that it no longer recognises the LoC.  

The Global Pandemic Treaty

Context: The world’s first Pandemic Agreement was formally adopted by member states of the World Health Assembly (WHA) in Geneva. The landmark decision by the 78th WHA (WHO’s top decision-making body) comes after more than three years of negotiations. It is designed to better prevent and respond to global health crises. 

The WHO Pandemic Agreement is the second international legal agreement negotiated under Article 19 of the WHO Constitution. The first is the WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control, which was adopted in 2003 and entered into force in 2005.

Relevance of the Topic : Prelims: Key facts related to Global pandemic treaty.

Draft Global Pandemic Treaty

  • Rationale: The treaty is designed to improve the international community's preparedness and response to future pandemics by ensuring more equitable access to vaccines, treatments, and resources.
  • Need: COVID-19 pandemic revealed the glaring gaps in global health systems and highlighted the lack of effective international cooperation in responding to health emergencies. A 2022 study revealed that more than one million lives could have been saved if COVID-19 vaccines had been shared more equitably with lower-income countries.

Key Elements of the Treaty

  • Pathogen access and benefit sharing system:
    • Countries would share scientific data such as pathogen samples and genomic sequences with pharmaceutical companies.
    • In return, participating manufacturers would use this shared data to create vaccines or treatments. They will have to allocate 10% of vaccines, diagnostics, and therapeutics to WHO, and another 10% at affordable prices. This aims to ensure that scientific cooperation leads to fair access for all.
  • Technology sharing: Member states should promote and otherwise facilitate or incentivise the exchange of technology and know-how to help manufacturers in developing nations make their own drugs and vaccines.
  • National policies on Publicly funded research: When governments fund research (to universities or companies) to develop medicines or vaccines, they must include clauses or agreements that require timely and equitable access to resulting drugs or diagnostics during pandemics.

Ratification Process of WHO Pandemic Agreement: 

  • The Agreement outlines steps to prepare for its implementation. This includes launching a process to draft and negotiate a Pathogen Access and Benefit Sharing system (PABS) through an Intergovernmental Working Group. The result of this process will be considered at the 2026 World Health Assembly (WHA).
  • Once the WHA adopts the PABS annex, the WHO Pandemic Agreement will then be open for signature and ratification, including by national legislative bodies. After 60 ratifications, the Agreement will enter into force.

Limitations

Although the agreement on the draft treaty has been hailed as groundbreaking and historic, several experts have said that it has a limited scope.

  • No Enforcement Power: The treaty relies on voluntary cooperation and has no enforcement mechanism. WHO would have no way to ensure countries adhere to the terms to which they had agreed. WHO does not have the power to mandate or impose any requirements such as ban or accept travellers, impose vaccination mandates, or implement lockdown.
  • Absence of clear IP Protection: Without strong IP protection (like patents), pharmaceutical companies may be reluctant to invest in pandemic-related products, fearing compulsory licensing, technology transfer mandates, or loss of market exclusivity.
  • Unclear Implementation: The pathogen-sharing system still lacks operational clarity raising concerns about how it will work in a real emergency.
  • Absence of the United States: The US, a major pharma and vaccine hub, withdrew from negotiations. Experts say its absence will weaken the agreement.

The global pandemic treaty marks a milestone in international health diplomacy. But without enforcement powers, universal participation, or clarity on execution, it may fall short when the next pandemic strikes. 

SC allows UGC to notify rules on Caste Discrimination

Context: The Supreme Court has allowed the University Grants Commission (UGC) to notify its 2025 Regulations aimed at promoting equity in higher education, while keeping the door open for improvements based on expert recommendations from the Task Force. 

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts related to UGC Draft Regulations 2025.

Background:

  • Caste-based discrimination in higher education: Tragic suicides of Rohith Vemula (2016) and Payal Tadvi (2019), both from marginalised communities, highlighted systemic issues of caste-based discrimination in higher education institutions (HEIs). In 2019, a Public Interest Litigation (PIL) sought mechanisms to prevent such discrimination. 
  • Justice S. Ravindra Bhat Task Force (2025): In response, the Supreme Court constituted a National Task Force chaired by former Justice S. Ravindra Bhat to examine student suicides and mental health concerns in higher education institutions.
  • The petitioners requested the Court to hold off notifying the new University Grants Commission Regulations of 2025, until the National Task Force gave its full report on mental health, student suicides, and discrimination in colleges and universities.
  • However, the SC has allowed the regulations to be notified while ensuring that the Task Force’s work would continue and its recommendations could still be incorporated into the regulations later.

Caste-based discrimination in India’s Educational institutions: 

  • Centre for Study of Developing Societies (CSDS) Youth Survey found that 1 in 4 Dalit students in colleges reported being discriminated against by teachers.
  • Indian Institute of Dalit Studies (IIDS) Findings reported that over 65% of Dalit students experience caste-based discrimination in classrooms.

According to India Survey on Higher Education (AISHE) 2021-22:

  • Low enrollment rates: SC and ST students still have lower enrolment rates in higher education: (SC - 14.2% of total enrolment and ST - 5.8%).
  • Higher dropout rates: Dropout rates are higher among SC/ST students, often attributed to hostile campus environments and caste-based microaggressions.

University Grants Commission Regulations of 2025

The draft regulations deal with ragging, sexual harassment and discrimination on the basis of caste, gender, disability, among other biases in institutions of higher learning.

Key Provisions: 

  • Enhanced authority of UGC: The regulations give the UGC the authority to derecognise (disqualify) any institution that does not follow the anti-discrimination rules or is found guilty of mistreatment.
  • Clear responsibility: Institutions must take responsibility for protecting students from any form of discrimination, including on the basis of caste, religion, or mental health issues.
  • Preventive measures: Colleges and universities are expected to set up mechanisms (like anti-discrimination cells or support groups) to handle complaints and provide a safe environment.
  • Equal Opportunity Centres: Mandatory establishment of EOCs in all higher education institutions to oversee equity initiatives and address grievances.
  • Monitoring and Accountability: Institutions will be required to report cases and submit regular updates to the UGC about the actions taken against discrimination.
  • False complaints: The regulations also address false complaints, potentially leading to fines or disciplinary action for those found to have made such complaints.
  • Counseling: Provision of mental health support and counseling services to students to address psychological well-being.

DRDO conducts Scramjet Engine Ground Test

Context: The Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) has successfully conducted a long-duration ground test of an Active Cooled Scramjet Subscale Combustor for over 1000 seconds. Earlier, DRDO had successfully conducted the ground test of the scramjet engine for 120 seconds. This marks a significant milestone in development of scramjet-powered hypersonic technology.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Hypersonic Missiles; Scramjet Engine. 

What are Hypersonic Missiles?

  • Hypersonic Missiles are a class of advanced weaponry that travel at speeds greater than Mach 5.
  • Key Features: 
    • Speed: Over Mach 5 (five times speed of sound or more than 5,400 km/hr)
    • Manoeuvrability: Hypersonic missiles can change course mid-air, making it very difficult for an interceptor to intercept it.
    • Altitude: Travels at relatively lower altitudes than a conventional missile, thereby, evading detection by radar.
    • Thus, they have the potential to bypass existing Air Defence Systems and deliver rapid and high-impact strikes.
  • Engine: The key to hypersonic vehicles is Scramjets engines which are capable of sustaining combustion at supersonic speeds.
  • Several nations including the USA, Russia, India and China are actively pursuing Hypersonic technology. 

What is a Scramjet Engine?

  • Scramjets are air-breathing engines capable of sustaining combustion at supersonic speeds without the need for any moving parts (functions without turbines or compressors).
  • The Scramjet engine designed by ISRO uses Hydrogen as fuel and the Oxygen from the atmospheric air as the oxidiser.
  • Working:
    • A scramjet engine collects oxygen from the atmosphere (rather than carrying an oxidiser) as it is travelling, and mixes the oxygen with its hydrogen fuel.
    • Combustion occurs at supersonic speed (exceeding Mach 1), needed for hypersonic travel of the missile. 
scramjet

Recent successful ground test by DRDO

The ground test of the scramjet combustor showcased several notable achievements like successful ignition and stable combustion.

  • Stable combustion:
    • Ignition in a scramjet engine is like ‘keeping a candle lit in a hurricane.’
    • Scramjet combustor incorporates an innovative flame stabilisation technique that holds continuous flame inside the combustor with airspeed of over 1.5 km per second.
  • Scramjet fuel: Endothermic scramjet fuel (central to this breakthrough) was developed for the first time in India jointly by Defence Research and Development Laboratory (DRDL), and industry.
    • The fuel offers dual benefits of significant cooling improvement and ease of ignition.
  • Advanced Computational Fluid Dynamics simulation tools were used for their evaluation and performance prediction.
  • Thermal Barrier Coating: Thermal Barrier Coating was designed to withstand extreme temperatures encountered during hypersonic flight. The coating is applied inside the Scramjet engine using special deposition methods that enhance their performance and longevity.

Significance:  The achievement is a crucial milestone in the development of next-generation hypersonic missions. 

What is Human papillomavirus (HPV)?

Context: The Department of Biotechnology (DBT) has announced the successful scientific review and validation of India’s first indigenously developed Human Papillomavirus (HPV) test kits for cervical cancer screening. 

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Human papillomavirus (HPV); HPV Shot in India. 

Human papillomavirus (HPV)

  • Human papillomavirus is a small, double-stranded DNA virus from the papillomavirus family.
  • Threat:
    • The virus is capable of infecting both women and men.
    • HPV can cause genital warts and cancer in the cervix, vulva, vagina, penis, anus, and throat. 
    • HPV infection is responsible for about 5% of all cancers worldwide. 
  • Primary mode of transmission: 
    • Any intimate skin-to-skin contact and sexually transmitted via vaginal, anal, or oral sex. 
    • The immune system usually clears the virus, but high-risk strains can lead to cancer.  
  • Treatment:
    • There is no treatment for HPV, but in most cases it goes away without treatment. 
    • HPV vaccines do not cure cancer, they are highly effective in preventing certain associated cancers. HPV vaccine stimulates the immune system to recognise the virus and produce antibodies that neutralise the virus, before it can cause cancer.
Human papillomavirus (HPV)

HPV Shot in India

  • The Indian government plans to vaccinate girls aged 9-14 against HPV to reduce the risk of cervical cancer.
    • Cervical cancer develops in the cervix or the wall of the cervix. 
    • HPV is responsible for 99.7% of cervical cancers worldwide. 
    • Cervical cancer is the second most common cancer among Indian women. India has 20% of the global burden of cervical cancer. 
  • Cervavac is India's first Quadrivalent Human Papillomavirus Vaccine (qHPV) developed by the Serum Institute of India. It prevents the entry of four of the most common types of HPV 16, 18, 6 and 11.
  • Challenges: Uptake of HPV vaccine is low in India, due to:
    • High cost of HPV vaccine.
    • Lack of awareness and cultural perceptions around reproductive health.
  • Way Forward:
    • National Technical Advisory Group for Immunisation (NTAGI) has recommended the inclusion of the HPV vaccine in the national immunisation programme. 
    • Rolling out a nationwide human papillomavirus (HPV) vaccination campaign.
    • Regular cervical cancer screening (Pap smear and HPV test) is recommended for women to detect precancerous changes in the cervix caused by HPV.

Telecom Sector: Adjusted Gross Revenue

Context: Bharti Airtel Ltd, India’s second-largest telecom operator, has urged the department of telecommunications (DoT) to convert its adjusted gross revenue (AGR) dues into equity. 

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Adjusted Gross Revenue.

What is Adjusted Gross Revenue?

  •  AGR is the measure of the revenue earned by India's telecom sector from their licensed services. AGR is used to calculate the license fee and spectrum usage charges the telecom operators must pay to the government. 
  • Originally, calculation of AGR included revenue earned by telecom operators from both core revenue and non-core revenue (interest income, sale of assets etc.)
    • In 2019, the Supreme Court ruled that the AGR of telecom operators would include both core and non-core revenue. This judgement led to an increase in the share of revenue which the telecom operators are required to pay to the Government.
  • However, as part of Telecom Relief Package of 2021: AGR would include only the core revenue. Non-Core Revenue will be excluded from the calculation of AGR. This aimed to reduce the financial burden on the telecom operators in future.

Telecom Relief Package of 2021

The package aimed to provide space to the Telecom operators to improve their business and clear dues over a longer period. Key features: 

  • The government gave a 4-year moratorium on dues arising out of the AGR judgement by the Supreme Court (2019). 
  • Telecom operators have the option to convert deferred interest dues into equity at the end of the moratorium period.
  • The definition of AGR has been changed to exclude non-telecom revenue.
  • Rationalisation of spectrum charges for telecom operators: 
    • annual compounding of interest on spectrum usage charges (instead of monthly)
    • interest rate lowered based on the formula MCLR + 2%.
  • 100% foreign direct investment in the telecom sector through the automatic route.

Conversion of AGR into Equity

  • Earlier in 2023, the government had converted ₹16,133 crore of Vodafone Idea interest dues into equity. The equity conversion in Vodafone Idea happened as part of the telecom relief package of 2021. 
  • The moratorium is set to expire in 2025, after which the telecom operators would have to start making yearly payments to the government to clear their liabilities.

Benefits of conversion of AGR into Equity: 

It is a win-win situation for both the government and Telecom operators. 

  • Telecom operators would be relieved of making annual installments pertaining to past dues and save on cash outgo in terms of interest. 
  • The government can sell the stake in the market and earn a premium on its investments, given the share price has an upside and the company is doing well financially.

However, the government is not considering giving any fresh relief to the telecom sector.  

Mission Mausam: Utilising AI in Weather Forecasting

Context: As weather patterns grow more unpredictable due to the climate crisis, India has launched Mission Mausam to improve weather understanding and forecasting through expanded observation networks, better modelling and advanced tools like AI and machine learning.

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: Key facts about Mission Mausam.

Mains: Applications of AI: Weather Forecasting. 

Mission Mausam

  • Launched in 2024 with a budget of Rs 2000 crores over two years.
  • Aim: To improve weather and climate services, and forecast information for multiple sectors, including agriculture, disaster management, and rural development. The long-term goal is to make India weather-ready and climate-smart.
  • Initiative by: Ministry of Earth Sciences 

Objectives of Mission Mausam: 

  • Strengthening observations (in-situ & remote sensing) networks with advanced radars, satellites, and automated weather stations.
  • Improve Model/ Data Assimilation/ HPC for giving accurate information to the Public and stakeholders (Numerical + Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning). 
  • Enhance India's capability in weather forecasting across various scales — short-term, medium-term, extended-range, and seasonal.
  • Provide actionable advisories for agriculture, water resources, energy, health, and disaster management sectors. 

Mission Mausam Implementation Strategy

Mission Mausam adopts a multi-pronged approach to achieve its objectives:

  • Infrastructure Development: Installation of Doppler Weather Radars, Automatic Weather Stations, and rain gauges across the country. 
  • Supercomputing Power: Leveraging high-performance computing systems like Pratyush and Mihir for advanced climate modelling. 
  • Collaborative Research: Partnerships with global organisations like the World Meteorological Organisation to enhance forecasting techniques. 
  • Public Outreach: Dissemination of user-friendly advisories through mobile apps (E.g., Mausam App), SMS services, and Media channels. 

Implementation Phases: 

  • The five-year mission would be implemented in two phases.
    • First phase (until March 2026): Focus on expanding the observation network. This includes adding around 70 Doppler radars, high-performance computers and setting up 10 wind profilers and 10 radiometers.
    • Second phase: Focus on adding satellites and aircraft to further enhance observational capabilities.

Cloud Chamber:

  • Under the mission, a cloud chamber will be established at the Indian Institute of Meteorology (IITM) in Pune, within the next one and a half years.
  • Aim: To study the processes occurring within clouds in the context of rising temperatures.

Working: 

  • Artificial clouds will be created inside a laboratory at the IITM and conduct experiments. This will help the scientists better understand:
    • which types of clouds can be seeded (a process where substances are added to clouds to make them produce rain)
    • what materials should be used for seeding
    • how much seeding is needed to either increase rain or even prevent rain.
  • Rising temperatures lead to clouds becoming taller and more electrically active, while their horizontal spread may shrink. This can result in stronger thunderstorms and more frequent lightning events and impact rainfall dynamics. The insights gained from the cloud chamber will help improve the parameterisation of weather models and help to artificially enhance or suppress rain and hail within the next five years.

Mission Mausam envisages augmenting the entire observational network (surface as well as upper-air), numerical modelling framework, incorporating AI/ML techniques, enhancing the computing power to mitigate the impact of climate change-induced extreme weather events. "Mausam GPT" is being designed to provide quick and reliable weather-related information in both text and audio forms.

Traditional vs AI-based Weather Forecasting

  • Traditional Weather Forecasting: These models simulate atmospheric processes using equations and data from weather stations and satellites (E.g., temperature, wind). These models are computationally intensive, time-consuming, and sometimes limited in capturing localised phenomena due to the chaotic and non-linear nature of weather systems.
  • AI-Based Forecasting: Unlike traditional models, AI/ML techniques adopt a data-first approach. They learn from historical and real-time data, identifying correlations between input variables (E.g., wind, humidity, ocean temperature) and outcomes (E.g., rainfall, cyclones). AI can uncover hidden patterns and non-linear relationships not captured by physics-based models. 

Challenges in AI-based Weather Forecasting: 

  • Data Quality and Availability: AI models need large, consistent, and high-quality datasets. Issues like sensor errors, inconsistent formats, and lack of real-time or historical data complicate training. While data availability has improved tenfold but gaps remain in sensor networks, especially in remote areas. 
  • Human Resource Gap: A critical shortage of experts skilled in both climate science and AI/ML. 
  • Interpretability and Trust: AI models are like black boxes - it is hard to explain why they make a certain prediction. This makes it difficult for non-experts to trust or verify the results.
  • Infrastructure and Computation: AI models, especially for high-resolution forecasting, require GPU-based computing and significant infrastructure investment.

To bridge the gaps, scientists are increasingly turning towards hybrid models that combine the interpretability of physics-based models and adaptability of AI/ML. 

Air Pollution in India: Major Pollutants

Context: Air pollution is a leading cause of premature deaths globally. According to recent studies, millions of people die early every year due to poor air quality. Let’s see a breakdown of the sources of many air pollutants that damage our health and ecosystem.

Relevance of the Topic : Prelims: Major sources of air pollution and their impact.

Air Pollution in India

  • The World Air Quality Report 2024, released by Swiss company IQAir, ranked India as the 5th most polluted country globally. 
  • Delhi remains the most polluted capital globally. Six of the world's 10 most polluted cities, and 13 of the top 20 are in India.
  • In 2021, 1.05 million deaths in India were caused by household air pollution. 

Major Air Pollutants

Six main types of air pollutants contributes to this problem: 

  • Sulphur Dioxide (SO₂): Energy production, especially coal-based thermal power plants releasing sulphur upon combustion, is the biggest contributor to sulphur dioxide emissions. SO2 is the main pollutant that causes acid rain, sulphur reacts with water and oxygen present in the atmosphere to form sulphuric acid which is the main component of acid rain. 
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  • Nitrogen Oxides (NOx): The biggest source of Nitrogen oxides is transport: NOx is emitted from the exhaust of cars and trucks. It is followed by the burning of coal and gas for electricity production. NOx can be acutely toxic, inflaming the lungs.
  • Black Carbon: Black carbon is the soot that fills our skies and lungs. It is a big problem in lower-income countries where people rely on burning biomass and charcoal for cooking and openly burning waste. 
  • Methane: Methane is a potent greenhouse gas, its global warming potential is greater than that of Carbon dioxide. Methane is produced when organic material, such as food waste, rots in conditions without much oxygen (a landfill). Agriculture is the biggest source of methane. The other sector that contributes a lot is waste. 
  • Ammonia: Studies show ammonia (NH3) could drive up to 3,85,000 premature deaths from particulate matter. Nearly all human emissions of NH3 come from agriculture.
  • Non-methane volatile organic compounds: Non-methane volatile organic compounds can be directly toxic and mix with other gases to form ozone and small particulates. Unlike most other pollutants, solvents such as paints, cleaning products, and chemical plants are also major sources. 

Also Read: Impacts of Air Pollution

 

Quantum Gravity Gradiometer

Context: NASA scientists have proposed that an advanced quantum gravity gradiometer (QGG) could be placed onboard a satellite and launched into low-earth orbit. The instrument could study small changes in the earth’s distribution of water, ice, and rocks to inform studies of climate change. 

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: key facts about Quantum Gravity Gradiometer and its Application. 

Variation of Gravitational Force:

  • Gravitational force on the Earth’s surface is non-uniform. The amount of gravitational force one experiences on the earth’s surface depends on the amount of mass nearby. 
  • The force is directly proportional to the mass. Force equals to Mass multiplied by its Acceleration (F = m · a).
  • This difference in force between two places is too small and requires the most sensitive instruments for its detection. One such instrument is the gravity gradiometer.

Quantum Gravity Gradiometer

  • Quantum Gravity Gradiometer is a highly-sensitive instrument that can detect minute variations in Earth's gravitational field by harnessing the principles of quantum mechanics. 

Working of QGG

  • QGG uses ulta-cooled rubidium atoms (cooled to near absolute zero) in vacuum. These ultra-cooled atoms behave like waves, and are manipulated by lasers. 
  • The atoms experience a phase shift that is directly proportional to the strength of the gravitational force acting on them. The shift is extremely sensitive. 
  • By using a pair of such setups (say 1 meter apart), a QGG can detect a difference in acceleration as low as 10⁻¹⁵ m/s² across a distance of 1 m on the Earth’s surface. 

Potential Applications of Quantum Gravity Gradiometer

  • Oil and gas exploration: Locating Hydrocarbon deposits and accessing their distribution underground (gravity gradiometer can be used to understand the density of the ground at various depths).
  • Aquifer mapping: Detect seasonal changes in water levels in aquifers, track depletion of water tables. 
  • Climate studies: Detect small changes in the earth’s distribution of water, ice, and rocks to conduct informed studies of climate change, and enhance disaster resilience. 
  • National security: Detects underground construction of bunkers, tunnels etc. by detecting the density anomaly. 

Quantum sensors promise enhanced sensitivity 10 times more than classical sensors for measuring gravity.

Surat Emissions Trading Scheme

Context: Experimental Evidence from the World's first market for trading in particulate matter emissions established in Surat, Gujarat has found that it has reduced pollution by up to 30% among participating industries, and also lowered the abatement costs.

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: Key facts about Emissions trading scheme (ETS).

Mains: How trading in particulate emissions work?

Emissions Trading Scheme

  • Emissions trading scheme (ETS) or market is a regulatory tool to cut greenhouse gas emissions, while providing industries with financial incentives to comply with norms and to get them to invest in cleaner technology.
  • It is commonly referred to as ‘cap-and-trade’ to emission markets.

How does Emissions Trading Scheme work?

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  • Cap Setting: Under ETS, regulators set a cap or a limit on the total emissions load that can be released into the air. 
  • Permit Allocation: Instead of enforcement through fines or show-cause notices, industries are given emissions permits or allowances, which can be traded among them to meet compliance. Each permit allows industries to release a specific quantity of pollution into the air, such as a kilogram of particulate matter pollution or a ton of carbon dioxide. 
  • Trading Mechanism: Plants with pollution-reducing technology save their permits and sell them to those who might need them to make up for their compliance gap. This way, plants with fewer resources get time to gradually shift to cleaner technology, while complying with a cap, and others earn through trading. A minimum floor price and maximum ceiling price are usually set to maintain stability and to keep the scheme attractive.
  • Compliance Monitoring: Industries that breach emission caps are penalised, usually on a per tonne cost basis. In some instances, they also have to surrender their permits. To ensure that emissions are reduced, regulators tighten emission caps and issue fewer permits as the ETS matures.
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Surat Emissions Trading Scheme:  

  • Launched in: 2019.
  • It is the world's first ETS targeting particulate matter (PM).
  • The scheme was designed and developed by the Gujarat Pollution Control Board (GPCB), J-PAL, EPIC-India, and Yale University
  • The initiative represents a shift in India’s environmental governance from command-and-control models to market-based instruments.

How does the Surat ETS work ?

  • Cap: Initial cap on emissions was 280 tons/month of suspended particulate matter (SPM) which was later revised to 170 tons/month after real-time emission data was analysed through Continuous Emission Monitoring Systems (CEMS).
  • Permit: Each permit was equal to 1 kg of particulate matter emissions, and these permits were only valid during one compliance cycle which lasted 4 to 6 weeks. 80% permits are allocated for free, based on historical emissions and plant capacity while 20% permits are auctioned through a uniform price discovery mechanism.
  • Auction: A uniform price auction is conducted at the start of each cycle. Buyers and sellers submit bids, and a single clearing price is discovered. Permit prices were limited to between Rs 5 per kg (floor price) and Rs 100 per kg (ceiling price).  
  • Compliance: At the end of a compliance period, industries with sufficient permits to meet their emissions targets are said to comply. Plants posted a bond known as an Environmental Damage Compensation Deposit before the market began. Plants with insufficient permits were fined twice the ceiling price for every unit of emissions above their permits, the study stated. This fine is deducted from the bond.

Significance: It resulted in a 20–30% reduction in particulate pollution, demonstrating a cost-effective, flexible, and scalable alternative to conventional regulation.

Limitations: 

However, this approach suffers from three critical limitations : 

  • Resource Constraints: With thousands of polluting units and limited regulatory manpower, real-time monitoring and enforcement are often ineffective and delayed.
  • Uniform Compliance Burden: All industries regardless of their size, technological capacity, or financial strength are subject to the same norms, leading to disproportionate challenges for smaller or less-resourced units.
  • Regulatory Rigidity: There is little scope for flexibility or innovation. Compliance is rule-based rather than outcome-oriented, and often imposes high transaction costs.

ETS attempt to address these monitoring and enforcement gaps by bringing in more flexibility, and offering incentives for compliance.

India aims to deepen local value addition in Electronics Manufacturing

Context: After achieving success in localising smartphone assembly for domestic use and limited exports, the government now aims to boost local value addition to deepen electronics manufacturing.

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: India Semiconductor Mission; Electronics Components Manufacturing Scheme.

Mains: Need to boost local value addition in electronics manufacturing and government efforts in this direction.

State of Electronics Manufacturing in India

  • India’s current domestic value addition in electronics manufacturing is estimated at 15-20% (China’s value addition is around 38%).
  • India’s trade deficit with China reached an all-time high in 2024-25, nearing $100 billion. The majority of critical components such as chips, camera modules, PCBs, and passive components continue to be imported, primarily from China.
  • India’s current electronics manufacturing value is $120 billion, and the government aims to scale this up to $500 billion in the coming years. India aims at building a domestic supply chain for core components like chips, camera modules, PCBs, and passive components.

Government Initiatives

To bridge this gap, the Government of India has launched several strategic subsidy schemes and policy interventions: 

  • India Semiconductor Mission (Rs 76,000 crore): Focused on fabrication and packaging of semiconductors, which are the heart of any electronic device.
  • Electronics Components Manufacturing Scheme (~Rs 23,000 crore): Aimed at boosting local production of smaller yet critical components like resistors, capacitors, inductors, etc.
  • PLI schemes for Smartphones and Laptops: Provide incentives to companies for manufacturing in India, based on incremental sales.

Electronics Components Manufacturing Scheme

  • The government has launched a Rs 23000 crore incentive scheme aimed at boosting local manufacturing of essential electronics components.
    • Earlier PLI schemes were successful in localising assembly, but core components continued to be imported, mostly from China. 
  • It aims to develop arobust component ecosystem by:
    • attracting large investments (global/domestic) in the electronics component manufacturing ecosystem
    • increasing Domestic Value Addition by developing capacity
    • integrating Indian companies with Global Value Chains.
  • The scheme targets manufacturing of a wide range of critical components, such as Display modules, Camera sub-assemblies, Printed Circuit Board Assemblies (PCBAs), Lithium battery enclosures, Passive components like resistors, capacitors, and ferrites.
  • Implementation period: over six years.
  • Expected outcomes:
    • Create at least 91,600 direct jobs with subsidies linked to employment generation, encouraging companies to invest in human capital.
    • Result in Rs 4.56 lakh crore worth of electronics production and move toward export-led growth.
    • Likely to attract incremental investment of over Rs 59,000 crore, strengthening India’s industrial base.

Evaluation of PLI Schemes

  • Launched in 2020, the PLI schemes aim to boost domestic manufacturing by offering financial incentives linked to incremental sales. 
  • It targeted 14 sectors, including smartphones, IT hardware, pharmaceuticals, automotive, etc.
  • The smartphone PLI scheme has been one of the most successful with:
    • Investment: Rs 10,905 crore
    • Production output: Rs 7.15 lakh crore
    • Exports: Rs 3.9 lakh crore
    • Jobs created: ~ 1.4 lakh direct jobs
  • As the PLI schemes approach sunset (1–3 years left), the government is reassessing their design and impact. So far, incentives are based only on incremental sales. Now, the government is considering broader metrics like
    • Domestic value addition (i.e., how much of the product is made locally, rather than assembled from imported parts)
    • Incremental exports and to promote India as a global manufacturing hub. 

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