Prelims Nuggets

What is the concept of Safe Harbour?

Context: The Union Ministry of Information and Broadcasting is reconsidering the concept of safe harbour for social media platforms to combat the issue of “fake news” online.

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: Concept of Safe Harbour clause.

Mains: Issues related to protecting freedom of speech in digital media.

What is Safe Harbour?

Safe harbour is a legal concept that protects individual websites that allow third party users to share content from legal liability for any unlawful posts. The safe harbour protects the sites from any criminal action for third party content hosted by them.
The Section 79 of the Information Technology Act, 2000 grants intermediaries safe harbour in India. However, the protections are given with some conditions.
- If an intermediary receives “actual knowledge” of illegal content on their website, and they do not take the content down within a certain time period, they would lose the liability protections under Section 79.
- As per the Supreme Court of India, the “actual knowledge” means a court order or government notification.

Significance of Safe Harbour clause:

It aims to encourage innovation online and prevent website owners from being unfairly hounded for content they had no hand in publishing.
Without safe harbour protections, online intermediaries could face tremendous consequences for illegal content. E.g., In 2004, the then head of the website eBay in India was arrested because of a user listing of a disk containing child sex abuse material for sale.

How are intermediary liability protections regulated in India?

While safe harbour does have the conditions described above, the Information Technology (Intermediary Guidelines and Digital Media Ethics Code) Rules, 2021 puts in place additional conditions for platforms to retain protection from intermediary liability. These include:
- Social media firms need to have a nodal officer, a grievance officer resident in India.
- The firms need to periodically submit reports of complaints they receive on content, and action taken against them for this.
Different parts of the IT Rules have been challenged in courts in the last few years.
- E.g., the Information Technology (Intermediary Guidelines and Digital Media Ethics Code) Amendment Rules, 2023 contained provisions that would strip safe harbour from sites for content that has been notified as “fake news” by the Press Information Bureau’s Fact Check Unit.
- That amendment was immediately challenged in the Bombay High Court. Petitioners accused the government of exceeding its authority by designating a Fact Check Unit that could be an arbiter of truth, and putting pressure on social media companies to take content down without following the longer process of sending a notice to users whose content is being removed.
- In 2024, the Bombay High Court struck down the amended Information Technology (IT) Rules, by calling the amendment “unconstitutional”.

Also Read: Bombay HC strikes down Centre’s Fact Check Unit

Why is the government considering amending the Safe Harbour clause?

The government has accused foreign social media platforms (E.g., X) of flouting Indian laws and acting too slowly on takedown notices. Hence, the government aims to amend safe harbour in order to make platforms more proactive in governing their sites, not just for misinformation, but also for AI-generated deepfakes, cyberfrauds etc.
The Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology is in the process of drafting a Digital India Act (DIA) that would incorporate these changes. However, the outlines of how safe harbour would change under this proposed law have not yet been revealed.

Tapti Basin Mega Recharge Project

Context: Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra have signed an MoU to jointly implement the Tapti Basin Mega Recharge Project. It is aimed at enhancing regional water security by using Tapti river water for drinking and irrigation needs in both states.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts related to Tapti Basin Mega Recharge Project.

Tapti Basin Mega Recharge Project

The project is described as one of the largest water recharge projects globally with no displacement involved.
Water from the Tapti river will be diverted to cater to:
- drinking water needs of north-eastern Maharashtra, including Nagpur.
- provide irrigation support to southern and south-eastern districts of Madhya Pradesh such as Burhanpur and Khandwa.
Total planned utilisation of water under the scheme stands at 31.13 thousand million cubic feet (TMC), with 11.76 TMC allocated to MP and 19.36 TMC to Maharashtra.
Centre is expected to fund 90% of the project cost and the proposals will be submitted to classify it as a national water project.
This is the third major river-linking initiative undertaken by the Madhya Pradesh government in the past year, following the Ken-Betwa link project with Uttar Pradesh and the Parvati-Kalisindh-Chambal link project with Rajasthan.

About Tapti River:

Tapti or Tapi river is one of the major west-flowing rivers.
Origin: Multai in Betul district, Madhya Pradesh.
States Covered: Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Gujarat.
Major Tributaries of Tapti are:
- Right Bank: Vaghur, Bori, Purna
- Left Bank: Aner, Girna, Panjhra
Important cities along the river: Burhanpur (MP), Jalgaon (Maharashtra), Surat (Gujarat)
Dams and Projects: Ukai Dam (Gujarat), Hathnur Dam (Maharashtra)

States cannot be compelled to adopt National Education Policy: SC

Context: The Supreme Court has dismissed a petition seeking the implementation of the National Education Policy (NEP) in Tamil Nadu, West Bengal, and Kerala citing that it cannot compel any state to adopt NEP 2020.

While the Centre claims that the NEP promotes multilingualism, Tamil Nadu argues that it puts unfair pressure on non-Hindi-speaking states.

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: Key facts about National Education Policy 2020.

Mains: Debate surrounding three language formula in NEP.

Major Highlights:

The SC has stated that the court does not have the power to compel a state to follow a central policy like the National Education Policy 2020. Under Article 32 of Indian Constitution, the court can only intervene when there is a violation of fundamental rights due to the policy’s implementation.

Key Facts

Education is on the Concurrent list of Schedule 7 of Indian Constitution, enabling both the Centre as well as the states to enact laws. The 42nd Constitutional Amendment moved education from the State List to the Concurrent List.
The Right of Education Act, under Article 21A, makes education a fundamental right of every child between the ages of 6-14 and specifies minimum norms in elementary schools.
Article 32 of Indian Constitution grants every individual the right to move the Supreme Court for the enforcement of their fundamental rights.
The NEP 2020 is the latest education policy in India (after NEP 1986). It is founded on the five guiding pillars of Access, Equity, Quality, Affordability and Accountability. It proposes various reforms in school education as well as higher education including technical education.

Read More- National Education Policy 2020: National Education Policy 2020

India warns of Retaliation if UK imposes Carbon Tax Under CBAM

Context: India has strongly opposed the UK’s proposed Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM), citing that it reserves the right to retaliate if the UK proceeds without granting fair exemptions to Indian exporters.

Relevance of the Topic Prelims : key facts related to carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM) Mains : Impact of CBAM on Indian exports.

Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM)

CBAM is a policy tool introduced by the European Union to ensure that imported goods are subject to the same carbon costs as products produced within the EU.
It aims to prevent "carbon leakage," where companies shift production to countries with lower carbon standards to avoid carbon costs.
The United Kingdom, though no longer part of the EU, is now planning its own version of CBAM, which has sparked fresh trade tensions with India. It is expected to start from January 1, 2027.

Also Read: Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism

Impact of CBAM on Indian Exports:

Reduce price competitiveness: Carbon tax on carbon intensive goods (steel, aluminium, cement, and fertilisers etc.) imported from India will make Indian goods more expensive than local or other compliant imports reducing price Competitiveness
Undermines FTA benefits: While the FTA might reduce or eliminate tariffs, Indian exports could still face hefty carbon taxes, potentially far exceeding the UK’s current average tariff rate of under 2%.
Burden on MSMEs: MSMEs often lack the resources to measure and report carbon emissions, making CBAM compliance costly and potentially forcing them out of export markets.

India’s Response

India has labelled the CBAM as an unfair measure and a violation of the "common but differentiated responsibilities" (CBDR) principle.
- CBDR principle is a multilateral climate negotiations which says developed and developing countries should not be treated the same when it comes to climate responsibilities. Developed nations, having polluted more historically, must bear a greater responsibility.

India had requested the UK for Special treatment for Indian MSMEs under CBAM and a ‘rebalancing mechanism’ – a clause in the trade deal that would compensate Indian exporters if they suffer losses due to this tax. However the UK remains unwilling to grant any concession under CBAM.
India inserted a clause related to rebalancing inside the “General Exceptions” chapter of the trade agreement draft. In global trade rules (like WTO’s GATT agreement), this chapter says a country can take actions that normally break trade rules, if it is doing so to protect the environment or public health.
So, this protects India from legal trouble at the WTO, if it takes action against the UK’s carbon tax.

Also Read: India and UK conclude Free Trade Agreement

India must negotiate with UK firmly to ensure that market access gained through tariff elimination is not undermined by other barriers.

RBI relaxes FPI investment limit in Corporate Debt Securities

Context: The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) has relaxed norms for foreign portfolio investors (FPIs) investing in corporate debt securities through the general route.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts related to FPI norms.

Major Highlights:

Foreign Portfolio Investors (FPIs) in corporate debt securities will no longer be required to adhere to the short-term investment and concentration limits. The decision, effective immediately, aims to provide greater ease of investment for FPIs.

Earlier Regulations

Short-term investment limit: FPIs were restricted from investing more than 30% of their total investment in corporate debt securities with residual maturity up to one year.
Concentration limit: For long-term FPIs, investment in a single corporate issuer could not exceed 15% of their corporate bond portfolio. For other FPIs, this limit was 10%.

Now both these limits have been withdrawn. FPIs can now invest more freely in corporate debt securities, without being constrained by maturity or issuer concentration limits. This relaxation comes in the backdrop of the financial markets facing volatility due to geopolitical tensions and tariff wars.

Corporate Debt Securities:

Financial instruments issued by companies to raise funds from investors. In return the companies offer the investors regular interest payments and the return of principal at maturity. E.g., Corporate bonds, debentures, Non-Convertible debentures, Commercial Papers etc.

Significance of the Reforms:

Liberalise India’s debt market: It is a major step toward liberalising India's debt market.
Retention of foreign capital: It gives more options to FPIs to park the proceeds from their sale in the equity markets in corporate debt securities at attractive interest rates without having to immediately repatriate the proceeds.
Diversification of Investor base: Attracts a wider range of global institutional investors, reducing dependence on domestic funding sources.
Improve Market liquidity: Eased investment norms are likely to increase demand for corporate debt instruments, thereby improving market liquidity, reducing cost of capital for firms, and promoting financial deepening.

Challenges

Despite these changes, foreign investors might still hesitate to invest more due to two key reasons:

1. Narrowing US-India 10-Year Yield Spread:

The 10-year yield spread is the difference between the interest rates (yields) on Indian government bonds and US government bonds.
A higher spread means Indian bonds offer better returns compared to US bonds, which attracts foreign investors.
Currently, this spread has narrowed to around 200 basis points (2%), meaning the extra return from Indian bonds is less attractive. This reduces the incentive for FPIs to take the additional risk of investing in India.

2. External Risk Factors:

External Risk Factors like geopolitical tensions, US Federal Reserve interest rate changes etc. These risks can make investors risk-averse, leading them to prefer safer assets in developed countries.

While the reforms create better long-term conditions for corporate bond market growth, meaningful FPI inflows may only materialise when yields are attractive.

CCI notifies New Definitions to curb Predatory Pricing

Context: The Competition Commission of India (CCI) has notified the CCI (Determination of Cost of Production) Regulations, 2025, by repealing the previous Cost Regulations 2009. The move aims to restrict deep discounting practices and provide clarity in digital market regulation.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts related to Predatory Pricing and Cost Regulations 2025.

Major Highlights:

CCI introduces stringent rules to curb predatory pricing in e-commerce, removing market value as a benchmark and revising cost definitions.
CCI has issued new rules to define how it will calculate the cost of a product or service in order to determine if a company is engaging in predatory pricing or not.

What is Predatory Pricing?

Under Section 4 of the Competition Act, 2002, predatory pricing is defined as the sale of goods or provision of services at a price below the cost of production, with a view to reduce competition or eliminate competitors.
Competition law prohibits predatory pricing as an abusive conduct by a dominant enterprise.

Cost Regulations 2025

The Cost Regulations 2025 establish a sector-agnostic, cost-based framework that is flexible and adaptable to various industries, including the digital economy.

New cost definitions: The cost of a product or service is now defined as its Average Variable Cost (AVC). Average variable cost is the total variable cost divided by total output during a particular period. Here, the total variable cost refers to the total cost (including everything that goes into the production of that good or service) minus the fixed cost and fixed overheads attributable to the product.
No sector-specific metrics: The CCI decided to avoid using sector-specific definitions of cost, and instead has decided to view them on a case-by-case basis, enabling the commission to consider the unique features and evolving dynamics of digital markets when evaluating alleged predatory conduct.
Market value not accepted as cost benchmark: It was suggested that CCI should consider market price instead of internal costs to judge predatory pricing, especially in industries with unusual pricing models. But as per CCI, the market price is not a true measure of cost, and it will continue using actual production costs for assessment, as this is more accurate and globally accepted.

This reform not only reinforces regulatory fairness but also promotes healthy market competition, benefiting consumers and new entrants alike.

National Scheme for Upgradation of ITIs

Context: The Union Cabinet has approved the scheme for upgradation of 1,000 government Industrial Training Institutes (ITIs), and the setting up of five National Centers of Excellence (NCOE) as a Centrally Sponsored Scheme for transforming vocational education in India.

Relevance of the Topic:Prelims: Key facts about National Scheme for Upgradation of ITIs and setting up of National Centres of Excellence.

National Scheme for Upgradation of ITIs and setting up of National Centres of Excellence:

Initiative of:
Centrally Sponsored Scheme.
Outlay: Rs. 60,000 crore (Central Share: Rs 30,000 crore, State Share: Rs 20,000 crore and Industry Share: Rs 10,000 crore). Additionally, 50% of the central share will be co-financed equally by the Asian Development Bank and the World Bank.
The scheme will focus on:
- Upgradation of 1,000 Government ITIs in hub and spoke arrangement with industry aligned revamped trades (courses)
- Capacity Augmentation of 5 National Skill Training Institutes (NSTIs) and setting up of 5 National Centres of Excellence for Skilling in these institutes.

Key Focus Areas:

Position existing ITIs as government-owned, industry-managed aspirational institutes of skills, in collaboration with State Governments and industry.
Adopt an industry-led Special Purpose Vehicle (SPV) model for an outcome-driven implementation strategy, making it distinct from previous efforts to improve the ITI ecosystem.
Skill 20 lakh youth through industry-aligned training programs over a five-year period. Ensure alignment between local workforce supply and industry demand, thereby facilitating industries, including MSMEs, in accessing employment-ready workers.
Strengthen Training of Trainers by upgrading infrastructure in the five NSTIs and offering pre-service and in-service training to 50,000 trainers. This is to enhance the quality and consistency of vocational education.

Background: Need for upgrading Industrial Training Institutes (ITIs):

ITIs have been the backbone of vocational education and training in India, operating under State Governments. ITI network has expanded by nearly 47% since 2014, reaching over 14,600 across India, with over 14 lakh enrolment. However, vocational training via ITIs has suffered from lack of systemic interventions to improve their infrastructure, course contents, and remains less aspirational.
India has only 42% of Indian graduates considered employable. Hence there is an urgent need for aligned government, academia, and industry action. By upgrading ITIs and embedding on-the-job learning, soft skills, and future capabilities like green and digital skills, India can unlock its talent potential.

The schemes are a significant step towards revamping vocational education and bridging the critical skill-employability gap across sectors.

Climate Change is disrupting the Human Gut

Context: As per the latest research, climate-driven food shortage and undernourishment could affect the composition of the human gut microbiota, exacerbating the effects of climate change on human health.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts related to gut bacteria; Impacts of Climate Change.

Microbiota in Human Gut

The human gut is home to around 100 trillion microbes like bacteria, fungi, and viruses- mostly bacteria. The collective genetic material of these microbes (known as gut microbiome) contains over 100 times more genes than the human genome.
These microbes produce thousands of chemicals (metabolites) that support- digestion and nutrient absorption, immune system regulation, blood sugar and metabolic balance and protection against harmful pathogens.
A healthy gut depends on a balanced relationship between beneficial and harmful bacteria.
- Good bacteria help break down food, produce vitamins, and protect against harmful invaders.
- Bad bacteria, when overgrown, can cause inflammation, infections, or disease. A healthy gut depends on a balanced relationship between these beneficial and harmful bacteria.

However, climate change is now threatening this balance with long-term implications for public health.

Impacts of Climate Change on Gut Microbiota and Population:

1. Nutritional Disruptions and Microbial Imbalance:

Climate change is adversely affecting the yield and nutritional quality of crops and animal-based food sources. High atmospheric carbon dioxide levels can diminish the quantity of plant micronutrients like phosphorus, potassium, zinc, and iron, along with protein concentrations in vital crops such as wheat, maize, and rice.
This reduction compromises the nutritional intake necessary for maintaining microbial diversity in the gut, potentially leading to gut dysbiosis or microbiota dysbiosis - the imbalance in gut microbial population.

Microbiota Dysbiosis can lead to dysregulation of bodily functions and diseases such as:

2. Rising Heat and Disease Burden:

Foodborne and waterborne infectious diseases and malnutrition increase with heat. These diseases further disturb gut microbiota and worsen the burden of malnutrition and gastrointestinal illnesses, especially in vulnerable populations like children and the elderly.

3. Vulnerability of LMICs and Indigenous Communities:

Low- and middle-income countries (LMICs), are particularly vulnerable, as these regions face the brunt of climate stressors, including higher temperature and atmospheric carbon dioxide, which affect their agricultural output and make nutrient deficiencies more common.
Indigenous peoples often rely on local and traditional food sources and exhibit high gut microbial diversity. Climate-induced changes in ecosystems threaten these food systems, potentially reducing microbial diversity and thus impacting their health disproportionately.

The Challenge: Limited understanding of Gut Microbiome

However our understanding of the gut microbiota’s role in human health is still evolving.

While the gut microbiome is critical to health, its connection to climate change is still poorly understood. Many gut health studies do not yet account for environmental factors like pollution, rising heat, or changing crop patterns.
Moreover, individual gut microbiomes are unique, making it difficult to predict how each person will respond to climate-induced changes in diet or disease exposure.

Way Forward

Need for Multidisciplinary and Global Research: Scientists are calling for more collaboration across fields- nutrition, climate science, public health, and microbiology to study how environmental changes affect the gut.
Advances in computational biology and metagenomics (the study of microbial genes) are helping scientists better understand gut microbes. Tools like GutBugBD, an open-access database from India, allow researchers to track how gut microbes interact with food and drugs. These developments could lead to personalised treatments using probiotics and nutraceuticals to restore gut balance.

What are Harop Drones?

Context: Indian armed forces reportedly deployed Israeli-origin Harop drones to carry out precision strikes on air defence systems in Pakistan as part of their ongoing 'Operation Sindoor'.

Relevance of the Topic:Prelims: Key facts about HAROP Drone.

About Harop Drone

Developed by: Israel Aerospace Industries (IAI).
It is a loitering munition - a cross between a drone (UAV) and a missile. This category of weapons loiter in the air close to the designated target.
It is capable of independently identifying and destroying high-value targets, particularly radar systems and air defence platforms.
The drones are launched from canister-based systems mounted on mobile ground vehicles or naval platforms, making them deployable across diverse terrains and suitable for fast, targeted strikes.
Designed for deep precision attacks, the Harop can loiter over target zones for up to 9 hours using an electro-optic seeker to locate, identify, and strike from multiple angles.
They cause destruction by crashing into their targets with the explosive payload that they carry, earning names such as “suicide drones” and “kamikaze drones”.
Its immunity to satellite jamming (GNSS) and real-time human oversight give it both autonomy and flexibility in complex battlefield environments.

Harop does not only eliminate terror infrastructure but is also capable of degrading Pakistan’s defensive capabilities to prevent further incursions.

How Air Defence Systems work?

Context: India’s Air Defence Systems have been instrumental in thwarting Pakistani aerial attacks along the western border, amid the ongoing India-Pakistan face-off. Controlling the skies is of paramount importance in modern warfare, and thus air defence systems are vital.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims & Mains: India’s Air Defence Systems: Types and Working.

What is the Air Defence System?

The primary objective of Air Defence Systems is to eliminate threats from the sky- be it enemy fighter aircraft, unmanned drones, or missiles. A capable and operational air defence system offers protection against enemy air strikes.
This is done with the help of a complex system of radar, control centres, defensive fighter aircraft, and ground-based air defence missile, artillery, and electronic warfare systems.

How do Air Defence Systems work?

An air defence system can be sub-categorised into three interlinked operations.

1. Detection:

The ability to detect threats in the first place, is the key to the success of any air defence system. This is typically done by radar. In some cases, such as an enemy launching an Intercontinental Ballistic Missile (ICBM), satellites may be used for detection.
Radar sends out beams of electromagnetic radio waves through a transmitter. These waves are reflected by the objects that they hit (such as an enemy aircraft). A receiver then collects the returning radio waves. Based on which, the radar is able to interfere with the distance of the threat, its speed, and its specific nature (what kind of aircraft/ missile).

2. Tracking:

The efficiency of an air defence system is also determined by its ability to constantly and accurately track an aerial threat. This is typically done using a combination of radar and other sensors such as infrared cameras or laser rangefinders.
The air defence system has to identify and track multiple, fast-moving threats in complex and cluttered environments, which may also include friendly aircraft.
The accuracy of tracking is crucial for effectively neutralising the enemy without targeting false threats.

3. Interception:

Once the threat has been detected and tracked, it must be neutralised. The specifics of the threat, i.e., its range, type (what kind of missile/ aircraft), speed, etc., determine the ways in which air defences work.

All these three aspects of an air defence system have to work together as a whole. This is called C3 or a “command, control and communication” system in military parlance.

To establish air superiority over enemy territory, the enemy’s air defence systems have to be neutralised. Suppression of Enemy Air Defences (SEAD) operations target enemy air defences with missiles, EW, bombs, UAVs or even ground attacks.

How are Targets Intercepted?

Depending on the challenges they foresee, nations utilise a wide assortment of weapons to neutralise aerial threats. These include the following:

1. Fighter Aircraft:

Interceptors are fighters that take on attacking enemy aircraft, especially bombers. These agile aircraft can be scrambled at a moment’s notice, and they climb quickly to altitude and neutralise an enemy aircraft before it deploys its weapons.
Interceptors are equipped for air-to-air combat with cannon, rockets, a suite of visual-range and beyond-visual-range missiles, and electronic warfare systems.
Aircraft such as MiG-21 (an upgraded variant of which is still in service with the Indian Air Force) were dedicated interceptors; latest fighter aircraft have multirole capabilities.
India can deploy Sukhoi Su-35s, MiG-29s, HAL Tejas, Mig-21 Bisons, and Dassault Rafales for interceptor missions.

2. Surface-To-Air Missiles (SAMs):

SAMs can be used to target enemy fighters, helicopters, and missiles. They are generally radar-guided, infrared-guided, or laser-guided.
In addition to being operated from the ground, SAMs can also be launched from ships. The three unofficial classes of SAMs are:
- Heavy long-range systems which are fixed or semi-mobile
- Medium-range vehicle-mounted systems that can fire on the move
- Short-range man-portable air-defense systems (or MANPADS).
India’s arsenal of SAMs include: indigenously-developed medium-range Akash missiles, the medium-to-long range Barak missiles, and the long-range S-400 missiles.

Types of SAMs: Each SAM class has a different function:

Heaviest SAMs: Russian-made S-400 system used by India take on enemy ballistic missiles or aircraft at long range of up to 400 kilometres.
Medium range SAMs have the capability to hit targets in the 50-100 km range but are more mobile, and can be launched in next-to-no time. E.g., Akash Missile System; Akash-NG (New Generation); Barak-8.
MANPADS are used for low-lying targets such as hovering helicopters or drones, or fixed-wing aircraft engaged in ground attack roles. These are far more cost-effective than the other classes, and are also used by non-state actors in unconventional warfare.

3. Anti-Aircraft Artillery (AAA):

Augmented with automated fire-control systems, they remain crucial last-ditch defences, and are also used for specialised anti-unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) roles.
AAA fire shells rapidly, at rates of over 1,000 rounds per minute. AAA shells are designed to explode at pre-determined altitudes so as to disperse shrapnel over a wide area. This makes an AAA battery effective even if it does not achieve a direct hit.

4. Electronic Warfare (EW):

EW systems are designed to disrupt, deceive, or destroy threats using the power of the electromagnetic spectrum.
EW is most often used to jam enemy radar and targeting systems, so as to impede its ability to accurately and effectively deploy its weapon. EW can confuse attack drones or prevent enemy air-to-surface missiles from homing in on targets.
E.g.,
- DRDO’s Netra AEW&C (Airborne Early Warning & Control).
- DRDO’s Advanced Electronic Warfare Suite 'Shakti' for Indian Naval Ships.

Also Read: S-400 Missile System: India's Sudarshan Chakra

Establishing air superiority allows an Air Force to operate with a degree of impunity, and without fear of attrition in bombing, tactical air support, paratroop insertion, or supply-drop missions.

Rohingyas need to be deported if held Foreigners: SC

Context: Recently, the Supreme Court observed that if the Rohingya refugees are found to be ‘foreigners’ under the Foreigners Act, the Central government can deport them in accordance with the procedure under the law.

Relevance of the Topic: Mains: Ethics and status of refugees in India, including citizenship issues.

The Recent ruling of Supreme Court:

Though the right to life and due process (Article 21) and the right to equality (Article 14) of the Constitution are available to all (citizens as well as non-citizens in India), the fundamental right to reside or settle in any part of India under Article 19(1)(e) is only available to Indian citizens.
As the Rohingyas do not have a right to settle in India, they will be deported as per the procedure prescribed in law.

India’s stand on Rohingya Refugees

Rohingyas faced genocide in the Myanmar’s Rakhine region, and now constitute the world’s largest stateless population in the world.

India is not a signatory to the UN Convention on Refugees (UNHCR). India is not a party to the key International instruments such as:
- Conventions against Torture and other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment.
- International Convention for the Protection of all Persons from Enforced Disappearance.
Therefore, India maintains no legal obligations to provide asylum and adhere to the Policy of Non-Refoulement. Policy of Non-refoulement prohibits returning individuals to places where they face persecution, torture, or serious harm, protecting refugee and human rights.
India categorises Rohingya refugees as Illegal Migrants. India continues to detain Rohingya refugees under the domestic acts like:
- The Foreigners Act, 1946 regulates the entry, stay, and departure of foreigners in India, along with deportation of the illegal migrants in India.
- The Passport Act, 1967 governs the issuance and regulation of passports in India.
The government under the Foreigners Act has the absolute and unlimited powers to issue orders to “prohibit, regulate, restrict entry or departure of foreigners”, especially when national security concerns are at play.

Also Read: India’s obligations towards Rohingya Refugees

India’s Precision-guided Long Range Weapons

Context: Amid ongoing India-Pakistan face-off, India is using new-age weapons to carry-out precision strikes to hit terrorist infrastructure inside Pakistan and in Pakistan-occupied Kashmir (PoK).

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Precision-guided Long Range Weapons.

India’s Precision-guided Long Range Weapons

Indian military has built up a formidable arsenal of new-age weapons that includes a range of precision-guided long-range weapons and drones, including loitering munitions. Some examples include:

1. HAMMER (Highly Agile and Manoeuvrable Munition Extended Range):

Air-to-ground precision-guided weapon system for the Rafale fighter aircraft.
Built by: Safran Group, France
Range of up to 70 km. Integrated with Rafale fighter Aircraft.
Autonomous guidance system (Inertial Navigation System (INS), Global Positioning System (GPS) and laser).
Used for precision strikes against a range of targets in medium-range tactical operations.
Can be launched from low altitude over rough terrain.
Can also be fitted to bombs and various guided systems.
All-weather and insensitive to jamming.

2. SCALP (SCALP-EG or Storm Shadow):

Air-launched cruise missile designed for long-range deep strikes.
Manufactured by: MBDA (European multinational group)
Range of 450 km. Has stealth features. Can be operated at night and in all weather conditions.
Integrated with Rafale fighter Aircraft.
Difficult to detect due to its low-flying capability when fired from an aircraft. Can penetrate bunkers and ammunition stores.
Has advanced and highly accurate navigation system, which uses Inertial Navigation System (INS), Global Positioning System (GPS) and terrain referencing.

3. METEOR:

Beyond Visual Range Air-to-Air Missile (BVRAAM) system designed to deliver unmatched performance in complex electronic-warfare environments.
Manufactured by: MBDA (European multinational group)
Equipped with a solid-fuel ramjet engine. Sustains thrust throughout the flight, unlike conventional rocket-powered missiles.
Offers the largest ‘No Escape Zone’ of any air-to-air missile system (i.e., a much greater area within which the target cannot evade the missile).
Range over 100 kilometres. Integrated into Rafale aircrafts. Highly resistant to jamming.

4. BRAHMOS:

Supersonic cruise missiles built by BrahMos Aerospace, a joint venture between India’s Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) and Russia’s NPO Mashinostroyeniya.
Range: ~450 km (earlier 290 km)
Operates at close to Mach 3 speed in the cruise phase, which ensures reduced flight time, lower dispersion of targets, and quicker engagement time and non-interception.
Operates on a ‘Fire and Forget Principle’, adopting varieties of flights on its way to the target.
Terminal Altitude: 10- 15 km
The missile carries a conventional warhead weighing 200-300 kg.

5. Loitering Munitions:

Used for surveillance and identification of targets.
Can carry out precision strikes, autonomously or otherwise.
Range: 30-100 km
E.g., SkyStriker (Israeli-origin)