Prelims Nuggets

Aircraft Accident Investigation Bureau

Context: The Aircraft Accident Investigation Bureau (AAIB) released a preliminary report on the deadly Air India flight crash in Ahmedabad. The report stated that the two engine fuel control switches onboard transitioned from ‘RUN’ to ‘CUTOFF’ position within a second of each other, moments after the lift-off.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Aircraft Accident Investigation Bureau; Convention on International Civil Aviation; International Civil Aviation Organisation.

Matters of International Civil Aviation are governed by:

Convention on International Civil Aviation or the Chicago Convention governs the matters of international civil aviation. It was signed in 1944.
International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO), a UN agency with 193 member countries (including India, the US, and the UK), oversees its technical standards.
The Chicago Convention (Annex 13) lays out the international protocols for investigating aircraft accidents and serious incidents.
- The responsibility for investigation is bestowed with the ‘State of Occurrence’, i.e., the country where the accident happened.
- Other countries connected to the aircraft have a formal right to participate. These include the 'State of Registry’ (where the aircraft is registered), the ‘State of the Operator’ (which operated the flight), the ‘State of Design’, and the ‘State of Manufacture’ (of the aircraft in question).

Since the AI 171 air crash occurred on Indian soil, India holds the ‘State of Occurrence’ right. The investigation into the accident is thus led by the Aircraft Accident Investigation Bureau.

International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO):

Specialised agency of the United Nations established in 1947 by the Chicago Convention.
The aim and objective of the ICAO is to safeguard the orderly development of civil aviation.
Functions:
- establishing and reviewing technical standards for aircraft and the licensing of personnel
- promoting flight safety
- developing airways, airports and air navigation facilities
- preventing economic waste caused by unreasonable competition
- continuing the development of international aviation law.
It defines the protocols for air accident investigation that are followed by transport safety authorities in countries signatory to the Chicago Convention.
Structure: The Assembly is the supreme organ of the ICAO. It is composed of representatives of all member states and meets at least once every three years, reviewing work and setting policy.
Headquarters: Montreal, Quebec, Canada.

Aircraft Accident Investigation Bureau:

AAIB is a statutory body under India’s Ministry of Civil Aviation responsible for investigating civil aviation accidents and serious incidents.
The government can make rules for investigations under Section 7 of the Aircraft Act of 1934.
AAIB was established in 2012 in accordance with the standards issued by ICAO and to provide independence to the investigation function from the regulatory function, independent of the Directorate General of Civil Aviation (DGCA).
Until 2012, the Air Safety Directorate of the DGCA (under the aviation ministry) investigated accidents and safety-related incidents.

Functions of AAIB:

AAIB classifies ‘Safety Occurrences’ involving aircraft operating in the Indian airspace into the categories- Accidents, Serious Incidents and Incidents.
It investigates all Accidents and Serious Incidents involving aircraft with All Up Weight (the total weight of an aircraft with passengers and cargo) over than 2250 kg, as well as Turbojet aircraft. The objective is to prevent accidents and incidents and not to apportion blame or liability.
AAIB deputes an investigation team to reach the site and gather perishable evidence. This includes- obtaining samples of wreckage and surroundings, retrieving black boxes etc.
AAIB is also mandated immediate and unrestricted access to all relevant evidence from any agency/organisation without seeking prior consent from judicial bodies or other government authorities.

After completion of the investigation, a draft report is presented internally and accepted by the AAIB Director General.

Following further consultations and reviews, the final report is made public and published on the official website. The accepted ‘Final Investigation Report’ is also forwarded to the ICAO and the states participating in the investigation.

DRDO develops Photonic Radar

Context: Recently, the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) announced that it has developed a photonic radar system. India will likely become the fourth country after the US, China and Israel to induct these radars after key trials in late 2025.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts related to Photonic Radar.

What is a Radar?

Radar is short for Radio Detection and Ranging.
Radar uses radio waves to determine the distance, velocity, and physical characteristics of objects around the device.
A transmitter emits a radio frequency signal aimed at an object (E.g., a cloud) whose characteristics are to be ascertained.
A part of the emitted signal is echoed by the object back to the device (reflected back), where a receiver tracks and analyses it to determine the features of the targeted object.

What is a Photonic Radar?

Photonic Radar is a next-generation radar system that uses light-based (photonic) technology to generate, process and analyse radio-frequency (RF) signals.
Conventional radars generate radio frequency (RF) signals using electronic components (like oscillators). However, such radars find it difficult to generate high-frequency signals beyond 40 GHz.
Photonic radars use lasers and optical components (like optical fibres and modulators) to generate radio frequency (RF) signals and process signals using a technique called optical heterodyning. Photonic integrated circuits (PIC) used in the photonic radar can generate RF signals in the frequency range of 100 GHz to terahertz range, which is difficult to achieve using traditional electronic circuits.

The Photonic Radar System in India has been designed by the Electronics and Radar Development Establishment (LRDE), a DRDO lab known for creating advanced radars like Arudhra, Aslesha, and Uttam AESA.

Superiority of Photonic Radar over Conventional radars:

High Detection Ability: Photonic radars can spot objects that conventional radars miss, including stealth aircraft, drones, and even incoming hypersonic missiles.
Longer Range, Sharper Image and Lesser Noise:
- Photonic radars can generate high bandwidth signals (the higher the bandwidth, the greater the resolution).
- It has a higher signal-to-noise ratio (noise emanates from the heat generated by electronic components in conventional radar) leading to sharper detection of the ‘echo’ from the target.
- As a result, the radars have longer range and the ability to map targets in high-resolution 3D.
Immune to Jamming: Photonic components are practically immune to electromagnetic jamming or electronic warfare tactics that often try to blind or confuse traditional radars. Additionally, Photonic radars are capable of frequency hopping- they keep changing their frequencies, which confuses the jammers.
Light Weight: Photonic components do not have copper and are lighter. This enables the fitting of these small, lighter radar systems in satellites, swarms of drones and fighter jets.

Potential Applications of Photonic Radar:

Military Applications:
- With its ultra-wide bandwidth, low signal noise, and high precision, the photonic radar may be able to spot threats early.
- The radar system can be integrated with India's existing air defence infrastructure- such as Akashteer command and control system. Can be deployed on various platforms- including fighter jets (Su-30 MKI, Rafale, Tejas); mobile ground units for the Indian Army.
Medical Applications: Photonic radar could be used as a non-invasive way to monitor patient vital signs, such as breathing and heart rate. The device could fit onto a photonic chip that is small enough to incorporate into electronic devices like a smartphone.
Space Missions: Can be integrated into small satellites for deep-space tracking.
Weather monitoring, high-resolution atmospheric observations & coastal surveillance.

Associated Challenges:

Gaining access to PICs: India lacks infrastructure to fabricate Photonic integrated circuits (PIC).
Export Restrictions: In order for large-scale production of PICs, India will have to design the circuits and get them fabricated outside India. However, that is a humongous task given the export restrictions from the US; security risks in fabricating them from China.
Material Constraints: Photonics utilise special materials, mainly indium phosphide and silicon photonics, which are hard to procure. Similarly, other components like tunable lasers and modulators are hard to procure.

DRDO is preparing for extensive trials of the Radar in late 2025 to assess its effectiveness in diverse and challenging conditions. The technology strengthens India’s position in regional military balance and makes its defence systems much harder to bypass or fool.

New Emerging Radar Systems:

Two radar systems under development promise to be better than photonic radars.

Quantum Radar:

Quantum radar uses quantum technology for detection and imaging. The technology is still in the experimental stage.
At the core of this technology is the production of a pair of entangled photons- sending one photon to the target, and then comparing it on reflection with the second photon; the difference will be used to analyse the location and characteristics of the target.

Terahertz Radar:

Terahertz radar operates in the electromagnetic spectrum between microwaves and infrared light (typically 0.1-10 THz) - where the signal oscillates a trillion times a second. The corresponding wavelength is about 0.3 mm. This will offer high resolution imaging.

Also Read: What is Synthetic Aperture Radar?

Need to Safeguard the Right to Vote

Context: The Supreme Court of India has directed the Election Commission (EC) to consider Aadhaar cards, voter ID cards (EPIC), and ration cards as acceptable documents for the special intensive revision (SIR) of electoral rolls in Bihar. The move is aimed at improving access and reducing wrongful exclusions.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Universal Adult Suffrage (UAS) in India; Right to Vote.

Universal Adult Suffrage (UAS) in India

Article 326 of the Constitution grants every adult citizen the right to vote, regardless of gender, caste, religion, education, or property.
61st Constitutional Amendment 1989: Initial threshold of 21 years of age for being eligible to vote was lowered to 18 by the 61st CAA.
Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala (1973) established democracy as part of the ‘basic structure’ doctrine. For this ideal to function meaningfully, people should be able to freely decide the fate of their government (through voting), an unassailable right that shapes governance.
Two Key laws operationalised this inclusive vision:
- Representation of the People Act 1950 which governs the preparation and revision of electoral rolls.
- Representation of the People Act 1951 Act which regulates election conduct, candidature, and electoral offences.
Under Article 324 the Election Commission (EC) serves as a constitutional guardian of elections, with powers of superintendence, direction, and control. EC’s key duty is to prepare accurate electoral rolls, guided by Section 19 of the RPA 1950, which mandates that any citizen aged 18 or above, ordinarily resident in a constituency and not disqualified, is entitled to be registered.

Winston Churchill once said, “At the bottom of all tributes paid to democracy is the little man, walking into a little booth, with a little pencil, making a little cross on a little bit of paper…”

His words remain a timeless reminder that the health of any democracy ultimately rests on the sanctity of the ‘right to vote’.

Is Voting a Fundamental Right in India?

Constituent Assembly view: Dr. B.R. Ambedkar and K.T. Shah proposed including the right to vote as a fundamental right; the Constituent Assembly’s Advisory Committee ultimately rejected the idea.
Kuldip Nayar v. Union of India (2006): The five-judge bench of the SC held that the ‘right to elect’ is a statutory right under Section 62 of the RPA 1951, and not a fundamental or constitutional right.
Rajbala v. State of Haryana (2016): The two-judge bench of SC described the ‘right to vote’ as a constitutional right, though not a fundamental right. However, the ruling of the larger-bench in the Kuldip Nayar judgment prevails.
Anoop Baranwal v. Union of India (2023): The SC declined to pronounce on the issue, noting that it had already been settled by the Kuldip Nayar judgment.
- In the minority view (dissent opinion), the Justice asserted that the ‘right to vote’ is an expression of Article 19(1)(a) and reflects the essence of Article 21.
- However, the ‘right to elect’ continues to be recognised as a statutory right.

Nevertheless, the courts have regarded the right to vote as an inseparable part of democracy, as it enables citizens to shape governance, making it a democratic imperative vital to the Indian republic’s survival.

John Dewey said, “Democracy is not just a form of government, but a social and personal ideal.”

Why does Electoral Roll Accuracy Matter?

Under Section 21 of the RPA, 1950, the EC is empowered to prepare and revise electoral rolls to ensure their accuracy and integrity.
Inaccuracies in Electoral Roll like mass omissions, ineligible inclusions, duplicates, or incorrect entries undermine the “one person, one vote” principle by enabling impersonation, disenfranchisement, or dilution of votes, which ultimately distorts the people’s mandate.
The Bihar SIR controversy and broader electoral reform debates highlights the core democratic truth:
- India’s democracy depends on electoral rolls that are accurate, inclusive, and accessible.
- Purification of rolls is necessary because just as the exclusion of an eligible voter undermines democracy, so does the inclusion of an ineligible name.

Thus, EC must complete the exercise with a careful balance between genuine vigilance and inclusion to uphold the fairness of the process. The SC’s suggestion to include more accepted documents helps safeguard every genuine elector’s right to be represented.

ICC issues Arrest Warrant against Taliban Leaders

Context: The International Criminal Court (ICC) issued an arrest warrant for two senior Taliban leaders for the crime of persecuting women, girls, and others who oppose the gender policy of the government.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Rome Statute, Facts about ICC.

ICC issues Arrest Warrant against Taliban Leaders

Warrant issued against: Two senior Taliban leaders- Supreme leader Hibatullah Akhunzada and the head of Afghanistan's Supreme Court- Abdul Hakim Haqqani.
Ground: On charges of systematic persecution of women and girls.
Legal Basis- Afghanistan’s ICC Membership: ICC has jurisdiction over crimes committed on Afghan soil or by Afghan nationals after Afghanistan acceded to the Rome Statute in 2003.

Systematic Persecution of Women and Girls in Afghanistan:

Taliban has severely deprived girls and women of:
- basic human rights like education, privacy, and family life
- freedoms of movement, expression, thought, conscience, and religion.
E.g., barring girls from secondary schools, beauty salons, excluding women from most workplaces, and restricting their movement without a male guardian.
144-page Morality Law (2024) promulgated by the Taliban includes provisions requiring women to cover their entire body in public, and to not sing or even speak in public. It forbids women and men from looking at each other in public, and provides for the persecution of LGBTQIA+ people.

What is the International Criminal Court?

ICC’s law on Crimes Against Humanity:

Article 7(1)(h) of the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court defines crimes against humanity as :

Crimes against humanity include persecution against any identifiable group or collectivity on political, racial, national, ethnic, cultural, religious, gender… or other grounds universally recognised as impermissible under international law, carried out as part of a widespread or systematic attack directed against a civilian population.

Impact of the ICC's Warrant:

The warrants mark the first time the global court has taken legal action directly against the Taliban leadership for gender-based persecution.
However ICC’s warrant is unlikely to result in any arrest, as Taliban rejects ICC jurisdiction, rendering the warrant unenforceable in Afghanistan.

UAE’s Golden Visa

Context: The UAE government has given clarification on eligibility and investment criteria for its Golden Visa scheme, dismissing the widespread media claims in India about a ₹23 lakh visa as false.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about UAE's Golden Visa.

What is the UAE’s Golden visa?

The UAE’s ‘Golden visa’ is a long-term residence visa which enables foreign talents to live, work or study in the UAE while enjoying exclusive benefits which include:

entry visa for 6 months with multiple entries to proceed with residence issuance
long-term, renewable residence visa valid for 5 or 10 years
privilege of not needing a sponsor.
ability to stay outside the UAE for more than the usual period of 6 months in order to keep their residence visa valid
ability to sponsor their family members, including spouses and children and domestic helpers
permit for family members to stay in the UAE until the end of their permit duration, if the primary holder of the Golden visa passes away.

Who is a Sponsor?

In the context of the UAE residency system, a sponsor refers to a local individual or organisation (usually an employer or relative) who takes legal responsibility for a foreign national residing in the UAE.
The sponsor has the legal right to cancel the visa of the person they are sponsoring.

Categories eligible for UAE Golden Visa

How much money has to be spent for the visa: AED 2 million for real estate and other investors. Main categories of individuals eligible for the UAE Golden Visa :

Public investors: People willing to invest dirhams (AED) 2 million in an accredited UAE investment fund. There are some requirements for this:
- investors must possess a valid commercial or industrial licence
- a tax certificate to prove annual tax contribution of at least AED 2,50,000
Entrepreneurs: People willing to invest AED 5,00,000 in any project approved by the authorities are eligible. The projects need to be tech-based.
Real estate investors: People owning property worth AED 2 million (not under mortgage) along with proof of residence in the UAE.
Exceptional talent: Doctors, scientists, athletes and domain experts.
Outstanding students, Humanitarian pioneers and Frontline heroes.

Who is not Eligible?

The UAE has clarified that crypto investors are not eligible for this visa.

Golden Visa available in the US:

Requirement: Applicants who invest $1 million in a non-targeted area or invest $8,00,000 in a targeted, rural area with high unemployment, and create 10 full-time jobs for US workers are eligible for the EB-5 visa.
Benefit: The US EB-5 visa also allows permanent residency.

How is the UAE Golden Visa different from the US Green Card?

The UAE Golden Visa offers long-term but temporary residency, while the US Green Card provides permanent residency.
The Golden Visa has no citizenship pathway, whereas Green Card holders can apply for US citizenship after 5 years (or 3 years if married to a US citizen).

Pandharpur Wari

Context: Every year, in the month of June-July, thousands of devotees in Maharashtra embark on a spiritual journey (yatra) called Pandharpur Wari.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Pandharpur Wari.

Pandharpur Wari

The Pandharpur wari is an annual pilgrimage (yatra) from various parts of Maharashtra to Pandharpur in Maharashtra, the abode of Lord Vitthal (revered form of Lord Vishnu).
It involves carrying the paduka (sacred sandals) of saints in a palki, most notably of Sant Dnyaneshwar Maharaj and Sant Tukaram Maharaj, from their respective shrines to Pandharpur. Many pilgrims join this procession on foot.
The tradition is more than 700 to 800 years old. Warkari means "one who performs the wari". Warkaris (devotees) walk for nearly 20 days, covering over 250 kilometres on foot.

Along the way, they sing abhangas (devotional songs) and perform kirtans.

Also Read: Bhakti Movement in Maharashtra

Is Gini Index the Right Way to Measure Inequality?

Context: The government recently claimed that India is one of the most equal countries based on the Gini Index. However, the experts argue that this measure does not fully capture the real extent of inequality.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Gini Coefficient, Palm Ratio, World Inequality Database, World Bank recent report on inequality.

What is the Gini Index?

Gini Index or Gini Coefficient is a statistical measure of inequality. It quantifies how equally income, wealth or consumption is distributed across households or individuals in a country.
It ranges in value from 0 to 100. A score of 0 means perfect equality. A score of 100 means one person has all the income, wealth or consumption and others have none, hence absolute inequality. The higher the Gini Index the more unequal the country.
Graphically Gini Index can be explained by the Lorenz curve.
- A perfectly equal distribution will be shown by a diagonal line, while the actual distribution will be shown by the Lorenz curve.
- The Gini Index tells us how far the Lorenz Curve is from the ideal equality line; the farther it is, the more unequal the society.

India's Gini Index Trends:

As per the World Bank’s Poverty and Equity Brief- India ranks fourth globally in income equality with a Gini score of 25.5 (2022-23), after the Slovak Republic, Slovenia and Belarus.
The index was measured at 28.8 in 2011, and reached 25.5 in 2022. This shows that India has made consistent progress in combining economic growth with social equity.
India primarily uses a consumption-based Gini Index instead of an income-based one, relying on household surveys that measure inequality based on individuals’ consumption levels rather than their actual incomes.

However, economists argue that consumption-based Gini Index fails to reflect actual levels of inequality, especially in India’s context.

Trends from World Inequality Lab Database:

World Inequality Database which is based on income shows:

Income inequality in India is rising from a Gini of 52 in 2004 to 62 in 2023.
Wage disparity remains high, with the median earnings of the top 10% being 13 times higher than bottom 10% in 2023-24.
The top 1% earn more than 22% of national income. The bottom 50% earn less than 15%. India's inequality is now worse than colonial levels.

Limitations of Consumption-based Measures:

Underestimates Inequality: Rich people consume proportionally less and save more of their income. Poor people spend nearly all of their income leading to less visible inequality in consumption data.
Fails to capture Wealth Inequality: Wealth disparities such as those in property or financial assets are ignored.
Affected by Public subsidies: Free ration, subsidies etc. improves consumption data but may not always lower inequality in real life.

Thus, it is misleading to compare India's Consumption based Gini Index value with that of other countries, which use an income based Gini.

Limitations of the Survey data

Differential Non-response Bias: High-income individuals often decline to participate in surveys.
Sampling Errors: Probability of randomly including ultra-rich in a small survey is low.
Surveys largely capture the middle-income majority. But most inequality is driven by the top 1%, who are missing from survey samples.

Way Forward

Shift from a purely consumption-based approach to include income-based inequality measures, aligning with global standards.
Combine household survey data with income tax data to better capture top incomes and reduce underestimation.
Use Alternative Indicators like Palma Ratio. Palma Ratio measures the ratio of the richest 10% of the population’s share of national income divided by the poorest 40% 's share.

Starlink gets clearance to offer Satellite Internet Services in India

Context: Starlink has received regulatory clearance from IN-SPACe (Indian National Space Promotion and Authorisation Centre) to launch its satellite-based internet services in India. Starlink becomes the third company to receive approval for satellite communication (satcom) services, after OneWeb and Reliance Jio.

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: Key facts about Starlink Project.

Mains: Space Internet.

Starlink Project

Starlink is the name of a satellite network developed by the private spaceflight company SpaceX to provide high-speed internet to remote locations.
Location: Starlink satellites are placed in an altitude range between 350 km-1200 km in Low Earth Orbit (LEO).
Lifespan: One satellite has a lifespan of approximately five years.
Constellation:
- As of March 2024, the constellation consists of over 7000 satellites.
- SpaceX plans to have ~42,000 satellites in its megaconstellation.
Key features:
- Starlink utilises an automated collision avoidance system to manoeuvre the satellites to avoid crashing into other satellites in space.
- Satellites have an advanced end-of-life mechanism and ION propulsion system with argon thrusters. The satellites upon re-entering the Earth's atmosphere, disintegrate completely and burn (with no chance of any piece hitting the ground).

How is Starlink different?

1. Terrestrial broadband services:

Terrestrial telecom services rely on:
- Fibre-optic cables
- Digital Subscriber Lines (DSL)
- Cellular towers
Limitations: These infrastructures are limited to urban and suburban areas, where it is feasible to install physical network infrastructure.
Starlink operates using LEO satellite technology, which allows it to provide internet access in areas where traditional broadband infrastructure is impractical/uneconomical to deploy—such as remote villages, mountainous regions, and offshore locations.

2. Conventional Internet Services:

Traditionally, internet services via satellite have relied on high-Earth orbit (HEO) or geostationary orbit satellites, positioned over 30,000 km above sea level.
LEO satellite constellations orbit the Earth at a much lower altitude—typically 200 km-2000 km.

How does Starlink work?

Starlink offers internet connectivity via a network of LEO satellites from space directly to the devices.
- Users require a Starlink dish and router, which communicate with the satellites orbiting Earth.
- The dish automatically aligns with the closest Starlink satellite cluster, ensuring uninterrupted connectivity.
Starlink is designed for fixed-location use, but with additional hardware, it can also support internet access in moving vehicles, boats, and aircraft.

Read More: What is Satellite Internet?

Benefits of LEO Internet Services:

Lower latency:
- LEO satellites, being closer to Earth, reduce signal travel time, resulting in faster and more responsive connectivity.
- In contrast, signals from geostationary satellites must travel much farther, leading to delays and slower speeds.
Better efficiency: Shorter distance means lower signal loss and more reliable communication with lower power requirements and smaller antennas.

Challenges of LEO satellites:

Limited coverage per satellite: Since LEO satellites orbit closer to Earth, each one covers a smaller area, requiring a larger constellation to provide global coverage.
Higher operational costs: Maintaining a network of fast-moving satellites requires extensive ground infrastructure, making it more expensive to deploy and operate compared to geostationary satellites.

What are the benefits of Starlink?

Deliver internet service in the remotest places, and help in addressing the digital divide among urban and rural regions.
Offer lower latency (25-50 ms) compared to traditional geostationary satellite internet (600+ ms), making it ideal for video conferencing, online gaming, and HD streaming.
Can be utilised by commercial fishing shippers, merchant vessels, off-shore oil drilling stations, deep sea research workers and solo sea voyagers to connect with the internet.
Useful during natural disasters such as tsunamis, cyclones or earthquakes that can destroy physical infrastructure such as telecom towers.

What are the drawbacks of Starlink?

High cost: LEO-based satellite services are expensive to deploy and operate, which could lead to premium pricing and limited data plans for consumers. Based on current expectations, Starlink’s price is almost 10-14 times higher than India’s major broadband providers.

Scalability concerns: While Starlink can offer speeds up to 200-250 Mbps, capacity could be an issue considering the limited number of satellites hovering around India. Expanding Starlink's network to accommodate more users without compromising performance remains a challenge.
Higher latency in urban areas: Compared to terrestrial broadband, Starlink may experience higher latency and lower capacity in densely populated areas, making it less competitive in cities where fibre-optic networks dominate.
Weather interference: Satellite signals require a clear line of sight and can be disrupted by weather conditions like heavy rain or storms.
Privacy concerns: Lack of clarity on user privacy as Starlink operates under US jurisdiction. The data is routed through foreign satellites which has potential for commercial exploitation.

Latest Developments

Centre has asked SpaceX to:
- set up a control centre in India to enable suspension or shutdown of communications services in sensitive and troubled areas (whenever required) to maintain law and order.
- allow call interceptions by law-enforcement agencies through official channels when the need arises.
Starlink and TRAI:
- Telecom Regulatory Authority of India (TRAI) and SpaceX are negotiating satellite spectrum pricing and spectrum duration. TRAI has proposed a five-year period for spectrum allocation, whereas Starlink is advocating for a 20-year licence.
- TRAI is likely to recommend Starlink to initially focus on providing services in mobile dark areas (regions where terrestrial networks are unavailable).

Great Hornbill

Context: In a rare sighting, Great Hornbill was spotted in the coastal belt of Kannur, Kerala, far from its usual forested habitats. It is rarely seen in coastal areas; its unexpected presence is hailed as an ecological indicator and points to the broader ecological value of the region.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Great Hornbill.

About Great Hornbill

The great Indian Hornbill is one of the larger members of the Hornbill family.
Habitat: It occurs in the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia, typically found in the evergreen and moist deciduous forests.
India is home to nine species of hornbills of which:
- Great Hornbill, Malabar Pied Hornbill, Malabar Grey Hornbill and Indian Grey Hornbill are found in the Western Ghats.
- Great Hornbill, Rufous-necked Hornbill, Wreathed Hornbill, Oriental Pied Hornbill, and White-throated Brown Hornbill are found in North East India.
- Narcondam Hornbill (rare and endemic: IUCN- Endangered) is found only on Narcondam Island in Andaman Sea.
- Hornbills have also been sighted in Northern Himalayas (Uttarakhand).

Physical Characteristics and Behaviour:

It is predominantly frugivorous (feeds on fruit) but also preys on small mammals, reptiles and birds.
The most prominent feature of the hornbill is the bright yellow and black casque (helemet) on top of its massive bill.
Large bird- 95-130 cm long and weighs nearly 2-4 kg.
Females are smaller than males and have bluish-white instead of red eyes.
Hornbills are secondary-cavity nesters, i.e., they nest in tree cavities made by other birds. They tend to use the same nest year after year.

Threats:

Habitat loss due to deforestation.
Hunted for its meat, fat and body parts like- casque and tail feathers (used as adornments). Beaks and heads are used in charms, and the flesh is believed to be medicinal.

Conservation Status:

IUCN Status: Vulnerable
Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972: Schedule I
CITES: Appendix-I

Is Palm Oil Bad for Health?

Context: Indian Food and Beverage Association (IFBA) issued a statement that Palm Oil has been consumed by Indians since the 19th century, and that the oil has a well-rounded fatty acid profile. As per IFBA, the use of labels such as palm oil free or no palm oil are misleading.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Palm Oil; Palm Production; NMEO-OP

About Palm Oil

Palm oil is among the most affordable and versatile edible oils valued for its long shelf-life and neutral taste.
Utility:
- Packaged foods including- potato chips, biscuits, ice cream, and chocolates.
- Non-food industry- soaps, shampoos, detergents, lipsticks, perfumes.
- Biodiesel production.

Contents of Oil and Health Concerns:

All oils mainly contain three types of fatty acids:
- Bad- saturated fatty acid (SFA)
- Good- mono-unsaturated fatty acid (MUFA)
- Good- Poly-unsaturated fatty acid (PUFA).
Fats that remain solid or semi-solid at room temperatures- including palm oil, coconut oil, ghee, butter, and lard - are high in saturated fatty acids (SFA).
- Coconut oil (90 grams/ 100 grams of oil) and ghee (70 grams/ 100 grams of oil) have the highest SFA content.
- Palmolein (the liquid part of palm oil) contains around 40 grams of SFA and 40 grams of MUFA, with the rest PUFA.
- Mustard, Safflower, and Sunflower have the lowest SFA content less than 10 grams per 100 gram of oil.
Apart from fatty acids, Trans Fatty Acids (TFA) are produced during the hydrogenation of liquid vegetable oils. (Hydrogenation- Addition of Hydrogen atoms into such oils converts liquid oil to semi-solid, and increases their shelf-life.)
Consumption of oils with high SFA increases the levels of bad cholesterol (low density lipoproteins). This in turn increases inflammation in the body, decreases insulin sensitivity, and enhances the tendency of clot formation. Consuming such oils can increase the risk of heart attacks and strokes, as well as the onset of type-2 diabetes.
Consumption of TFAs can increase the risk of diabetes, breast cancer, colon cancer, pre-eclampsia (high blood pressure during pregnancy), and disorders of the nervous system.

Is Palm Oil Bad for Health?

Palmolein (the liquid part of palm oil) contains around 40 grams of SFA and 40 grams of MUFA, with the rest PUFA.
Palm oil is semi-solid at room temperature so it does not need to be hydrogenated.
Palm oil contains tocotrienols (a type of antioxidant) which helps lower blood cholesterol levels.

Hence, the oil consumption should be done in moderation.

Indian Dietary Guidelines by ICMR:

As per the Indian Dietary Guidelines by ICMR (Indian Council of Medical Research):

Consumption of oil should be limited to between 20 and 50 grams (four to 10 teaspoons) per person per day.
Oils should not be reheated. Because once heated, PUFAs in the oil start to oxygenate, and form harmful compounds that increase the risk of cardiovascular disease and cancers.

Key Facts about Palm Oil:

India is the world's largest importer and second-largest consumer of palm oil.
Palm oil import dominates India's edible oils import. The top import countries are: Indonesia and Malaysia.
Indonesia is the world's largest producer of palm oil. Indonesia and Malaysia together account for almost 90% of the global palm oil production.
Major oil palm-growing states in India: Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, and Kerala.
The central government has launched the National Mission on Edible Oils-Oil Palm (NMEO-OP) in 2021 to increase oil palm cultivation and crude palm oil production.

Also Read: National Mission on Edible Oils-Oil Palm (NMEO-OP)

ISRO’s Experiments in Axiom-4 Mission

Context: The Axiom-4 Mission to the International Space Station (ISS) was launched on June 25, 2025 to conduct scientific research, outreach and commercial activities in space. Shubhanshu Shukla, an Indian Air Force (IAF) officer and ISRO astronaut piloted the Mission.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Axiom-4 Mission; ISRO’s Experiments in Axiom-4 Mission.

Axiom-4 Mission is a private spaceflight organised by Axiom Space. The crew will spend about 14 days aboard the International Space Station (ISS) and conduct various experiments in the microgravity environment.

Key ISRO’s Experiments in Axiom-4 Mission

1. Myogenesis Study:

Shukla performed operations in Life Sciences Glovebox (LSG) for the Myogenesis study.
Aim: To uncover the molecular mechanisms driving muscle loss in space.
Significance: These findings could also pave the way for:
- Targeted treatments to prevent muscle atrophy during prolonged space missions.
- New therapies to address muscle-wasting conditions on Earth such as those related to ageing or immobility.

Myogenesis:

Myogenesis is the biological process through which muscle tissue is formed during early stages of embryonic development from stem cells. These stem cells gradually differentiate into muscle precursor cells, which then multiply and fuse together to form muscle fibres.
Myogenesis is crucial for the growth of the body, repair of muscle tissue, and regeneration of the musculoskeletal system (which includes bones, muscles and connective tissues).

2. Growing Sprouts and Moong Beans:

The Sprouts-ISRO experiment focuses on the growth of green gram (moong) and fenugreek (methi) seeds in space. These are staple, nutrient-rich foods in India.
Aim: To study how microgravity affects their germination, genetics, and nutritional content.
Significance: Understanding these changes can help in:
- Developing reliable plant-based food systems for future space missions.
- Supporting agricultural advancements on Earth, particularly in resource-constrained or extreme environments where conventional farming is difficult.

3. Microalgae Experiment:

Aim: To study how Microalgae grow and evolve in the absence of gravity.
Microalgae are highly efficient organisms known for producing oxygen, absorbing carbon dioxide, and providing dense nutrition.
Significance:
- If successful, microalgae could become a sustainable food source for long-duration space missions.
- Open up possibilities for using them in Earth-based environmental and food solutions, especially in areas with limited access to resources.

4. Survival of Tardigrades in Space:

The Voyager Tardigrade-ISRO experiment aims to observe how tardigrades survive and reproduce in extreme space conditions and compare their gene expression with Earth-based samples.
Tardigrades are tiny aquatic creatures that can survive radiation, vacuum, and freezing temperatures.
Significance: The research will decode the biology behind their resilience, which could lead to innovations in radiation protection for astronauts, and even new materials or therapies for use in harsh environments on Earth.

5. Human interaction with Technology in Microgravity:

Voyager Displays-ISRO explores how spaceflight alters human interaction with electronic interfaces like touchscreens. Tasks involving gaze, touch, and eye movement will be analysed to understand cognitive and motor changes caused by microgravity.
Significance:
- To improve the design of control systems for spacecraft and future space habitats.
- The results may also benefit high-stress environments on Earth, such as aviation or emergency response, where quick, intuitive interaction with digital systems is crucial for safety and performance.

6. Cerebral Hemodynamics Study:

Using Ultrasound technology, ISRO and NASA will explore how blood circulates in the brain under microgravity conditions.
Significance: The findings could improve our understanding of cardiovascular adaptation in space and inform medical diagnostics and treatments for conditions like stroke and hypertension on Earth.

The experience gained through the experiments is expected to nurture a microgravity research ecosystem in India resulting in the induction of advanced microgravity experiments in various disciplines in the Indian space programme.

Also Read: Indian Astronaut to pilot Axiom Mission 4

INS Nistar: India’s first Indigenous Diving Support Ship

Context: INS Nistar, India’s first indigenously designed and built Diving Support Vessel (DSV), was delivered by Hindustan Shipyard Limited to the Indian Navy.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about INS Nistar.

INS Nistar

INS Nistar is a highly specialised Diving Support Vessel that can undertake Deep Sea Diving and Rescue Operations- a capability with select Navies across the globe.
It measures 118 m with a tonnage of nearly 10,000 tonnes.
It is equipped with state-of-the-art Diving Equipment and can undertake Deep Sea Saturation Diving up to a depth of 300 metres.
The ship will also serve as the ‘Mother Ship’ for the Deep Submergence Rescue Vessel (DSRV), to rescue and evacuate personnel, in case of an emergency in a submarine underwater.

The induction of INS Nistar with nearly 75% indigenous content is another milestone in the Indian Navy’s quest for indigenous construction.