Pollution & Environmental Issues

Air Pollution can increase the risk of Premature Birth

Context: A study by the US researchers finds first molecular level evidence of how exposure to PM2.5 pollutants by pregnant women could lead to higher risk of premature deliveries.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Health implications of Pollution. 

Link between Air Pollution and Premature Birth: 

  • Exposure to pollutants like fine particulate matter, nitrogen dioxide, and sulfur dioxide during pregnancy can lead to an increased risk of complications such as preterm birth, low birth weight, and developmental issues.
  • A recent study has identified that two biological molecules- 'cortexolone' and 'lysoPE(20:3)', show altered levels in women exposed to air pollution.
    • Cortexolone is a glucocorticoid crucial to regulating metabolism, inflammation, and the immune response.
    • lysoPE(20:3) is a lipid present in cells and important for cell function. 
  • Deregulation of these molecules cause disruptions in protein digestion and absorption which are crucial to foetal development.  

Previous studies have shown that these pollutants can penetrate the placental barrier, potentially affecting fetal growth and development.  

Also Read: Air Pollution in India: Major Pollutants

Flue Gas Desulphurisation

Context: A high-powered committee of experts, led by Principal Scientific Advisor (PSA) has recommended that India should scrap its policy of mandating coal-fired thermal power plants (TPPs) to install Flue Gas Desulphurisation (FGD) units. FGD units are fitted in TPPs to cut harmful sulphur dioxide (SO2) emissions. 

92% of India’s 600 TPPs have not yet installed FGD units. Instead, the committee recommends limiting FGD unit requirement to plants that use imported or high-sulphur (>0.5%) coal, as these contribute more significantly to SO₂ pollution.

Instead, the study recommends limiting this requirement to plants using imported or high-sulphur (>0.5%) coal, as these contribute more significantly to SO₂ pollution.

Relevance of the Topic:  Prelims: Key facts related to Desulphurisation.  

Rationale behind the Suggestions

  • The rationale underlying the analysis is that 92% of the coal used in Indian plants has low sulphur content (0.3%-0.5%).
    • SO2 levels in ambient air across the country are around 10-20 micrograms/cubic metre, well below India’s air quality norms of 80 micrograms/cubic metre. 
    • SO2 levels in cities near plants with operational FGD units do not differ significantly from those without these units.
    • Particulate Matter samples in urban areas show low levels of elemental sulphur (max 8 micrograms/cubic metre) which is not a significant concern. Thus, FGD units may offer limited benefits in reducing PM pollution. 
  • Norms mandated by the Central Pollution Control Board that require stack heights (exhaust columns) in the thermal power plants be a minimum 220 metres, coupled with Indian climatic conditions, ensure that SO2 emissions do not threaten local air quality.
  • A study by IIT-Delhi in 2024 found that acid rain, the most visible consequence of high SO2 emissions, was not a significant issue in India.
  • Installing FGD in all coal plants would increase power consumption as well as freshwater consumption in the plants, resulting in an additional 69 million tonnes of CO2 (2025-30), while reducing SO2 emissions by 17 million tonnes.
  • Unintended benefit of Sulphate Aerosols: When SO₂ is released into the atmosphere, it reacts with water vapour and other compounds to form sulphate aerosols. These aerosols reflect incoming solar radiation (shortwave radiation) back into space, which results in radiative cooling of the Earth's surface. This cooling effect masks or offsets part of the warming caused by greenhouse gases. 

Flue Gas Desulphurisation

  • Flue Gas Desulphurisation (FGD) is a clean technology system that separates the sulphur dioxide from the exhaust flue gas of coal-fired thermal power plants. 
  • FGD systems utilise various methods, including wet scrubbing with limestone slurry or dry scrubbing with a dry sorbent, to absorb SO2 from the flue gas. 
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How FGD Works?

  • Flue Gas Collection: Flue gas, containing SO2 and other pollutants, is collected from the power plant's boiler or other combustion sources. 
  • SO2 Removal: The collected flue gas is then passed through an FGD system.
    • In wet scrubbing, the gas is sprayed with a limestone slurry. The SO2 reacts with the limestone, forming a calcium sulfite or sulfate, which can be removed as a by-product or waste. 
    • In dry scrubbing, a dry sorbent, like lime or activated carbon, is introduced to the flue gas, where it absorbs the SO2. 
  • Waste Product Handling: The by-products or waste generated during FGD, such as gypsum or a dry waste product, are collected and either disposed of or utilized in other applications. 
  • Cleaned Flue Gas, now with reduced SO2 levels, is discharged into the atmosphere through the stack. 

Going Beyond AQI: Why Toxicity Matters in Measuring Air Pollution

Context: A study has found that the toxicity of air pollution changes with the concentration levels of PM2.5 in Indian cities, bringing attention to a critical gap in current air quality standards.

Relevance of the Topic:  Prelims: PM2.5, Air Quality Index (AQI), Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS), Oxidative Stress, Pollution Sources.

What is PM2.5?

  • PM2.5 refers to fine particulate matter with a diameter of less than 2.5 micrometres, small enough to penetrate deep into the lungs and bloodstream. 
  • It originates from sources- biomass and solid waste burning, vehicular emissions, industrial activities, construction dust etc. 
  • Due to its size and chemical composition, PM2.5 is associated with respiratory, cardiovascular, and neurological disorders.
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  • A recent study by Indian researchers has highlighted how toxicity of air pollution changes with concentration levels of PM 2.5 in Indian cities.

Key Highlights of the Study:

The study- “Contrasting features of winter-time PM2.5 pollution and PM2.5-toxicity based on oxidative potential” (2016-2023), conducted in Kolkata, found the following:

  • Pollution is damaging even at lower concentrations, but itsability to cause damage to cells increases sharply after the concentration level crosses a certain threshold value.
    • When PM2.5 concentration level exceeds about 70 µg/m³, its potential to create oxidative stress in the body increases steeply, and continues to rise until the concentration reaches about 130 µg/m³. 
    • Toxicity stabilises after that, and further increase in concentration do not lead to an appreciable rise in damage potential.
  • The threshold level is expected to vary from city to city. E.g., This threshold value is about 70 micrograms per cubic metre (µg/m³) for Kolkata. 
  • Threshold level of toxicity varies due to differences in the composition of air pollutants. E.g., pollutants from biomass and solid waste burning contribute more significantly to toxicity than those from vehicular emissions.

Why does toxicity increase after a point?

At lower concentrations the body can manage pollutant effects, but beyond a threshold the defences of the body are overwhelmed.

  • When pollutants are inhaled, the body’s immune system fights back through the release of Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS), which are chemicals used by immune cells to neutralise foreign substances. When larger concentrations of pollutants are inhaled, greater amounts of ROS are released.
  • The problem is ROS is damaging for the body’s cells as well. Therefore, as a natural counter-defence mechanism, the body produces another set of chemicals called antioxidants, that protect the cells against ROS.
  • However, antioxidants are present in small quantities, and take time to build up. So, while they are able to effectively deal with smaller amounts of ROS, they are helpless when ROS is produced in large amounts. This leads to an imbalance in the body, a situation called oxidative stress, which leaves the internal cells prone to damage from excess ROS.

Current Air Quality Standards: 

  • Air quality standards are framed in terms of their concentration, not toxicity. E.g., in India, a PM2.5 concentration level of 40 µg/m³ averaged over a year is considered safe. On a daily basis, a concentration of 60 µg/m³ is considered safe.
  • However, the harmful impacts of air pollution on human health depend not just on concentration, but also on toxicity, which takes into account factors like chemical composition of pollutants.

Way Forward

The study underlines a crucial gap in how we currently assess and respond to air pollution. It calls for a nuanced, city-specific and health-focused approach to pollution control. 

  • Incorporate toxicity into AQI systems: AQI should reflect not only PM2.5 concentration but also its oxidative potential, giving a more accurate picture of health risks.
  • Develop city-specific toxicity thresholds: Since pollutant composition varies by location, region-specific toxicity thresholds must be established for effective local interventions.
  • Revise Air Quality Standards: National standards must evolve to include toxicity measures.

Marine Pollution: MSC ELSA 3 sinks off Kerala coast

Context: Recently, a Liberian container ship 'MSC ELSA 3' sank off the Kerala coast near Alappuzha with hazardous cargo on board. This has exaggerated the risk of oil spill, plastic pollution (due to nurdles/plastic pellets), and spread of hazardous chemicals. 

The state government of Kerala has declared the wreckage as a state-specific disaster considering the potentially serious environmental, social and economic impact. 

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Oil spill remediation techniques; Legal avenues for India in Marine Spills. 

Oil Spill

  • Oil spill is the accidental release of petroleum or its products into the sea or coastal waters. 
  • Oil spills are dangerous as oil floats on water, forming a slick that spreads quickly with wind and currents. Some components can stay suspended causing long-term harm.
  • Impacts: 
    • Severely damage marine ecosystems- result in death of fish and other organisms.
    • Destroy mangroves and coral reefs. 
    • Oil can coat the feathers of birds- may lose their insulation abilities, leading to hypothermia and drowning.
    • Bioaccumulation of toxic substances in the food chain.
    • Affect livelihood of fishermen and disrupt local economy.

Methods used to clean up Oil Spills

Oil spreads quickly and rough seas and strong currents complicate cleanup efforts. Oils vary in properties, with some sinking or emulsifying with water and making separation tough. Some of the methods used for oil spill clean up are skimming, in situ burning and releasing chemical dispersants.

  • Skimming: It involves removing oil from the sea surface before it can reach sensitive areas along the coastline. E.g., Using pillows made of oleophilic (oil-attracting) materials which act like a sponge and absorb oil from the surface. 
  • In situ burning: It means burning a particular patch of oil after it has concentrated in an area.
  • Releasing chemical dispersants: It helps break down oil into smaller droplets, making it easier for microbes to consume and further break it down into less harmful compounds.

The methods can have some drawbacks, such as- chemical dispersants can harm marine life. Additionally, manual cleanup is labour-intensive and often ineffective in remote areas.

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Flags of Convenience: 

  • Mediterranean Shipping Company (MSC) is one of the world’s largest container shipping companies, headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland. 
  • ELSA 3 is registered in Liberia, a flag state widely known for its lax regulatory oversight. This practice of registering vessels under so-called “Flags of Convenience” or “Open Registers” is common in the global shipping industry. 
  • This allows shipowners to sidestep the stricter safety, labour, tax, and environmental regulations enforced by traditional maritime nations.

Legal avenues for India in Kerala Ship Spill: 

1. MARPOL and SOLAS Conventions: 

  • India is signatory to MARPOL (International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships) and SOLAS (International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea). 
  • MARPOL Annex III deals with pollution from harmful substances. The primary liability for pollution damage is with the shipowner and the flag state, which can extend to covering the cost of cleanup and other damages to the environment.
  • International Maritime Dangerous Goods Code under SOLAS requires strict controls for transportation of hazardous cargo like calcium carbide. Improper stowage or labelling of dangerous cargo may violate these rules. 
  • Under the SOLAS, India is obligated to investigate whether the vessel met seaworthiness, stability, and hazardous cargo handling standards under the IMDG Code. 

2. Merchant Shipping Act, 1958:

  • India’s Director General of Shipping (DGS) has the territorial jurisdiction to investigate the marine accident under provisions of the Merchant Shipping Act, 1958. 
  • DGS can demand the records, vessel’s safety certificates and maintenance logs to inspect compliance about its structural integrity, maintenance and compliance with safety standards. 
  • DGS can assess compliance with IMDG Code standards for hazardous cargo and verify the vessel’s seaworthiness certification. 

3. Environment Protection Act 1986: 

  • The ‘Polluter Pays’ principle upheld by the National Green Tribunal can be invoked to claim compensation for ecological harm. 
  • India may also seek criminal liability under the Indian Penal Code and environmental laws, and claim additional costs for public health impacts and tourism losses.

India needs to respond swiftly to contain the pollution, investigate the causes of the accident and cooperate with international agencies for the strict enforcement of the liabilities of both the shipowner and the flag state. 

Plastic Pollution from Tyres of Electric Vehicles  

Context: In recent years, there has been a global transition to Electric Vehicles (EVs) largely driven by the need to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and combat climate change. However, recent research reveals negative impacts of the deployment of EVs.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key Highlights of the recent study on EVs impact on environment.

Electric Vehicles

  • Electric Vehicles (EVs) are rapidly gaining popularity across the globe. While they make up only 2% of the total global vehicle stock, they accounted for about 20% of all new car sales in 2024, according to the International Energy Agency (IEA).
  • In India, around 2.5% of new cars sold in 2024 were electric, and the government plans to increase this to 30% by 2030. In China, EVs already account for nearly 50% of new car sales.

Key Highlights of the Study

  • Typically, an EV is at least 15-20% heavier than a comparable conventional vehicle majorly due to the weight of batteries. EVs on account of their greater weight experience higher wear and tear in their tyres compared to conventional vehicles. Thus, EVs release substantially larger numbers of small plastic particles in the atmosphere.
  • EVs are also able to accelerate more rapidly. This can lead to additional stress on the tyres due to increased friction and heat generation. Primary fragmentation (from potholes, braking) produces smaller airborne particles while Sequential fragmentation (gradual wear) produces larger particles.
  • The tyres of heavier and faster-moving vehicles produce a higher proportion of smaller particles (about 1-10 micrometres). Unlike the larger particles that settle on the ground due to gravity, smaller particles remain suspended in the air, adding to the concentration of air pollutants.

Way Forward

  • Expand air quality regulations: Current air quality regulations focus on PM2.5 and PM10, but with the rise of EVs and increased emission of even smaller tyre fragments, these standards need to be expanded to cover ultra-fine particulate pollution.
  • Incorporate Non-Exhaust Emissions: Emissions standards would probably need to account for non-exhaust emissions from vehicles.
  • Research & Development in tyres: Tyre manufacturers would need to invest in research and development to produce sturdier tyres that are better suited to heavier EVs.
  • Improve road infrastructure: Better roads reduce tyre damage and pollution.

IMO’s Net Zero Framework for Global Shipping Industry

Context: Recently, at its 83rd session, the Marine Environment Protection Committee (MERC) of the International Maritime Organisation (IMO) has approved a draft legal text for a Market-Based Measure (MBM) framework aimed at decarbonising the international shipping industry and promoting green shipping.

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: MEPC-83, MARPOL Convention, Green fuels, CBDR-RC principle.

Mains: Need for green shipping, steps taken and implementation challenges.

Why does Green Shipping Matter?

Shipping plays an outsized role in global emissions: 

  • The sector emits approximately one billion metric tonnes of GHG each year, representing about 2.8% of total global emissions.
  • If ranked as a country, international shipping would be the sixth-largest emitter in the world, between Germany and Japan. Without intervention, shipping emissions could increase by 50–250% by 2050 due to growing global trade.

Given its international nature, shipping is uniquely positioned for global regulation, making the IMO's action a significant precedent.

International Maritime Organisation: 

  • IMO is the United Nations specialised agency responsible for regulating maritime transport, ensuring the safety and security of shipping, and preventing marine pollution.
  • Its main role is to create a regulatory framework for the shipping industry that is fair and effective, universally adopted and universally implemented.
  • IMO measures cover all aspects of international shipping- including ship design, construction, equipment, manning, operation and disposal. 
  • Established in1948 (under the UN Convention), came into force in 1958.
  • Headquarters: London, United Kingdom
  • Members: 175 Member States including India.

For over ten years, IMO has been working to decarbonise the maritime industry. It undertook various strategies such as: 

  • Initial GHG Strategy (2018) and its Updated GHG Strategy (2023).
  • Technical and operational measures under Annex VI of the MARPOL Convention, including: Energy Efficiency Design Index (EEDI), Ship Energy Efficiency Management Plan (SEEMP), Mandatory fuel oil consumption reporting.

However, without a binding economic mechanism, these efforts had limited impact. This led to a shift in focus toward Market-Based Measures (MBMs) to internalise the environmental cost of emissions.

Key Highlights of MEPC-83

At the 83rd session, IMO adopted Singapore’s Hybrid Model as the IMO Net Zero Framework- making shipping the first global industry with a binding emissions levy. It aims to help the shipping industry reduce its greenhouse gas emissions to net zero by or around 2050.

Features of Singapore’s Hybrid Model (IMO Net Zero Framework):

  • GHG Fuel Standard: Sets a greenhouse gas (GHG) intensity benchmark for marine fuels. Encourages the use of Zero or Near-Zero emission fuels- such as green hydrogen, ammonia, or methanol. Ships are required to meet a specified carbon intensity target per megajoule (MJ) of fuel.
  • Tiered Credit and Penalty System: Ships exceeding performance targets (i.e., using cleaner fuels than the standard) receive surplus emission credits. Ships underperforming (i.e., emitting more than the threshold) must purchase remedial credits or units to offset their excess emissions.
  • Progressive Benchmarks: The GHG intensity thresholds become stricter over time, driving innovation and investment in greener technologies. E.g., IMO rewards fuels under 19.0 g CO₂e/MJ until 2034, and under 14.0 g CO₂e/MJ thereafter.
  • Global but Differentiated Incentives: While the framework is universally applicable, it is designed to provide economic flexibility for developing countries.

Challenges to the IMO Net Zero Framework

1. Legal and Procedural Hurdles:

The draft Net Zero Framework was approved with 63 votes in favour, 16 against, and 24 abstentions. To implement the Net Zero Framework, IMO needs to amend Annex VI of the MARPOL convention, which governs air pollution from ships.

  • The amendment will undergo a six-month circulation period among all contracting parties to MARPOL. For final adoption, it requires a two-thirds majority of votes from members present and voting.
  • Even if the amendment is adopted, it can still be blocked if one-third of the parties, representing at least 50% of the global shipping tonnage, submit formal written objections.

2. Geopolitical Resistance: 

  • The US boycotted the IMO deliberations and warned of reciprocal measures, if a global levy (especially one aligned with the EU proposal) was adopted.
  • Major fossil fuel exporters (like Saudi Arabia) and large shipping nations (like China) are resistant to aggressive emission controls. 
  • Shipowners, especially from traditional maritime powers like Greece, are sceptical about the economic feasibility and compliance costs.
  • Small Island Developing States (SIDS) and Least Developed Countries (LDCs) demanded high levies to fund climate adaptation.
  • Norway and Scandinavian nations pushed for reward mechanisms to acknowledge early investments in green tech.
  • Brazil advocated for methanol as a transitional marine fuel.

3. Erosion of the CBDR-RC principle:

  • CBDR-RC is a core principle enshrined in climate agreements like UNFCCC, Kyoto Protocol and the Paris Agreement which acknowledges that all nations must address climate change but recognise historical responsibility and unequal capacities. Developed nations, with their longer industrial histories, are expected to bear greater burdens.
  • However, recent IMO proceedings reflect an effort by wealthier nations to shift responsibility onto developing economies, despite stark differences in income and consumption. 

Impacts on India

While some short-term cost burdens are expected, India stands to benefit significantly in the long run: 

  • Minimal Near-Term Impact: India’s logistics costs are projected to increase by 4.98-7.29% (imports) and 5.92-8.09% (exports) by 2030.
  • Limited Exposure: India currently operates nearly 236 ships over 5,000 gross tonnage, with only 135 involved in international voyages. Since MBMs apply only to international shipping, India’s coastal fleet remains unaffected. 
  • Green Hydrogen Export Potential: Under the National Hydrogen Mission, India is developing a competitive green hydrogen sector. Indian green hydrogen, with a GHG intensity of  about 16.7 gCO₂e/MJ, is well below the IMO’s threshold of 19.0 gCO₂e/MJ (till 2034) and 14.0 gCO₂e/MJ (thereafter), making it a viable export for green fuel bunkering globally.
  • Port Infrastructure: At least three Indian ports are gearing up to offer green hydrogen bunkering, positioning India as a future clean fuel hub.

Despite persistent disagreements, the adoption of a MBM by the IMO represents a milestone in the journey toward decarbonisation. If successful, this framework could make shipping the first truly global sector to operate under binding climate goals, setting a powerful precedent for others to follow. 

CAQM issues 19-point Directives to Eliminate Stubble Burning 

Context: Recently, the Commission for Air Quality Management (CAQM) has released 19-point directives for Delhi, Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh to eliminate stubble burning. 

Earlier, the Supreme Court had directed the constitution of state-level committees in these states to file monthly reports to CAQM. The committees have been tasked to monitor the implementation of the CAQM directions.

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: Key facts about Commission for Air Quality Management (CAQM). 

Mains: Stubble Burning: Concerns & government Initiatives to prevent stubble burning. 

Key highlights of the CAQM Action Plan:

  • Technological Interventions:
    • Mapping of each farm in all villages. ⁠
    • Effective use of IT platforms for planning, procurement, machine booking and their utilisation.
    • Set up an online platform for real-time monitoring of crop residue and its utilisation
    • Tagging of special nodal officers to a group of farmers to cover all the districts. 
  • Machinery and Infrastructure:
    • ⁠Comprehensive review of inventories with a fresh gap analysis and procurement plan for different machinery types to be conducted this year.
    • ⁠Timely procurement of new crop-residue-management (CRM) machines.
    • Optimal availability of machines, mainly for small, marginal farmers. Compulsory rent-free CRM machines for such farmers. 
    • Plan machine movement based on harvesting patterns, schedules.
    • ⁠Optimal use of balers, rakers, among other machines for ex-situ management.
  • Ex-situ Crop Residue Management: 
    • Plan for storage facilities. Parcels of government or panchayat lands to be identified for storage of paddy straw bales
    • District-level supply chain management
    • Fix common procurement price for paddy straw in Punjab & UP
    • Promotion of various government schemes for ex-situ management
    • Set up a pilot common paddy straw-based boiler in industrial units
    • Use paddy straw pellets for co-firing in brick kiln on line with TPPs
  • Enforcement Measures: 
    • Set up a dedicated Parali Protection Force (made up of police, agriculture, and civic officers) to closely monitor, oversee and guard against stubble burning incidents.
    • Intensified patrolling to prevent evasion of satellite monitoring of farm fires.
    • Help citizens report complaints on social media platforms.
    • Farmers who still burn straw risk “red entries” in their land records and environmental compensation fines.

Commission For Air Quality Management (CAQM):

  • CAQM is a statutory body established under the Commission for Air Quality Management in National Capital Region and Adjoining Areas Act, 2021.
  • Objective: To coordinate, research and address problems related to air quality  in the national Capital Region (NCR) and adjoining areas. 
  • Adjoining areas include: areas in the states of Haryana, Punjab, Rajasthan, and Uttar Pradesh adjoining the NCR where any source of pollution may cause adverse impact on air quality in the NCR.
  • It dissolved the Environment Pollution Prevention and Control Authority established in the NCR. 

Also Read: Burning of Agricultural Residue 

Air Pollution in India: Major Pollutants

Context: Air pollution is a leading cause of premature deaths globally. According to recent studies, millions of people die early every year due to poor air quality. Let’s see a breakdown of the sources of many air pollutants that damage our health and ecosystem.

Relevance of the Topic : Prelims: Major sources of air pollution and their impact.

Air Pollution in India

  • The World Air Quality Report 2024, released by Swiss company IQAir, ranked India as the 5th most polluted country globally. 
  • Delhi remains the most polluted capital globally. Six of the world's 10 most polluted cities, and 13 of the top 20 are in India.
  • In 2021, 1.05 million deaths in India were caused by household air pollution. 

Major Air Pollutants

Six main types of air pollutants contributes to this problem: 

  • Sulphur Dioxide (SO₂): Energy production, especially coal-based thermal power plants releasing sulphur upon combustion, is the biggest contributor to sulphur dioxide emissions. SO2 is the main pollutant that causes acid rain, sulphur reacts with water and oxygen present in the atmosphere to form sulphuric acid which is the main component of acid rain. 
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  • Nitrogen Oxides (NOx): The biggest source of Nitrogen oxides is transport: NOx is emitted from the exhaust of cars and trucks. It is followed by the burning of coal and gas for electricity production. NOx can be acutely toxic, inflaming the lungs.
  • Black Carbon: Black carbon is the soot that fills our skies and lungs. It is a big problem in lower-income countries where people rely on burning biomass and charcoal for cooking and openly burning waste. 
  • Methane: Methane is a potent greenhouse gas, its global warming potential is greater than that of Carbon dioxide. Methane is produced when organic material, such as food waste, rots in conditions without much oxygen (a landfill). Agriculture is the biggest source of methane. The other sector that contributes a lot is waste. 
  • Ammonia: Studies show ammonia (NH3) could drive up to 3,85,000 premature deaths from particulate matter. Nearly all human emissions of NH3 come from agriculture.
  • Non-methane volatile organic compounds: Non-methane volatile organic compounds can be directly toxic and mix with other gases to form ozone and small particulates. Unlike most other pollutants, solvents such as paints, cleaning products, and chemical plants are also major sources. 

Also Read: Impacts of Air Pollution

 

How Governmentality exacerbates the problem of Stubble Burning

Context: Stubble burning is not just a result of farmers' apathy but a systemic outcome of distorted marketing systems and neo-liberal governance.

Relevance of the Topic: Mains: Factors leading to stubble burning.

Factors contributing to Pollution in Northern India

Every winter, the Indo-Gangetic Plains in India are enveloped in a dense shroud of pollution. Two major factors contributing to this alarming environmental condition are: 

1. Temperature Inversion: 

  • Withdrawal of monsoonal winds and the onset of cooler temperatures creates an Inversion Layer, an atmospheric condition conducive to pollution accumulation.
  • A layer of warm air traps cooler air beneath it, inhibiting vertical dispersion of pollutants such as vehicular emissions, industrial smoke, construction dust, and suspended particulate matter. These pollutants, instead of dispersing into the upper atmosphere, remain concentrated near the surface causing a dense smog.
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2. Stubble Burning: 

  • Farmers in Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh rely on stubble burning as a cost-effective and time-saving method to clear paddy residue before sowing Rabi wheat.
  • As per a 2023 study by IIT Kanpur, IIT Delhi, TERI, and Airshed, stubble burning contributed an average of 22% to air pollution levels between mid-October and end-November 2022, with peak contributions reaching 35%. These findings are consistent with previous estimates ranging from 20% to 40%, underscoring the recurring and significant role of agricultural residue burning in deteriorating air quality.

Complex Issue of Stubble Burning

Although often viewed as a law-and-order issue or individual farmer negligence, recent studies indicate that this is a systemic outcome of distorted marketing systems and neo-liberal governance. 

  • Distorted Agricultural Incentives: Preferential procurement of wheat and rice under Minimum Support Price, indirectly promotes monocropping and discourages crop diversification. The narrow crop choices reduce flexibility, compelling farmers to use quick and low-cost methods like stubble burning to prepare for the next sowing cycle.
  • Issues in APMCs and Intermediary dependence: The agricultural marketing system is dominated by middlemen (arhtiyas), who exercise control over pricing, credit access, and market connectivity. Farmers are often forced to sell at low prices, leading to chronic indebtedness and financial stress. Low crop prices →  low income →  less ability to afford clean alternatives → more stubble burning. 
  • Stagnant MSP rates (E.g., wheat prices rose only 5% over a decade) fail to cover rising cultivation costs, including labour and equipment.
  • Neo-liberal Governance and ‘Governmentality’: Drawing from Michel Foucault’s concept of ‘governmentality’, the IIM Amritsar study highlights that the state nudges farmers toward self-regulation without adequate institutional support. On one hand, farmers are penalised for stubble burning, while on the other, the state continues to push for higher grain production to meet food security goals. This contradictory stance fosters sub-optimal behaviours like stubble burning as coping mechanisms within a broken system.

Hence, the state and market forces create a cycle of marginalisation, pushing farmers toward stubble burning as a survival tactic. 

Remedial Measures

  • Market Development for Stubble-Based Products: Focus on developing a market for stubble and stubble-based products, such as fodder, energy products like pellets and packaging materials, aimed to boost farmers’ income, while simultaneously addressing climate change challenges. 
  • Policy and Market intervention: Currently, there is a significant lack of an efficient market mechanism for farm-waste, underscoring the need for policy and market interventions to bridge this gap.
  • Fair prices for Farmers: Ensuring that farmers receive fair prices for their produce by addressing existing inefficiencies within the market system. Digitise procurement platforms to reduce intermediary exploitation. 
  • Addressing Aspirational consumption: Recognise the role of aspirational consumption in exacerbating farm indebtedness. Socio-cultural organisations, including religious groups, could play a role in de-marketing non-essential aspirational consumption. 

Also Read: Burning of Agricultural Residue 

Stubble burning is not merely an act of environmental negligence but a manifestation of deeper agrarian and policy dysfunctions. Addressing the issue requires a farmer-centric, market-sensitive, and ecologically sustainable integrated approach.

Marble waste poses long-term risks

Context: Kishangarh in Rajasthan, known for its marble industry, has gained attention for its unique “snow yard”, a landscape formed by marble slurry waste that visually resembles snow. While this site is promoted as a tourist destination, it raises serious environmental and public health concerns. 

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts related to Marble and impact of unregulated marble slurry dumping on environment and health.

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Key Highlights

  • Kishangarh has Asia’s biggest marble and granite mandi (market). Once it was a princely state in the central Rajputana territory of British India, known for its temples.  
  • Availability of marble, granite, and other stones in Rajasthan has led to the establishment of about 1200 marble cutting and processing units in the region.
  • Marble slurry, containing 60% water, has been dumped. Spread over 200 acres, the slurry dumping site resembles a snow-covered field due to calcium carbonate deposits.

Environmental and Health Impacts of Marble Slurry Dumping

A study by Central University of Rajasthan revealed high Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) in water sources up to 10x above safe limits within 6 km of the site.

  • Reduces soil fertility: Fine marble particles (<75 micrometres) reduce soil fertility and pose long-term ecological risks. Marble dust often settles on farm lands and mixes with irrigation water affecting crop production. 
  • Contaminates drinking water: Due to Marble contamination the groundwater is not fit for drinking or irrigation, as it contains fine marble particles. 
  • Air Pollution: Workers suffer from respiratory issues like chronic cough due to constant exposure to marble dust, and locals allege a rise in pollution-related diseases.

Key facts related to Marble:  

  • Marble is a metamorphic rock composed primarily of calcium carbonate (CaCO₃).
  • It forms through the metamorphism of limestone under high pressure and temperature.
  • Largest producer: Rajasthan (notably Makrana, Kishangarh, Rajsamand, Chittorgarh).
  • Also found in Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh.

Eden – Edible alternative to Plastic Wrappers

Context: Innovators from Kerala have developed edible food wrappers named ‘Eden Wrap’. The eco-friendly wrapper is a sustainable innovation and can offer promising alternatives to plastic packaging. 

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: Key facts related to Eden. 

Mains: Can be used as an example in a step towards sustainable development.

Key Facts related to Eden

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  • The base material of the wrapper is derived from cellulose synthesised by specialised bacteria. 
  • Emulsifiers derived from bacteria along with essential oils extracted from specific plants are incorporated into the base material to form the wrapper. The essential oils give it an antimicrobial property, thus extending the shelf life. 
  • Despite its plastic-like appearance, Eden Wrap is fully-edible. If discarded, it naturally decomposes within a month.
  • Significance: The packaging material will extend the shelf life of food. The edible wrappers will help in reducing plastic waste and promote sustainable living.
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Plastic packaging accounts for approximately 40% of global plastic production, with food packaging emerging as the leading end-use sector. This underscores the urgent need for sustainable alternatives to conventional packaging materials.  

Aerosol Paradox: Why removing Aerosols can Heat up India

Context: Rapidly reducing aerosol emissions, without concurrently reducing greenhouse gas emissions, could expose a large fraction of vulnerable people in highly polluted regions of India to a sudden acceleration of warming and extreme heat.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Aerosols: Role and Removal; Aerosols vs GHGs.  

What are Aerosols?

  • Aerosols are tiny solid or liquid particles suspended in the atmosphere. E.g., black soot, sulphur aerosols, sea salt, dust etc. 
  • Origin: 
    • Natural sources (such as volcanic eruptions, forest fires, and sea spray)
    • Human activities (such as industrial emissions, vehicular pollution, and burning of fossil fuels).
  • Role of Aerosols:
    • Aerosols scatter solar radiation, thus, reducing the amount of heat reaching the Earth's surface.
    • They act as cloud-condensation nuclei and contribute to cloud formation and influence the water cycle.
Aerosolos and climate

What are Greenhouse Gases?

  • GHGs are gases that trap heat in the Earth's atmosphere, leading to global warming.
  • Key GHGs: Carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), and fluorinated gases.

Greenhouse Gases vs. Aerosols

  • GHGs trap heat and contribute to global warming, whereas aerosols can counteract this effect by reflecting sunlight.
  • GHGs have a long atmospheric lifespan- persisting for decades to centuries; their effects are global and long-term. Aerosols have a shorter lifespan compared to GHGs, meaning their effects are more immediate and localised.

Aerosols as Pollutants: 

While aerosols provide a temporary cooling effect, they also contribute to air pollution which has significant health and environmental repercussions. 

  • Coal-based thermal power plants in India contribute significantly to GHG, aerosol emissions and particulate matter pollution. 
  • Sulphur dioxide (SO2) emitted from coal combustion forms sulphate aerosols, which reflect sunlight and cool the atmosphere.

Impacts of Aerosol Removal from Environment

The removal of aerosols at its source to reduce pollution could inadvertently contribute to warming.

1. Aerosols affecting Temperature rise in India: 

  • Studies indicate that aerosols have masked a portion of the warming caused by GHG emissions.
    • Between 1906 and 2005, India warmed by 0.54°C, but the actual warming due to GHGs was around 2°C, with aerosols offsetting approximately 1.5°C.
    • If aerosols were not present, India would have experienced much greater warming.
  • The Ministry of Earth Sciences reported that India's average temperature rose by 0.7°C from 1901 to 2018, with GHG-induced warming being partially countered by aerosols.

2. Impact on Monsoon and Rainfall Patterns: 

  • Aerosols have played a role in decreasing Indian monsoon rainfall due to their cooling effect, especially in the Northern Hemisphere. Aerosols have a cooling effect by scattering sunlight. This results in reduced land-sea temperature contrast, which in turn results in a weaker South-West monsoon. 
  • The removal of aerosols may increase rainfall, but the resulting warming can cause erratic weather patterns, climate volatility and extreme events.

3. Global and Regional Implications of Aerosol Reduction: 

  • The impact of aerosols is not confined to national borders; changes in emissions in one region can affect distant locations. E.g., China's reduction in aerosol emissions intensified heatwaves along the west coast of North America.
  • Similarly, any significant increase in aerosols over India could negatively impact the hydrological cycle. The remote effects of aerosols must be considered when formulating climate policies.

Net-Zero Targets and Future Challenges: 

  • While reducing aerosols improves air quality and public health, it may also lead to a sudden increase in heat stress. Achieving net-zero emissions requires simultaneous reductions in both GHGs and aerosols. 
  • A gradual approach to aerosol reduction, coupled with aggressive GHG mitigation, is crucial for maintaining climate balance.

Need for Long-Term Adaptation Policies

  • Policymakers must prepare for the consequences of aerosol reduction by implementing robust heat action plans and comprehensive long-term strategies.
  • Future policies should consider the trade-offs between improved air quality, increased temperatures, and altered rainfall patterns.
  • Investment in urban planning, climate adaptation measures, and early warning systems will be essential.

A well-planned transition strategy is crucial to ensuring climate resilience while addressing pollution control measures effectively. Policymakers must balance short-term and long-term climate goals to protect vulnerable populations while mitigating global warming. 

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