Pollution & Environmental Issues

Health Impacts of Plastics: A Growing Global Public Health Challenge

Context: A global lifecycle assessment published in The Lancet Planetary Health has issued a strong warning that plastic-related emissions are emerging as a major public health threat. By quantifying health impacts across the entire plastics lifecycle—extraction, production, use, disposal, and open burning—the study highlights the scale and urgency of plastic pollution beyond environmental damage.

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Key Findings of the Study

  • Doubling of Health Burden: Under business-as-usual trends, plastic-related emissions are projected to cause more than a twofold increase in Disability-Adjusted Life Years (DALYs) by 2040, indicating severe population-level health impacts.
  • Delayed Production Peak: Global plastic production is unlikely to peak before 2100, prolonging exposure to toxic emissions and increasing cumulative health risks.
  • First Global Lifecycle Estimate: The study provides the first comprehensive global quantification of health impacts across the entire plastics lifecycle using DALYs as a common metric.
  • Chemical Opacity: Lack of transparency and non-disclosure of plastic chemical compositions limits accurate health risk assessment and weakens evidence-based policymaking.

DALYs Explained:
Disability-Adjusted Life Years (DALYs) combine years of life lost due to premature death and years lived with illness or disability, capturing the total health burden on society.

Major Health Impacts Identified

  • Air Pollution Exposure: Plastic production and open burning release fine particulate matter (PM₂.₅), increasing risks of asthma, chronic respiratory diseases, cardiovascular disorders, and premature mortality.
  • Toxicity-Induced Illnesses: Hazardous chemicals such as additives, stabilisers, and by-products released throughout the plastics lifecycle are linked to cancers, endocrine disruption, and long-term non-communicable diseases.

Key Recommendations by the Lancet Study

  • Reduce Virgin Plastic Production: Advocates deep cuts in primary (new) plastic manufacturing, especially for non-essential and single-use products.
  • Adopt Full Lifecycle Policies: Urges governments to regulate plastics from fossil fuel extraction to disposal and environmental leakage.
  • Ensure Chemical Transparency: Calls for mandatory disclosure of chemical compositions to strengthen health risk assessments and regulatory frameworks.
  • Global Coordinated Action: Emphasises fast-tracking a legally binding Global Plastics Treaty to address pollution and associated health impacts worldwide.

Significance

The findings reposition plastic pollution as a public health emergency, not merely an environmental concern. By linking plastics to rising disease burdens, the study strengthens the case for preventive regulation, international cooperation, and sustainable material transitions, aligning environmental protection with human health outcomes.

Fluoride Contamination in Groundwater

Excess fluoride in groundwater has emerged as a serious public health and environmental concern in India. Recent reports from Odisha’s Mayurbhanj district indicate fluoride concentrations as high as 8.2 mg/L, far exceeding safe limits and causing widespread dental and skeletal fluorosis across several villages. The issue highlights the intersection of geogenic pollution, drinking water safety, and rural health.

About Fluoride

Fluoride is a naturally occurring mineral found in soil, water, plants, and living organisms. In trace amounts, it is beneficial for dental health, strengthening tooth enamel. However, excessive intake over prolonged periods leads to fluorosis.

  • Safe Limits:
    • WHO guideline: 1.5 mg/L
    • BIS standard: 1.0 mg/L (desirable) and 1.5 mg/L (maximum permissible)
  • Source of Contamination:
    Fluoride enters groundwater through leaching of fluoride-bearing minerals such as fluorspar, cryolite, fluorapatite, and granite, especially in hard-rock aquifers.

Health Impacts

  • Dental Fluorosis:
    Affects children below eight years; symptoms range from faint white streaks on teeth to brown stains and pitting.
  • Skeletal Fluorosis:
    Results from long-term exposure; causes joint pain, bone deformities, stiffness, and in severe cases, permanent disability.
  • Neurological Effects:
    Studies from endemic regions indicate that high fluoride exposure may impair children’s cognitive development and lower IQ.

India’s Burden

Fluoride contamination above safe limits has been reported in 469 districts across 27 States.

  • Highly affected States: Rajasthan (highest burden), Haryana, Karnataka, Telangana, Gujarat, and Andhra Pradesh.
    The widespread nature of the problem makes fluorosis a national public health challenge rather than a localized issue.

Government Action and Institutional Measures

  • National Programme for Prevention and Control of Fluorosis (NPPCF):
    Launched in 2008–09, now implemented under the National Health Mission (NHM) to prevent, diagnose, and manage fluorosis.
  • Jal Jeevan Mission (JJM):
    Initiated in 2019 to provide functional household tap connections with safe drinking water to all rural households.
    • Har Ghar Jal Yojana ensures potable water supply.
    • Jal Sakhis conduct village-level water quality testing.
  • Defluoridation Technologies:
    • Nalgonda Technique: Uses aluminium salts, lime, and bleaching powder.
    • Activated Alumina Filters: Remove fluoride through adsorption.

Conclusion

Addressing fluoride contamination requires a multi-pronged approach—safe water supply, continuous monitoring, affordable defluoridation technologies, and community awareness. Strengthening groundwater governance is essential to prevent fluorosis and safeguard public health.

CPCB Finds Chemical Dust Suppressants More Effective Than Water

Context: A study commissioned by the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) has found that chemical dust suppressants are significantly more effective than water sprinkling in controlling particulate matter emissions from construction sites, roads, and industrial areas. The findings assume importance amid India’s worsening urban air pollution, particularly PM₁₀ and PM₂.₅ pollution.

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What Are Chemical Dust Suppressants?

Chemical dust suppressants are specialised agents applied to exposed soil, roads, construction sites, and mining areas to reduce dust emissions.
They work by binding loose particles, increasing particle weight, or forming a surface layer that prevents dust from becoming airborne.

Common Types of Chemical Dust Suppressants

  1. Hygroscopic Salts
    • Calcium chloride, magnesium chloride
    • Absorb moisture from the air and keep surfaces damp for longer durations.
  2. Polymer-Based Suppressants
    • Acrylic and vinyl-acetate polymers
    • Form adhesive films that lock dust particles in place.
  3. Organic Binders
    • Lignosulfonates (wood pulp derivatives)
    • Bind soil particles naturally and are biodegradable.
  4. Surfactants
    • Anionic surfactants
    • Reduce water’s surface tension, allowing better spread and penetration.
  5. Bituminous or Petroleum Emulsions
    • Harden into a crust that resists wind and vehicular disturbance.

Why Chemical Suppressants Are More Effective

1. Higher Dust Reduction

  • Chemical suppressants reduce dust by 50–60%,
  • Water sprinkling achieves only 25–30% reduction.

2. Longer Effectiveness

  • Chemical treatment remains effective for several hours,
  • Water dries up in 10–15 minutes, especially in hot or windy conditions.

3. Better Control of Fine Particles

  • More effective against PM₁₀ and PM₂.₅, which are most harmful to health.

4. Cost Efficiency

  • Six-hour chemical treatment costs around ₹100,
  • Water sprinkling for the same duration costs nearly ₹2,160, considering repeated application.

Limitations and Concerns

  • Traffic Sensitivity: Heavy vehicular movement reduces durability.
  • Health Risks: Improper use may cause mild skin or respiratory irritation.
  • Environmental Impact: Repeated application can affect soil health, groundwater, and nearby vegetation.
  • Weather Dependence: Extreme rainfall or humidity can reduce effectiveness.

Policy Significance

  • Supports CPCB and State Pollution Control Boards in shifting from inefficient water sprinkling to evidence-based dust control methods.
  • Can improve compliance under Construction and Demolition Waste Management Rules, 2016 and NCAP goals.
  • Highlights the need for guidelines, monitoring, and environmental safeguards before large-scale adoption.

Conclusion

The CPCB study establishes chemical dust suppressants as a cost-effective and longer-lasting solution to urban dust pollution. However, their use must be regulated, location-specific, and environmentally monitored to ensure sustainable pollution control without unintended ecological harm.

Bioremediation in India: From Pollution Burden to Nature-Based Cleanup

Context: India faces one of the world’s largest industrial and urban pollution burdens — from toxic rivers and chemical waste to heavy metal hotspots. Traditional clean-up methods remain expensive, energy-intensive, and incapable of tackling the growing scale of contamination. In this context, bioremediation, a nature-driven pollution treatment technique, is emerging as a sustainable, low-cost alternative to restore degraded environments.

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What is Bioremediation?

Bioremediation harnesses the power of microbes, fungi, algae, and plants to break down dangerous pollutants into harmless by-products such as water, carbon dioxide, or stable mineral forms. Techniques may be in-situ (treating contamination on-site) or ex-situ (excavation and treatment elsewhere).

It aligns perfectly with circular economy goals — returning polluted ecosystems to productive health rather than relocating toxins.

Why India Needs Bioremediation Urgently

India’s environmental crisis is largely human-made, and biological tools can help reverse the damage:

• Polluted Rivers: CPCB (2024) notes ~72% of monitored river stretches remain polluted, dominated by sewage and industrial discharge.
• Industrial Legacy Waste: Over 1,700 contaminated sites are officially identified — tanneries, pesticide dumps, petrochemical leaks, and e-waste hubs.
• Heavy Metal Hotspots: Chromium in Kanpur groundwater exceeds WHO limits by 100–250 times, impacting health and food safety.
• Cost Advantage: Bioremediation reduces clean-up expenditure by up to 60–70% (MoEFCC estimates).

For a developing country balancing fiscal limits and ecological recovery, this approach offers the best price-performance ratio.

Challenges in Scaling

Despite promise, India has not mainstreamed bioremediation into national pollution strategy.

  1. Microbe Suitability Issues
    Over 58% microbial formulations failed in field trials (CSIR, 2023) due to soil and pH variability.
  2. Regulatory Gaps
    No national protocol exists for approval or deployment of microbial agents; only 6 states have operational guidelines.
  3. Approval Delays for GM Bioremediation
    Less than 15% of DBT proposals using genetically engineered microbes received clearance (2022–24), slowing innovation.
  4. Monitoring and Biosafety
    MoEFCC pilots indicate uncontrolled microbe dominance risks if ecological monitoring is weak.

India’s institutional ecosystem must catch up with technological potential.

Way Forward

A smart expansion strategy must integrate science, governance, and community capacity:

• National Standards & Microbe Registry under MoEFCC — similar to the US EPA Superfund model.
• Regional Bioremediation Hubs connecting IITs–CSIR–industry–urban bodies, focusing on cluster-level sites.
• Startup mobilisation via DBT-BIRAC for affordable microbial kits in sewage plants and landfills.
• Community-led Implementation — jobs for local workers in applying and monitoring biological treatment systems.

Ultimately, bioremediation aligns with Mission LiFE and India’s global climate commitments — enabling ecological recovery without economic strain.

Conclusion

As India navigates the twin crises of pollution and climate stress, bioremediation is not merely a technical intervention but a shift toward living with nature, not against it. With the right regulatory push and local adoption, it can transform India’s toxic legacies into landscapes of regeneration.

E-Waste Recycling Through Urban Mining

Context: India generated 1.75 million tonnes of e-waste in 2023–24, equivalent to 16% of Europe’s total, highlighting the immense potential for urban mining and critical raw material (CRM) recovery.
Urban mining refers to extracting valuable materials such as gold, copper, lithium, and cobalt from discarded electronic devices and other waste products.

E-Waste Data in India

  • Generation: 1.75 million tonnes (↑72.5% since 2019–20).
  • Recycling Rate: Improved from 22% (2019–20) to 43% (2023–24).
  • Metal Recovery: From every tonne of e-waste — Gold: 300 g, Silver: 1 kg (Circular Economy Report, 2023).

Significance of Urban Mining

  • Economic Potential: Proper recycling can generate ₹20,000–₹25,000 crore annually (CPCB, 2024).
  • Job Creation: Expected to create 5 lakh green jobs in recycling sectors (NITI Aayog, 2024).
  • Critical Resource Security: Reduces dependence on imports of lithium, cobalt, and rare earths — essential for EVs and electronics.
  • Circular Economy Boost: Helps achieve SDG 12 (Responsible Consumption and Production) and supports Mission LiFE for sustainable lifestyles.

Challenges

  • Technological Gaps: India lacks advanced CRM extraction and smelting facilities.
  • Governance Overlap: Responsibilities divided between MoHUA (urban sanitation) and MoEFCC (waste management).
  • Low Segregation: Only 25% of waste is segregated at source (CPCB, 2023).
  • Informal Sector Exclusion: Around 15 lakh waste pickers remain outside formal recycling systems.
  • Financial Constraints: Urban local bodies recover less than 20% of user charges for waste services (NIUA, 2023).

Way Forward

  • Urban Mining Parks: Develop regional CRM recovery hubs; emulate Japan’s Eco-Town and China’s Urban Mining Bases.
  • Circular Resource Strategy: Implement the NITI Aayog Circular Economy Action Plan (2021).
  • Integrate Informal Sector: Support cooperatives and SHGs through schemes like Swachhata Start-up Challenge.
  • Smart Waste Tracking: Use AI, GIS, and IoT in Smart City Command Centres for collection optimisation.
  • Unified Waste Authority: Merge MoHUA and MoEFCC functions under one nodal body, similar to the EU Waste Framework Directive (2008).

Global Note: International E-Waste Day (October 14) promotes responsible e-waste recycling and the conservation of critical raw materials essential for clean energy and digital transitions.

Rising Urban Noise Pollution

Context: Urban noise pollution has emerged as one of the neglected public health crises despite policy measures. 

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: Legal Framework, Constitutional Provisions related to noise pollution.

Mains: Key reasons for rising noise pollution and associated challenges.

As per the World Health Organisation, safe limits in silent zones are 50 dB by day and 40 dB by night. Yet in cities such as Delhi and Bengaluru readings near sensitive institutions often reach 65 dB-70 dB.

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Existing Measures for Noise Regulation: 

  • The Noise Pollution (Regulation and Control) Rules, 2000 provide legal provisions for defining silent zones and regulating permissible limits.
  • The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) launched the National Ambient Noise Monitoring Network (NANMN) in 2011 to generate real-time noise data across Indian cities.
  • State governments and local authorities are empowered to regulate loudspeakers, firecrackers, construction activities, and industrial operations.
  • Article 21 guarantees the right to life with dignity, encompassing mental and environmental well-being. 
  • Article 48A mandates proactive environmental protection. 
  • Public awareness campaigns such as “No Honking Day” in some states, have been undertaken to encourage behavioural change among citizens.

Despite the presence of policy measures, noise pollution continues to rise because enforcement has remained weak and largely symbolic.

Gaps and Challenges in Implementation: 

  • Weak enforcement of the Noise Pollution Rules and penalties for violations are rarely imposed. E.g., Noise Pollution Rules 2000 are rarely updated to reflect urban realities.
  • Lack of coordination: Multiple agencies such as traffic police, municipal bodies, and State Pollution Control Boards act in silos, which leads to a lack of coordination.
  • Fragmented Data: Data generated by the National Ambient Noise Monitoring Network often remains fragmented and is not effectively linked to enforcement actions.
  • Technological bottlenecks: Sensor placement is frequently flawed, with many devices installed at heights of 25-30 feet, which leads to inaccurate readings.
  • Public apathy and normalisation of honking, drilling, and construction noise reduce civic pressure on authorities to act.
  • Urbanisation, late-night infrastructure work, and logistics-driven traffic contribute to rising noise levels despite existing restrictions.

Health, Social and Ecological Impacts

Noise pollution has severe health consequences, including hypertension, cardiovascular disease, stress, and disturbed sleep cycles.

  • Children exposed to high noise levels experience impaired cognitive development and reduced learning outcomes.
  • Elderly citizens and individuals with pre-existing health conditions face aggravated mental and physical health challenges.
  • Noise pollution reduces productivity, increases irritability, and lowers the overall quality of life in cities.
  • Noise disrupts animal communication systems. E.g., A 2025 University of Auckland study found that urban noise altered the sleep and song patterns of common mynas within a single night. Such disruptions signal a broader breakdown of ecological communication, which affects biodiversity and the urban environment.

In 2024, the Supreme Court of India affirmed that environmental disruptions, including excessive noise, can infringe upon the fundamental right to life and dignity under Article 21

Global Experiences and Best Practices: 

  • Europe: The European Environment Agency estimated in 2020 that noise pollution causes annual economic losses worth €100 billion due to its health impacts. In response, several European cities redesigned speed zones, enforced strict zoning regulations, and integrated noise mapping into urban planning.
  • Japan: Japan has introduced acoustic zoning laws and noise-mapping systems that guide urban development and reduce sound exposure in residential areas.

India, by contrast, suffers from regulatory fragmentation and institutional silence. 

Way Forward

  • Formulation of National Acoustic Policy on the lines of the National Ambient Air Quality Standards to establish permissible decibel levels for different urban zones. The policy must mandate regular noise audits and empower local grievance redressal mechanisms to make enforcement citizen-centric.
  • Decentralisation of National Ambient Noise Monitoring Network (NANMN) to give local bodies access to real-time data and responsibility for immediate action.
  • Directly linking noise monitoring with enforcement to ensure that violations invite penalties, strict zoning compliance, and restrictions on construction activities.
  • Public awareness must be institutionalised through continuous campaigns, driver training programmes, and community initiatives. 
  • Urban planning must integrate acoustic resilience by creating noise-buffer zones, embedding green spaces, and designing infrastructure that balances speed with sonic civility.

Tackling urban noise pollution requires moving beyond token regulations towards a rights-based approach that upholds Article 21 guarantee of life with dignity.

Ocean Model affirms Fukushima Wastewater release is Safe

Context: A recent simulation study by Japanese researchers using an ocean circulation model has affirmed that Fukushima wastewater release is safe. 

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key idea about Nuclear contamination; Key facts about Tritium. 

Japan releases wastewater from Fukushima Nuclear Plant

  • An earthquake followed by a tsunami in 2011 wrecked the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant in Japan, destroying its cooling system and causing reactor cores to overheat and contaminate water within the facility with highly radioactive material.
  • Since the disaster, power plant company TEPCO has been pumping in water to cool down the damaged reactors' fuel rods. Every day the plants produce contaminated water which is stored in around 1,000 tanks, which are already filled to 98% of their 1.37 million-ton capacity. 
  • This water has been treated to remove most radioactive contaminants but still contains tritium (a radioactive isotope of hydrogen) and Carbon-14 which are difficult to separate from water.
  • In 2021, Japan’s government announced plans to release over one million tonnes of contaminated water from the Fukushima nuclear plant into the Pacific ocean over the next 30 years.

Rationale to release wastewater

  • There is a lack of available space for additional storage tanks, as well as due to safety risks and expense of managing the accumulating water. 
  • Japan states that the water has been treated and diluted before releasing it into the ocean. The water contains about 190 becquerels of tritium per litre, below the World Health Organisation drinking water limit of 10,000 becquerels per litre (Bq/L). (Becquerel is a unit of radioactivity). 

Associated Concerns: 

The release has raised concerns among China and South Korea, as well as environmental and anti-nuclear groups regarding its potential impact on public health (increase the risk of cancer), seafood and marine environment. 

  • Waste water released into the ocean off Fukushima will not be contained to waters surrounding Japan. It will be carried by ocean currents, particularly the cross-Pacific Kuroshio current, to other parts of the world.
  • Marine animals that migrate great distances, phytoplankton (free-floating organisms) and microplastics can all act as Trojan horses to spread radionucleotides far away. 
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Findings of the latest Research by Japanese Researchers:

  • Low radiation levels: As the nuclear facility is releasing tritiated water gradually, the Tritium levels (radiation level) is even lower than that due to natural and historical sources. The peaks from the routine discharge never exceed 0.002 Bq/L, which is 25x (25 times) lower than natural background radiation levels.
  • Impact of Warming: Warmer oceans might shift the Kuroshio Current a little North and strengthen eastward flow, speeding up tritium dispersion in the mid-Pacific. However, Tritium concentrations will still remain three orders of magnitude below detection threshold.

Since, Tritium has a half life of around 12 years, natural decay reduces long-term risk. Even under extreme warming or a worst-case eddy transport scenario, the levels of the Tritium would remain undetectable across the wider Pacific Ocean by 2099. 

About Tritium:

  • Tritium is a radioactive isotope of Hydrogen with a half-life of about 12 years. Hydrogen has three isotopes:
    • Protium- one proton and zero neutron
    • Deuterium - one proton and one neutron
    • Tritium - one proton and two neutrons
  • Occurrence: Naturally occurring tritium is extremely rare on Earth. The atmosphere has only trace amounts, formed by the interaction of Nitrogen with cosmic rays. It can be produced artificially as a low-abundance byproduct in nuclear reactors.
  • Uses: 
    • Energy source in radioluminescent lights for watches, gun sights, numerous instruments and tools.
    • Radioactive tracer in a medical and scientific setting.
    • Nuclear fusion fuel, along with more abundant deuterium, in tokamak reactors and hydrogen bombs.
  • Concerns: Tritium is easily absorbed by the bodies of living creatures and rapidly distributed via blood. 

What is the Potential of Biochar?

Context: India plans to launch its carbon market in 2026 aiming to reduce carbon emissions. Among the potential carbon removal technologies, Biochar has emerged as a promising option.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Concept of Biochar. 
Mains: Biochar: What, potential, benefits, challenges.

What is Biochar? 

  • Biochar is a type of charcoal rich in carbon produced from pyrolysis of biomass (agricultural residue, municipal solid waste) under limited or no oxygen conditions. It offers a sustainable alternative to manage waste and capture carbon. 
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India generates over 600 million metric tonnes of agricultural residue and over 60 million tonnes of municipal solid waste every year. A significant portion of both is burnt openly or dumped in landfills, leading to air pollution from particulate matter and greenhouse gases such as methane, nitrous oxide, and CO2. 

Utility of Biochar

  • Waste management: By using 30% to 50% of surplus waste, India can produce 15-26 million tonnes of biochar and remove 0.1 gigatonnes of CO2-equivalent annually. 
  • Byproducts of biochar production, such as syngas (20-30 million tonnes) and bio-oil (24-40 million tonnes), can generate additional electricity and fuels.
    • Utilising syngas could generate around 8-13 TWh of power, equivalent to 0.5-0.7% of India’s annual electricity generation, replacing 0.4-0.7 million tonnes of coal per year.
    • Bio-oil can potentially offset 12-19 million tonnes (or 8%) of diesel or kerosene production annually, leading to lower crude oil imports and reducing more than 2% of India’s total fossil-fuel-based emissions.
  • Carbon sink: Biochar can hold carbon in the soil for 100-1,000 years due to its strong and stable characteristics, making it an effective long-term carbon sink. 
  • Agriculture: 
    • Applying biochar can improve water retention, particularly in semi-dry and nutrient-depleted soils. This can abate nitrous oxide emissions by 30-50%.
    • Biochar can also enhance soil organic carbon helping restore degraded soils.
  • Industrial sector: In carbon capture applications, modified biochar can adsorb CO2 from industrial exhaust gases. 
  • Construction sector:
    • Biochar can be explored as a low-carbon alternative to building materials.
    • Adding 2-5% of biochar to concrete can improve mechanical strength, increase heat resistance by 20%, and capture 115 kg of CO2 per cubic metre, making building materials a stable carbon sink.
  • Wastewater treatment: Biochar offers a low-cost and effective option to reduce pollution. India generates more than 70 billion litres of wastewater every day, of which 72% is left untreated. A kilogram of biochar along with other substances can treat 200-500 litres of wastewater, implying a biochar demand potential of 2.5-6.3 million tonnes. 

What hinders Biochar’s Application? 

Despite its theoretically substantial potential to capture carbon, biochar remains underrepresented in carbon credit systems due to: 

  • Absence of standardised feedstock markets and consistent carbon accounting methods, which undermine investor confidence. 
  • Barriers such as limited resources, evolving technologies, market uncertainties, and insufficient policy support. 
  • Viable business models are yet to emerge for large-scale adoption. Market development is further constrained by:
    • limited awareness among stakeholders, 
    • weak ‘monitoring, reporting, verification’ frameworks, and
    • lack of coordination across areas such as agriculture, energy, and climate policy.

Way Forward

To enable large-scale adoption : 

  • Sustained support for R&D is essential to create region-specific feedstock standards and to optimize biomass utilisation rates based on agro-climatic zones and crop types.
  • Biochar should be systematically integrated into existing and upcoming frameworks, including crop residue management schemes, bioenergy initiatives in both urban and rural contexts, and state-level climate strategies under the State Action Plans on Climate Change. 
  • Recognising biochar as a verifiable carbon removal pathway within the Indian carbon market will generate additional income for investors and farmers through carbon credits. 
  • Deploying biochar production equipment at the village level has the potential to create approximately 5.2 lakh rural jobs, linking climate action with inclusive economic development.
  • The additional benefits of biochar, such as better soil health, lower fertilizer requirement (by 10-20%), and higher crop yield (by 10-25%), should be systematically integrated into policy and market frameworks to fully realise its potential.

Biochar, though not a silver bullet, offers a science-backed multisectoral pathway for India to achieve its climate and development goals.

Long-term Air Pollution Exposure increases Dementia Risk

Context: A new large-scale study by Cambridge University researchers has found that long-term exposure to air pollution is linked to an increased risk of developing dementia. 

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Major Pollutants and associated Health risks; ROS. 

The data from the World Health Organisation (WHO) shows that 99% of the world’s population breathes air containing high levels of pollutants. 

Long-term Air Pollution Exposure increases Dementia Risk: Highlights of the Study

S. No. Pollutants Description Associated Risks
1.PM 2.5Extremely fine particulate matter with a diameter of 2.5 micrometres or less. 


Predominantly produced by vehicle emissions and thermal power plants. 		For every 10 micrograms per cubic metre (µg/m³) of long-term exposure to PM2.5, an individual’s relative risk of dementia would increase by 17% from the baseline. 
2.Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) Produced primarily due to the burning of fossil fuels by vehicles, thermal power plants, and various industrial processes. For every 10 μg/m³ of long-term exposure to nitrogen dioxide, the relative risk of dementia increased by 3%.
3.Soot Soot or Black Carbon comes from sources such as vehicle exhaust emissions and burning wood.  The study reported that dementia risk jumped by 13% for each 1 μg/m³ of long-term soot exposure.

What is Dementia?

  • Dementia is a term for several diseases that affect memory, thinking, and the ability to perform daily activities. The illness gets worse over time, and mainly affects older people. 
  • According to WHO, ~57 million people worldwide had dementia in 2021. The number is expected to increase to at least 150 million cases by 2050. The rise in air pollution, especially in developing countries, might lead to an even sharper rise in cases. 
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How Air Pollution causes Dementia?

  • When pollutants are inhaled, the body’s immune system fights back through the release of Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS). ROS are the chemicals used by immune cells to neutralise foreign substances. When larger concentrations of pollutants are inhaled, greater amounts of ROS are released.
  • However, ROS is damaging for the body’s cells as well. Therefore, as a natural counter-defence mechanism, the body produces another set of chemicals called antioxidants, that protect the cells against ROS.
  • But Antioxidants are present in small quantities, and take time to build up. So, while they are able to effectively deal with smaller amounts of ROS, they are helpless when ROS is produced in large amounts. 
  • Thus, oxidative stress is caused by an imbalance between the production of Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) and the body’s ability to detoxify them- leading to cellular damage from excess ROS.
  • Both oxidative stress and resulting inflammation in the brain play a well-established role in the onset and progression of dementia. Air pollution triggers these processes through direct entry of pollutants to the brain or via the same mechanisms underlying lung and cardiovascular diseases.

These findings underscore the need for an interdisciplinary approach to dementia prevention. That means along with healthcare interventions, there is a need to strengthen urban planning, transport policy, and environmental regulation.

Swachh Survekshan Awards 2024-25

Context: The President of India conferred Swachh Survekshan 2024-25 Awards at Vigyan Bhagwan, New Delhi hosted by the Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs (MoHUA).

In total, 78 Awards were presented, recognising cities, cantonments, and institutions for their exemplary performance across a range of sanitation parameters. 

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key Highlights of Swachh Survekshan 2024-25.

About Swachh Survekshan

  • Launched: 2016
  • Nodal Ministry: Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs (MoHUA)
  • Instituted under Swachh Bharat Mission-Urban (SBM-U)
  • 73 cities covered initially (2016), now covering 4589 Cities. 
  • Assessment Criteria:
    • Waste collection, segregation and processing
    • Sanitation and public toilet coverage
    • Citizen feedback and awareness campaigns
    • Innovation in urban cleanliness

Key Highlights of Swachh Survekshan 2024-25: 

  • Top Cleanest Cities (Population >10 Lakh)
    • 1st: Ahmedabad
    • 2nd: Bhopal
    • 3rd: Lucknow
  • Top Cities (Population 3-10 Lakh)
    • 1st: Mira Bhayandar
    • 2nd: Bilaspur
    • 3rd: Jamshedpur
  • Special Recognition : Super Swachh League:
    • New elite category introduced to honour consistently top-performing cities over the past three years.
    • Top 4 cities ( Population > 10 lakh): Indore, Surat, Navi Mumbai, Vijayawada.
    • Top Cities (Population 3-10 Lakh Noida): Chandigarh, Mysuru, Ujjain, Gandhinagar.
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Other Awards:  

  • Best Ganga Town: Prayagraj.
  • Best Cantonment Board: Secunderabad Cantonment for its exemplary sanitation efforts. 
  • Best SaifaiMitra Surakshit Shehar: GVMC Visakhapatnam, Jabalpur, and Gorakhpur for their outstanding commitment to the safety and dignity of sanitation workers. 
  • A special award was given to Uttar Pradesh government and Prayagraj Municipal Corporation, for its exceptional urban waste management during the Mahakumbh.
  • Lucknow was honoured with the prestigious Presidential Award for becoming the first city in Uttar Pradesh to receive a 7-star Garbage Free City (GFC) rating.

Union Minister of Housing and Urban Affairs launched

  • Swachh City Partnership Initiative: All 78 top performing cities across all population categories will adopt & mentor 1 poor performing city each from the respective States.
  • Accelerated Dumpsite Remediation Program: 
    • 1-year special program starting from Aug 15, 2025.
    • Aims to fast-track remediation of legacy waste dumpsites across urban areas and to push the scientific waste processing capacity.
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Delhi Fuel Ban for Old Vehicles 

Context: To curb vehicular emissions, Delhi government began denying fuel to overage petrol and diesel vehicles from July 1, 2025, as directed by the Commission for Air Quality Management (CAQM). However, faced with public outrage, the Delhi government has put on hold the order denying fuel to 'end of life' cars.

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: About End-of-Life Vehicle (ELV) Rules, Bharat Stage Emission Norm, VAHAN database and ANPR technology.

Mains: Pollution control measures.

What is Delhi’s ‘fuel ban’ for old vehicles?

  • From July 1, 2025, diesel vehicles older than 10 years and petrol vehicles older than 15 years are prohibited from refueling at Delhi fuel stations.
  • In April, the Commission for Air Quality and Management (CAQM) directed a phased denial of fuel to end-of- life vehicles (ELVs) at fuel stations in the Delhi from July 1, in high-density NCR districts from November 1, and in the rest of the NCR from April 1, 2026.
  • Delhi has installed Automatic Number Plate Recognition (ANPR) cameras at 498 fuel stations and three inter-state bus terminuses (ISBTs) to scan vehicle number plates and check them against the VAHAN database, India’s national vehicle registry, in real time.

Reasons behind Delhi fuel ban for older vehicles: 

  • Older vehicles emit more air pollutants. E.g., BS-IV vehicles emit 4.5 to 5.5 times more particulate matter than BS-VI vehicles. 
  • Transport emissions account for 28% of PM2.5, 41% of sulphur dioxide (SO2), and 78% of nitrogen oxide (NOx) emissions in the NCR.
  • Although legal mandates have existed since 2015, enforcement was delayed due to the absence of necessary technological infrastructure.
  • The liquidation of such (overage) vehicles can only be done by adopting strict steps like denying fuel. 

What is the legal mandate for the CAQM’s fuel ban?

  • GT Order (2015): Banned diesel vehicles older than 10 years (heavy or light) from operating in Delhi NCR. Prohibited registration of Petrol vehicles which are more than 15 years old and diesel vehicles that are more than 10 years old in Delhi NCR.
  • Supreme Court Ruling (2018): The NGT’s directive was upheld and reinforced by the Supreme Court in 2018. It said that vehicles violating the order should be impounded.
  • Delhi Government Guidelines (2024): Issued under the Motor Vehicles Act and Registered Vehicle Scrapping Facilities (RVSF) Rules. Set procedures for identifying and scrapping End-of-Life Vehicles (ELVs).
  • Environment Protection (End-of-Life Vehicles) Rules, 2025: Came into force on April 1, 2025. Mandates scrapping within 180 days of expiry of a vehicle’s registration.
  • Motor Vehicles Act, 1988: States that for non-transport vehicles, registration is valid for 15 years, and renewable thereafter.
  • Central Motor Vehicles Rules, 1999: After the expiry of the registration certificate, the vehicle shall not be deemed validly registered.

Can measures such as these resolve Delhi’s bad air problem?

  • As per no single measure (like banning old vehicles) can comprehensively solve Delhi’s air pollution crisis.
  • As per the Centre for Science and Environment (CSE) age-based bans are not scalable across India. Even newer vehicles can be gross polluters due to poor maintenance or technical faults.
  • A coordinated planning and action on multiple fronts, involving a wide range of stakeholders, is required. 

Recommendations by Centre for Science and Environment (CSE): 

  • Improve fuel quality and vehicle emission standards (E.g., BS-VI and beyond).
  • Enforce a stringent Pollution-under-Control (PUC) regime.
  • Invest in the massive expansion of public transport infrastructure to reduce private vehicle dependency.

Endocrine Disruptors in Plastic Waste

Context: Plastic pollution is no longer a distant environmental concern but has become a biological invasion with profound implications for human health. Infiltration of microplastics and plastic-derived endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) into our bodies is triggering hormonal disruption, reproductive dysfunction and chronic diseases. 

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Basics of Microplastics, EDCs, Plastic Waste Management Rules. Mains: Issues related to Plastic Pollution.

Impact of Microplastics on Human Health

Microplastics are plastic particles less than 5 millimeters in diameter. Once considered inert pollutants, microplastics are now recognised as biologically active.

  • Microplastics have been found in human lungs, hearts, placentas, breast milk, ovarian follicular fluid, and semen.
  • A 2024 study reported the presence of microplastics in nearly 89% of blood samples in India, with an average concentration of 4.2 particles per milliliter.
  • Animal studies (Food and Chemical Toxicology 2023) found:
    • Low-dose polystyrene microplastics disrupted testosterone, impaired sperm, and damaged the blood-testis barrier. 
    • Similar effects in ovaries included- reduced anti-Müllerian hormone, oxidative stress, and cell death.
  • A 2025 study found microplastics in 14 of 18 follicular fluid samples from women undergoing fertility treatment in Italy, linking them to poor egg quality, menstrual irregularities, low estradiol levels, and higher miscarriage. 

What are Endocrine-Disrupting Chemicals (EDCs)?

  • EDCs are chemicals that interfere with our hormonal systems- damaging reproductive health and increasing our susceptibility to chronic diseases, including cancer. 
  • EDCs are commonly used as additives in plastic manufacturing to enhance flexibility, durability, or heat resistance. Over time, these chemicals leach out of plastic products into food, water, air, and the human body. 

Plastics contain EDCs such as: 

  • Bisphenol A (BPA) and BPS used in water bottles, food containers, and thermal paper.
  • Phthalates (E.g., DEHP, DBP) used to soften plastics and found in cosmetics, toys and IV tubing. 
  • PFAS (Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances) found in food packaging and non-stick cookware.

Impact of EDCs on Human Health:  

  • Disrupt Hormonal Function: 
    • These chemicals mimic or block natural hormones such as estrogen, testosterone, thyroid hormones, and cortisol. 
    • They interfere with receptor binding, disrupt gene expression in reproductive organs, and induce oxidative stress, inflammation, and apoptosis (cell death). 
    • Exposure to BPA and phthalates has been associated with lower testosterone levels and elevated luteinizing hormone (LH) levels- both indicators of endocrine disruption.
  • Reproductive and Gynecological disorders: Epidemiological studies have also linked exposure to phthalates and BPA with conditions such as polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS), endometriosis, and spontaneous abortions. 
  • Carcinogenic potential: Studies from India have shown that women with elevated levels of DEHP in their urine face nearly a threefold increased risk of breast cancer. Exposure to BPA and phthalates has also been linked to higher incidences of prostate, uterine, and testicular cancers.
  • Chronic and Metabolic disorders: PFAS exposure has been associated with metabolic syndrome, cardiovascular disease, and thyroid dysfunction, as reported in a 2024 study. EDCs mimic cortisol, disrupt insulin sensitivity, and promote fat storage, contributing to obesity and type 2 diabetes.

India - Epicentre of Plastic Health Crisis:  

India, now the world’s largest generator of plastic waste, stands at the epicentre of this escalating public health emergency. 

  • India generates over 9.3 million tonnes of plastic waste each year. Of this, approximately 5.8 million tonnes are incinerated, releasing toxic gases, while 3.5 million tonnes end up polluting the environment. 
  • Studies have shown that residents in cities like Mumbai are exposed to between 382 and 2,012 microplastic particles daily through air, food, and water.
  • Health burden associated with EDCs in India is staggering, costing over ₹25,000 crore annually due to increased healthcare spending and lost productivity.
  • Case study: In Nagpur, doctors are reporting an increase in cases of early puberty, respiratory problems, obesity, and learning disorders in children, conditions increasingly linked to plastic pollution. 
  • The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) detected phthalate concentrations in drinking water samples from Delhi, Jabalpur, and Chennai that exceeded European Union safety limits.

Policy Gaps and Challenges:  

  • Despite progressive policies like the Plastic Waste Management Rules (2016, updated in 2022 and 2024), enforcement remains inconsistent. 
  • Current regulations do not account for low-dose effects or the complex interactions of EDCs, nor do they address the specific vulnerabilities of children and pregnant women. 

Way Forward

  • Biomonitoring and surveillance are crucial for establishing national programmes that measure EDC levels in blood, urine, and breast milk.
  • Fund longitudinal studies to assess the health impacts of EDC exposure on fertility, neurodevelopment, and chronic diseases. 
  • Spread public awareness and educate people on the risks of microwaving food in plastic containers and promoting the use of glass, stainless steel, and EDC-free alternatives. 
  • Encourage antioxidant-rich diets to oxidative stress.
  • Enforce plastic segregation, recycling, and safe disposal, and invest in microplastic filtration systems for water treatment plants. 
  • Incentivise the development of biodegradable, non-toxic materials. 

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