New emerging technologies

Decentralised Autonomous Organisations

Context: The idea behind Decentralised Autonomous Organisations (DAO) is to create self-sustaining, community-driven entities governed by smart contracts on blockchain networks. However, the legality and regulatory framework surrounding DAOs remain a topic of debate.

Decentralised Autonomous Organisation:

DAOs are digital entities that operate without centralised control and are governed by smart contracts and the consensus of their members, often utilising cryptocurrencies as a means of decision-making and resource allocation.

Unique features:

DAO are governed by smart contracts on blockchain networks. The rules are encoded as a computer program that is transparent, controlled by the respective organisation members, without the need for intermediaries and not influenced by a government.
They enable global, borderless cooperation. Participants, referred to as token holders, can propose and vote on decisions related to the organisation’s goals and resources (decentralised decision-making process). This fosters innovation and cooperation as ideas flow freely, unencumbered by hierarchical structures.

Various use cases:

Decentralised finance: Platforms like Compound and MakerDAO have introduced lending and borrowing services, enabling users to participate in the global financial ecosystem without relying on traditional banks.
Digital Art: Artists can tokenize their creations and utilise DAOs to manage royalties and maintain control over their intellectual property.
Supply chain management: DAO offers transparency and traceability in global supply chains, ensuring the authenticity and quality of products.

Challenges:

Susceptible to cyber attacks: The infamous DAO hack in 2016 exposed vulnerabilities in the code, leading to a contentious hard fork in the Ethereum blockchain (a hard fork refers to a change in a network’s protocol that makes previously invalid blocks and transactions valid, or vice-versa). This highlights the need for rigorous security audits and raises questions about the immutability of blockchain systems.
Accountability: Issues like smart contract vulnerabilities and security breaches introduce questions of legal recourse and liability. Legal liability within DAOs remains elusive, with decentralised decision-making and automated smart contracts making it difficult to assign responsibility for actions taken.
Dispute resolution: Taxation of transactions within DAOs, identity verification, and compliance with Anti-Money Laundering (AML) and Know Your Customer (KYC) regulations further add layers of complexity to the legal framework. Dispute resolution, often relying on code-based solutions, present a unique challenge in the absence of traditional legal mechanisms.

What is Deepfake Technology?

Context: Deepfakes have become a potential tool to jeopardise the individual’s privacy and have the potential to rupture the social fabric of a nation.

Deepfake

Deepfakes are synthetic media in which a person in an existing image or video is replaced with someone else's likeness. Deepfakes “leverage powerful techniques from machine learning (ML) and artificial intelligence (AI) to manipulate or generate visual and audio content with a high potential to deceive”.

Issues with deepfakes

Misinformation and propaganda: Deepfake technology has the potential to spread false information and propaganda as it is difficult to differentiate between real and fake content.

E.g., Deepfakes can be used to influence elections.

Damage to personal and professional reputations: Deepfake technology can be used to create fake videos/images of individuals that can damage their personal and professional reputations and further lead to harassment and extortion. E.g., Circulation of pornographic material using celebrity faces.
Threat to National Security: Deepfakes can also be used to carry out espionage activities. Doctored videos can be used to blackmail government and defence officials into divulging state secrets. E.g.,
- India’s non-friendly neighbours and non-state actors can create propaganda videos that can be used for the radicalisation, recruitment of terrorists or inciting violence.
- Ukrainian President Volodymyr Zelensky revealed that a video posted on social media in which he appeared to be instructing Ukrainian soldiers to surrender to Russian forces was actually a deepfake.

Cybersecurity risk: Deepfake technology can be used to create fake videos and images that can be used in phishing scams, or to spread malware or viruses.
Financial frauds: Deepfakes have been used for financial fraud (using voice samples for account verifications).
Ethical issues: Some individuals can exploit the increasing awareness and prevalence of deepfake technology to their advantage by denying the authenticity of genuine content, particularly if it shows them engaging in inappropriate or criminal behaviour.

Legal framework in India

In India, the legal framework related to AI is insufficient to adequately address the various issues that have arisen due to AI algorithms.
Currently, very few provisions under the Indian Penal Code (IPC) and the Information Technology Act, 2000 can be potentially invoked to deal with the malicious use of deepfakes.
- Section 500 of the IPC provides punishment for defamation.
- Sections 67 and 67A of the Information Technology Act punish sexually explicit material in explicit form.
The Representation of the People Act, 1951, includes provisions prohibiting the creation or distribution of false or misleading information about candidates or political parties during an election period.
However, these rules do not address the potential dangers posed by deepfake content. China is one of the few countries which has introduced regulations prohibiting the use of deepfakes.

Way Forward

Regulations and legislation: The union government should introduce separate legislation regulating the nefarious use of deepfakes and the broader subject of AI. E.g., The proposed Digital India Bill can address this issue.
Development of technology to detect deepfakes: Need to invest in the development of technologies that can accurately detect deepfake videos and images to protect individuals and organisations from misinformation and propaganda.
Awareness: Public awareness campaigns to educate people about the potential dangers of deepfake technology.
Collaboration between industry and academia: Industry and academia need to work together to find solutions to the issues surrounding deepfake technology.

The legislation must provide provisions to address the malicious use of deepfake technology in criminal acts but should be accommodative so as not to hamper innovations in AI.

Using AI for Audit Techniques

Context: The Comptroller and Auditor General of India (CAG), who is the chair for the Supreme Audit Institutions (SAIs) of the G20, warned of absolute dependence on Artificial Intelligence (AI).

Artificial Intelligence (AI):

In Layman terms, Artificial Intelligence can be defined as a branch of science that makes machines or software to mimic human intelligence such as recognizing speech, making decisions, and identifying patterns.
AI is an umbrella term that encompasses a range of technologies, including machine learning, deep learning, and natural language processing (NLP).

Examples of Artificial Intelligence:

ChatGPT: Uses large language models (LLMs) to generate text in response to questions or comments posed to it.
Google Translate: Uses deep learning models to translate text from one language to another.
Netflix: Uses machine learning to create personalized recommendations for users based on their previous viewing history.
Tesla: Uses computer vision to power self-driving features on their cars.

Role of Artificial Intelligence in Governance:

1. Smart Policy Making:

Data-oriented Policy making: Collection and analysis of data such as demographic, behavioural data etc. from different ministries and government sectors to effectively formulate the policy and schemes.
Localisation of Policy Making: AI-enabled tools have the potential to provide regional and local leaders with insights and analysis allowing policies to be better tailored to local conditions.
Timely Awareness Generation: Use of language models to create awareness in different languages in real-time using LLM can increase the outreach of government initiatives.
Measurement of effectiveness: The government can create AI-backed feedback mechanisms to measure satisfaction of different sections from different platforms based on different parameters.
Futuristic Policy Making: AI through data provided can predict emerging issues and can improve preparation to tackle such issues.

2. Service Delivery:

Effectiveness of Service Delivery: AI systems can reduce the time, cost and increase the effectiveness of the services provided by the governments. E.g.,
- AI-enabled procurement processes can allow governments to identify inefficiencies and potential cost savings in the products and services they purchase.
- Traffic management through AI-based modelling can significantly reduce the amount of time spent in traffic.
- Allocating health system resources using AI-enabled patient demand analytics can minimize wait times while reducing costs.
- By using job seeker data and their skill-set data in AI-enabled systems government can plan job schemes.
Automation of Delivery through AI: Through AI-enabled system, the government can create a single point entry for all citizens and can update it regularly. E.g., if a salaried person gets unemployed her unemployment allowances and other scheme benefits start automatically through an AI-backed system.

3. Efficient operations:

Learning and Training: AI can help enhance the learning and development of organizations and employees through customized training and education programs.
Rationalisation of Work: AI can help in decreasing the repetitive tasks handled by government officials.
Effective Auditing: AI can help in the allocation, expenditure and monitoring of the finances for initiatives and give effective guidance for the optimisation of financial and human resources.

Concerns associated with the use of AI in Governance:

Propagate bias: AI systems can perpetuate and even amplify biases in decision-making. Algorithms through machine learning if trained on biased data can impact policymaking.
Privacy concerns: AI systems can collect and process large amounts of personal data which raises concerns about privacy and data security demanding effective legal safety for its large-scale use in government functioning.
Risk of exclusion and discrimination: Algorithms of AI can be so complex that even those who created the algorithm cannot thoroughly explain how the variables led to the resulting prediction. This opacity poses the risk of exclusion and discrimination by AI in decision-making.
Loss of jobs: AI systems have the potential to automate tasks traditionally performed by humans. E.g., Chatbot replaced human-assisted consumer support, which could lead to job displacement and cause socioeconomic disruption.
Security risks: AI can be used for malicious purposes halting the regular functioning of government e.g., cyberattacks, deep fake etc.
Ethical concerns: There is no legal accountability and responsibility arising out of the decisions made by AI.
Political Concerns: Data collected by the government if used by AI to predict voter behaviour and its manipulation during election times threatens the very foundation of democracy.

Challenges faced in auditing using AI:

Data standardisation: Lack of authorised sources and challenges faced in ensuring the accuracy of vast data.
Data Integration: Lack of synchronisation, data integration and cross-referencing among different departments and ministries.
Lack of Capacity: Lack of capacity and awareness about AI among auditors.
Lack of AI regulation: Lack of explicit National guidelines and regulations for the use of AI in audits in India.

Way Forward:

Comprehensive regulatory framework: India needs a comprehensive regulatory framework with both horizontal regulations (that would be applicable across sectors) and vertical regulations (sector-specific). There is a need to identify the capabilities of AI that are more susceptible to misuse than others to promote the responsible use of AI.
Responsible use of AI: The AI system should be programmed to maintain the integrity of data and should work on the principle of justice and promoting individual liberty and privacy. Use authentic data sources to ensure transparency, address legal concerns, and look at deficiencies in IT controls and governance.

Global Regulations:

European Union’s Artificial Intelligence Act:
- The Act was formulated:
  - To bring transparency, trust, and accountability to AI.
  - To create a framework to mitigate risks to the safety, health, fundamental rights, and democratic values of the EU.
  - To address the different levels of risks E.g., limited risk, high risk and unlimited risk as defined in the act.
- Under the EU’s General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR), Data Protection Impact Assessments are legally required if organisations use AI systems that process personal data to avoid potential risks.
The U.K.’s Information Commissioner’s Office has published draft guidance on the AI auditing framework.

How to tell if a material is a superconductor?

Context: In the last week of July, researchers in South Korea said they had discovered that a material called LK-99 is a room-temperature superconductor. Independent researchers will have to check whether LK-99 is really a room-temperature superconductor before it is accepted as a legitimate claim.

What are Superconductors?

Superconductors are materials that when cooled to temperatures ranging from near absolute zero (0 degrees Kelvin, -273 degrees Celsius) have zero resistance or do not resist the flow of current.

The temperature at which electrical resistance is zero is called the critical temperature (Tc) and this temperature is a characteristic of the material.

E.g., Aluminium, niobium, magnesium diboride, yttrium barium copper oxide etc.

However, every superconductor made so far has required extraordinarily high pressures (millions of Pascal), and very low temperatures. E.g., Aluminium becomes superconducting at temperatures less than (minus) –250° C.

Hence, scientists have been looking for such materials for decades which can remain superconductors at room temperature.

Important properties of Superconductors:

Electronic effect (Infinite conductivity with Zero resistance) - The material will transport an electric current with zero resistance.

(When the temperature of superconductors is reduced below a critical temperature, its resistance suddenly reduces to zero and thus it offers infinite conductivity). E.g., Mercury becomes a superconductor below 4 kelvin.

Magnetic effect (Complete expulsion of Magnetic field) - Superconductors are diamagnetic i.e., they oppose the magnetic field or do not allow the magnetic field lines to penetrate them. (This phenomenon is called Meissner effect)
- However, there is a certain value of the magnetic field (critical magnetic field) beyond which the superconductors lose superconductivity and convert into conductors.

Applications:

Elimination of the loss of energy: Superconductors can be used to make longer-lasting batteries and more-efficient power grids.
- Need: Presently, a portion of the electricity generated at every power plant is lost during transmission because the wires and cables that carry the current have electrical resistance.
- Significance of Superconductors: Once an electric current passes over a superconducting material, it can continue to flow without receiving power from any source as none of the energy involved is lost as heat.
Potential applications include- Magnetic-energy storage systems, magnetic levitation trains, superconducting magnetic refrigerators, etc.

Huge potential for revolutionary technologies, including efficient quantum computers, as superconductors can exhibit quantum phenomena.

Worldcoin project: The Iris Cryptocurrency

Context: In July, Sam Altman, CEO of OpenAI, formally re-introduce Worldcoin, a project of his that was eclipsed by the popularity of ChatGPT.

About Worldcoin project

It is a crypto project that aims to create a global identity and financial network for everyone. It is an initiative to create a digital network in which everyone can claim some kind of stake, and join the digital economy.
It uses a device called an orb, Worldcoin volunteers known as ‘Orb operators’ that scan a person’s iris pattern to collect their biometric data and help them get a World ID through the World app.
With the app, scanned participants can collect a cryptocurrency called Worldcoin (WLD) at regular intervals or make transactions with their World ID where possible. This process is called proof of personhood and makes sure that people do not sign themselves up multiple times in exchange for crypto.
It was co-founded by Altman and Alex Blania in 2019 to provide every human being on Earth with a share of its digital token.
It uses a technology known as zero-knowledge proofs (ZKPs) to maintain user's privacy and user data was encrypted.
Individuals who want to receive a World ID are not required to share their name, phone number, email address, or home address.
Images collected by the Orb are used to generate a unique iris code. By default, these images are immediately deleted once the iris code is created, unless the user opts into Data Custody.

Working of Worldcoin

Users need to be willing to scan irises and/or get their own irises scanned. Volunteers sign up to be “Orb operators” in their locality and receive basic training and a biometric device with which to scan irises.
The scan is converted into a string of numbers known as a hash in such a way that it’s impossible to recreate the scanned image even if the hash is compromised.
The Orb sends the iris hash and a hash of the user’s public key to Worldcoin servers. If the person hasn’t signed up before, the hashes are added to the database and the company’s Ethereum blockchain.

Challenges to Worldcoin

Concerns exist about the privacy and security of biometric data and potential misuse for other purposes because it might be shared with third parties such as vendors, service providers like banks, or even the police and government when necessary.

Recently, according to a TechCrunch report, hackers installed password-stealing malware on the devices of multiple Worldcoin Orb operators, granting them complete control over the operators’ dashboards. This raises concerns about the security and privacy of the iris-scanning technology.

Questions arise about the feasibility and scalability of reaching unbanked or underbanked populations.
Doubt on the value and utility of the Worldcoin token, and whether it can compete with other cryptocurrencies or fiat currencies.

Global expansion of Worldcoin

During its initial rollout phase, the Worldcoin project plans to offer its services in 35 cities spanning 20 countries, showcasing its dedication to providing inclusive digital identities to people worldwide.
India has taken a significant step forward in embracing Worldcoin's identity verification technology. With 18 locations already equipped with the Orb device for sign-up, the country serves as a prominent and crucial testing ground for this innovative endeavor.

Scientists X-ray a single atom for the first time

Context: Scientists, for the first time, have identified an element by X-raying a single atom of a material.

The experiment

X-rays are an important way to identify the type of material. Until the recent experiment, the minimum sample size required was roughly 10,000 atoms.
- The minimum amount of material was required as an atom’s response to being hit by X-rays can be very weak. Hence, the more atoms, the better detectors can pick up on their response.
For the experiment, the scientists used a method called synchrotron X-ray scanning tunnelling microscopy or SX-STM. The scientists modified a conventional X-ray detector to add a sharp metal tip that would be moved to be extremely close to a sample (as close as 0.5 nanometres from the atom). This is to improve the detector’s ability to record any signals from the atom.
The sample’s atom was hit with X-ray photons. The electrons in the atom absorbed only photons of certain frequencies. Using a spectroscope, the team determined which frequencies had been absorbed and hence, identified the element. (Every element has a unique absorption spectrum which can be used to identify it).

Significance:

Identification of a material using only one atom can revolutionise research in material science, quantum mechanics, and other areas.
The study also characterised the chemical states of the atoms and will help understand their properties better, which would help researchers manipulate the atoms to greater precision.

About X-rays

X-Rays or X-radiation is a form of high-energy electromagnetic radiation. They have a wavelength ranging from 0.01 to 10 nanometres, frequencies in the range 3 × 10^19 Hz to 3×10^16 Hz and energies in the range of 100 eV to 100 keV.
X-rays are generated when high-energy electrons interact with matter. X-ray photons carry enough energy to ionize atoms and disrupt molecular bonds.
A very high radiation dose of X-ray over a short period causes radiation sickness, while lower doses can give an increased risk of radiation-induced cancer.

Applications:

X-rays are used in checking for fractures (broken bones), spotting pneumonia (chest X-rays), spotting cancer (Mammograms) and detecting tumours.
Ionizing capability of X-rays can be utilized in cancer treatment to kill malignant cells using radiation therapy.
X-rays have much shorter wavelengths than visible light, which makes it possible to probe structures much smaller than can be seen using a normal microscope. This property is used in X-ray microscopy to acquire high-resolution images, and also in X-ray crystallography to determine the positions of atoms in crystals.
X-rays are also used for material characterization using X-ray spectroscopy.
X-rays can travel through a vacuum (propagate through empty space without requiring a medium). This property allows X-rays to be used in space exploration and research conducted in vacuum chambers.
X-rays are used in security systems, such as airport scanners, to detect objects hidden within luggage or on a person's body.

Mitochondrial donation treatment

Context: A baby was born in the U.K. using three persons’ DNA through a process called Mitochondrial donation treatment.

The baby, technically, has three parents- genetic material (DNA) from two biological parents and mitochondria from one donor parent (female donor). The technology was used to prevent the child from inheriting the mother’s mitochondrial disease.

What is Mitochondria?

Mitochondria are tiny organelles inside cells that are often referred to as the powerhouses of the cell.
- Mitochondria occur in large numbers in most of our cells, except for red blood cells.
It converts the energy molecules which we get from food to usable energy molecules called ATP (Adenosine triphosphate) through a process known as cellular respiration.

Mitochondrial disease:

Mitochondria generate energy and thus are responsible for cell function in the human body. However, when the mitochondria are impaired they do not produce sufficient energy which affects how organs function.
Faulty mitochondria can cause inherited conditions such as fatal heart problems, liver failure, brain disorders, blindness and muscular dystrophy. The diseases that arise out of such mitochondrial mutations are called mitochondrial diseases.
- Mitochondrial diseases are only passed on by the mother.
The symptoms get more pronounced as a child grows, and there is no cure for mitochondrial DNA disease at present.
- Some estimates put the incidence of mitochondrial diseases as one in 5,000 people.

Mitochondrial Donation Treatment:

Mitochondrial donation involves replacing unhealthy mitochondria in the mother with healthy mitochondria from a donor during the in vitro fertilisation (IVF) process.
- Mitochondria have their own DNA, distinct from that in a cell's nucleus. It does not influence appearance, personality or other human characteristics.

The process:

Through the IVF technique, the baby’s biological father’s sperm was used to fertilise the eggs from the biological mother, who has mitochondrial disease, and a third, female donor with clear mitochondria, separately.
Then, the nuclear genetic material from the donor’s egg was removed and replaced with the genetic material from the biological parents.
The final product — the egg — which has the genetic material (DNA) from the parents, and the mitochondria from the female donor, is implanted in the uterus and carried to full term to yield a baby who will be free from the mother’s mitochondrial disease. This process is termed Mitochondrial Donation Treatment (MDT).
With this process, the final cytoplasm (which holds the genetic material and mitochondria) has healthy mitochondria while the genetic material belongs to the biological parents.
Side effects: While largely helpful, the procedure has some minimal risks that sometimes a small amount of the maternal mitochondria with errors may get passed on during the procedure.

G7 should adopt 'risk-based' AI regulation, say digital ministers

Context: Digital ministers from the Group of Seven advanced nations have agreed on the adoption of "risk-based" regulation for artificial intelligence (AI).

More on news:

G7 digital ministers emphasised on preserving an "open and enabling environment" for the development of AI technologies based on democratic values. The agreement sets a landmark for how major countries govern AI amid privacy concerns and security risks. The G7 ministers also recognised the security risks posed by generative AI, such as the production of fake news.

Artificial Intelligence and its Regulation

Lithium find in J&K: Chile, with most reserves, ready to share know-how

Context: Chile, the country endowed with most lithium reserves and home to SQM, the second largest global lithium producer, is keen to partner with India on tapping into the lithium value chain. This includes potentially extending technical expertise in exploiting the newly established “inferred” lithium resources of 5.9 million tonnes in Salal-Haimana area of Reasi district in Jammu and Kashmir.

More on news:

Currently we have an agreement on trade of goods. And of course, we want to improve our exchange by adding services and investment in a Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement.

There is a possibility of tapping the expertise of Chilean lithium mining specialists being on the cards, and that companies such as SQM (a private company with the experience in lithium extraction) are likely to be open to transfer of technology to help in the exploitation of the white alkali metal, a vital ingredient of the lithium-ion rechargeable batteries that power electric vehicles (EVs), laptops and mobile phones.

Even though the lithium found in India is of mineral type unlike salt pans in Chile, the Chilean company would have no problem in transferring technology to do other kinds of exploitations given that Australia, the country where it already has a joint venture, also holds lithium in mineral form.

Lithium reserve in the world

Lithium is a highly valuable and sought-after metal that is used in a variety of applications, including batteries, ceramics, and pharmaceuticals.

The majority of the world's lithium reserves are located in a few countries, with the top three accounting for the vast majority of the world's supply. Here is an overview of the distribution of lithium reserves in the world:

Country	Percentage of World Lithium Reserves
Chile	53.8%
Australia	16.9%
Argentina	13.8%
China	9.4%
United States	5.0%
Others	7.5%

Chile: Chile is by far the largest producer of lithium in the world, with approximately 8.6 million metric tons of lithium reserves. Most of Chile's lithium is found in the Atacama Desert, which is one of the driest regions on Earth.
Australia: Australia is the second-largest producer of lithium in the world, with approximately 2.7 million metric tons of lithium reserves. Most of Australia's lithium is found in Western Australia, where companies such as Pilbara Minerals and Galaxy Resources have large mining operations.
Argentina: Argentina is the third-largest producer of lithium in the world, with approximately 2.2 million metric tons of lithium reserves. Most of Argentina's lithium is found in the Salinas Grandes salt flats, which are located in the northwest of the country.
Other countries: While the top three countries account for the vast majority of the world's lithium reserves, there are several other countries that also have significant reserves. These include China, which has approximately 1.5 million metric tons of lithium reserves, and the United States, which has approximately 800,000 metric tons of lithium reserves.

Lithium reserves in India

The ancient igneous rock deposits in the Karnataka’s Mandya district holds the first traces of Lithium ever to be discovered in India. But it is merely 1,600 tonnes.
But in a big development, recently 5.9 million tonnes of lithium reserves found for the 1st time in Jammu and Kashmir.
India currently imports all of its lithium batteries.

India's steps

In March 2019, India signed a MoU with Bolivia to explore and extract Lithium.
India has also signed bilateral agreement with Argentina for securing strategic minerals, which will be operationalized via KABIL’s contract with three state-owned organizations in Argentina.
India and the US are also looking at setting up an alternative supply chain for lithium.
Lithium plant: India’s first Lithium plant has been set up at Gujarat in 2021, where a private company has planned investment of Rs 1000 crore to set up a refinery. The refinery will use Lithium ore to produce base battery material.
KABIL is also exploring the direct purchase of cobalt and lithium.
- A PSU to ensure a consistent supply of critical and strategic minerals to Indian domestic market.
- It would carry out identification, acquisition, exploration, development, mining and processing of strategic minerals overseas.
- India has also signed Critical Mineral Investment Partnership with Australia primarily for supply of lithium and cobalt.

China's dominance

China contributes to 60% of global production of rare earth elements.
China’s share of refining is around 35% for nickel, 50-70% for lithium and cobalt, and nearly 90% for rare earth elements.
China has a huge head start on India in terms of securing lithium deposits.
Around 3/4th of battery cell manufacturing capacity is in China.
China has heavily invested in mines of both Australia and Latin America to ensure an overall command of lithium supply chain.
It also controls cobalt mines in the Democratic Republic of Congo, from where 70% of this mineral is sourced.

LITHIUM-ION BATTERY

PRINCIPLE

Lithium, as you can see in the table above, has the highest electrochemical potential.
It wants to lose electrons readily which makes it very reactive. That’s why you don’t get lithium in free form.
However, when mixed with metal oxide lithium sits very stably.
Thus, if we use this ability of lithium to be very unstable by itself to becoming very stable in metal oxide, we can derive electricity. This is what happens in a Li-ion battery.

WORKING OF A LI-ION BATTERY

Lithium is mixed in metal oxide (typically cobalt, nickel, or manganese)) is used as cathode.
Graphite is use as a place to hold Li-ions which becomes an anode.
As we have seen Lithium in metal oxide is very stable.
In Li-ion battery we separate Lithium from metal oxide by pulling out its constituent electrons and ion forcefully by applying energy.
The electrons and ions of Lithium are then given separate paths namely a metallic wire and an electrolyte.
This is called charging as it required external energy to separate electrons and Li-ions from Lithium metal oxide.
The li-ions moving through electrolyte and electrons moving through the wire then recombine at anode which is graphite.
Once all the electrons and ions are pulled out the battery is completely charged.
The lithium ions and electrons that is sitting between graphite sheets are unstable and wants to go back to metal oxide. If we again give separate paths to electrons and ions we can derive electricity.
Thus Li-ion battery is used to store energy by shuttling lithium ions back and forth between the anode(Li-ion in graphite) and cathode(Lithium in metal oxide).

Advantage Of Li-Ion Batteries

Light weight: Lithium being lightest metal.
High Energy Density
- Lithium having highest electrochemical potential has very high energy density.
- A typical automobile lead-acid battery weighs 6 kilograms more to store the same amount of energy than a lithium-ion battery.
- In consumer electronics like mobile, laptops, camera etc I kilogram of Nickle cadmium batteries stores typically 60 to 70 watt-hours.
- A typical lithium-ion battery can store 150 watt-hours of electricity in 1 kilogram of battery.
Minimum losses: A lithium-ion battery pack loses only about 5 percent of its charge per month, compared to a 20 percent loss per month for Ni-Cd batteries.
Low Maintenance: Lithium-ion batteries can handle hundreds of charge/discharge cycles.

disadvantages of li-ion batteries

Faster discharge: While quick discharge is an advantage in electric vehicle and consumer electronics applications, it is not suitable to store energy for longer than 4 hours.
Thus, it is not suitable for grid-level storage which is necessary for renewable energy like solar which suffer from intermittency problem.
Ageing: Li-ion batteries suffer from ageing at room temperature. Therefore, in a consumer electronic, batteries need to be partially charged for longer life.
Transportation: Another disadvantage of li-ion batteries is that there can be certain restrictions placed on their transportation, especially by air to protect against short circuits.
Cost: Lithium-ion batteries are around 40% more costly to manufacture than Nickel cadmium cells owing to high cost of lithium refining, cobalt and nickel.

The piezoelectric effect in liquids

Context: A pair of chemists at Michigan State University has observed the piezoelectric effect in liquids for the first time. In their paper published in The Journal of Physical Chemistry Letters, Md. Iqbal Hossain and G. J. Blanchard, describe accidently observing the property while studying ionic liquids.

More on news: The researchers were studying properties of ionic liquids, which are made from salts with unsymmetrical, flexible organic cations and symmetrical weakly coordinating anions. Electricity builds up within them and is released when they are pressed or squeezed.

The liquid piezoelectric material was discovered as the researchers applied pressure with a piston to a sample of an ionic liquid in a cylinder. To their surprise, they found that this led to the release of electricity. They also found that the amount of electricity released was proportional to the amount of pressure applied.

Further testing showed that the optical properties of the ionic liquids changed when they released electricity. In some instances, the researchers found changes in how the liquid bent light.

Piezoelectric effect

The Piezoelectric effect is the ability of certain materials to generate an electric charge in response to applied mechanical stress.

How it works

The Piezoelectric effect arises due to the unique crystal structure of certain materials, such as quartz, tourmaline, and Rochelle salt.
These materials have a crystal lattice structure that is asymmetric, meaning that their positive and negative charges are not evenly distributed throughout the crystal.
When an external force is applied to these materials, it causes a shift in the positions of the positive and negative charges, resulting in an electric polarization.
The magnitude and direction of the electric charge generated by the Piezoelectric effect depend on the type and orientation of the crystal, as well as the magnitude and direction of the applied force.

Applications of Piezoelectric effect

The Piezoelectric effect is used in a variety of applications, including:

Medical ultrasound: Piezoelectric crystals are used to generate and receive high-frequency sound waves, which are used to image internal organs and tissues.
Sensors: Piezoelectric materials can be used as sensors to measure pressure, force, acceleration, and other physical quantities. For example, piezoelectric sensors are commonly used in industrial automation and automotive applications to measure vibrations and monitor machine health.
Actuators: Piezoelectric materials are used to convert electrical energy into mechanical motion, such as in inkjet printers and fuel injectors. For example, piezoelectric actuators are used in inkjet printers to control the flow of ink and in camera lenses to adjust the focus.
Energy Harvesting: Piezoelectric materials can be used to convert mechanical vibrations or movements into electrical energy. This can be useful for powering small electronic devices, such as sensors or wireless transmitters, in remote or inaccessible locations.
Medical Devices: Piezoelectric materials are used in various medical devices, such as ultrasound machines and pacemakers. In ultrasound machines, piezoelectric crystals generate high-frequency sound waves that are used to visualize internal organs and tissues. In pacemakers, piezoelectric crystals are used to generate electrical pulses that regulate the heartbeat.
Acoustic Devices: Piezoelectric materials can be used in acoustic devices, such as microphones and speakers. In microphones, piezoelectric crystals are used to convert sound waves into electrical signals, while in speakers, they are used to convert electrical signals into sound waves.
Structural Health Monitoring: Piezoelectric sensors can be used for structural health monitoring of bridges, buildings, and other infrastructure. By measuring the mechanical strain or stress on the structure, piezoelectric sensors can detect cracks, deformations, or other signs of damage or wear.

Reversibility

The Piezoelectric effect is reversible, meaning that if an electric field is applied to the crystal, it will deform and produce a mechanical strain.
In conclusion, the Piezoelectric effect is a unique and important phenomenon that has found numerous applications in modern technology. Its ability to generate an electric charge in response to applied mechanical stress makes it a valuable tool in fields such as medicine, engineering, and materials science.

Bio-Bitumen

Context: As per the Ministry of Road and Highways, making bitumen from agricultural waste such as rice husk can help save up to ₹30,000 crores annually in import bills.

Major Highlights

India requires around 80 lakh tonnes of bitumen annually for roads. Of this, around 50 lakh tonnes are provided by domestic refineries for processing crude oil, and around 25-30 lakh tonnes are imported costing around 25,000-30,000 crore.
Recently, the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) and the Central Road Research Institute (CRRI) have developed technology to make bitumen from rice husk, which is supposed to be better than bitumen extracted from crude oil.
- This makes 70% bitumen and the rest is biochar or organic carbon. Organic char can enhance farm productivity.
The Ministry envisions opening up to 1,000 such units in rural India to produce bio-bitumen and completely do away with the burning of husk or agri-waste which leads to pollution. It would benefit the farmers in states such as Delhi, Punjab, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh.

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Bitumen

Bitumen is a dense, highly viscous, petroleum-based hydrocarbon produced during the refining process or distillation of crude oil. Bitumen is known for its waterproofing and adhesive properties and is commonly used in the construction industry, notably for making roads and highways.

Bio-bitumen would play a significant role as a road construction material to replace the fossil-based version while curbing CO2 emissions and boosting the bio-economy.

Biotransformation Technology

Context: A U.K.-based startup, based at Imperial College in London, claims to have developed a technology that could alter the state of plastics and make them biodegradable. The company calls the process “biotransformation”.

About Biotransformation technology:

Biotransformation technology is a novel approach to ensure plastics that escape refuse streams are processed efficiently and broken down.
Plastics made using this technology are given a pre-programmed time during which the manufactured material looks and feels like conventional plastics without compromising on quality.
Once the product expires and is exposed to the external environment, it self-destructs and biotransforms into bioavailable wax. This wax is then consumed by microorganisms, converting waste into water, CO2, and biomass.
The technology is the world’s first that ensures polyolefins fully biodegrade in an open environment causing no microplastics.

Need for the technology:

As per the latest estimates, India is generating 3.5 billion kgs of plastic waste annually and the per capita plastic waste generation has doubled in the past five years. Of this, a third comes from packaging waste.
In 2019, plastic packaging waste from e-commerce firms was estimated at over a billion kilograms worldwide.
- E-commerce giant Amazon generated an estimated 321 million kgs of plastic from packaging waste in 2021 alone.
- Up to 10 million kgs of Amazon’s plastic packaging ended up in the world’s freshwater and marine ecosystems as pollution in 2019 alone.

Uses of the technology:

Food packaging and healthcare industries could greatly benefit from such an innovation.
- Within healthcare and pharma industries, this technology provides biodegradable solutions for non-woven hygiene products like diapers, sanitary napkins, facial pads, etc.
The increase in the cost of integrating this technology is relatively small compared to conventional plastic which does not contain this technology.

Government Initiatives in this regard:

The Indian government has launched multiple initiatives to move the country towards sustainability, including-

In 2022, the Central government imposed a ban on single-use plastics to bring a stop to their use in the country.
Introduction of a plastic waste management gazette to help tackle the ever-growing plastic pollution caused by single-use plastics.
National Dashboard on Elimination of Single-Use Plastic and Plastic Waste Management brings all stakeholders together to track the progress made in eliminating single-use plastic and effectively managing such waste.
Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) portal helps in improving accountability traceability and facilitating ease of compliance reporting concerning EPR obligations of the producers, importers and brand-owners.
India has also developed a mobile app to report single-use plastics grievances to check the sale, usage or manufacturing of single-use plastics in their area.

Alternatives to reducing plastic waste:

The alternatives to single-use plastics could be made using jute, coir, bagasse, rice and wheat bran, plant and agricultural residue, banana and areca leaves, jute and cloth.