GS Paper 2

Aadhaar and Voter ID are Not Proof of Citizenship

Context: Recently, the Bombay High Court ruled that owning an Aadhaar card, PAN card, voter ID, or even a passport are not proof of Indian Citizenship, which is determined solely under the Citizenship Act, 1955.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Indian Citizenship & Citizenship Act, 1955.

The Bombay High Court ruled that:

Documents like Aadhaar, PAN, Voter ID and Passport are not conclusive proof of citizenship. These documents are meant for identification or availing services, but they do not override the basic legal requirements of citizenship as prescribed in the Citizenship Act, 1955.

Indian Citizenship is determined by the Citizenship Act, 1955

Citizenship can be acquired only via the five modes under the Citizenship Act, 1955.

By birth: If a person is born in the territory of India, he shall be a citizen of India.
By descent: A person born outside India to Indian citizen parents can acquire citizenship by descent.
By registration: Certain individuals (like those married to Indian citizens or persons of Indian origin residing in India) can apply for citizenship through registration.
By naturalisation: Citizenship is acquired by making an application to the central government.
By incorporation of territory: If any territory or state becomes part of India, then the central government shall declare it as part of the Union of India.

Electoral processes (E.g., Bihar’s Special Intensive Revision of rolls) may accept documents like birth certificates for voter registration, but this does not automatically confer citizenship.

Burden of Proof Is on the Individual

Under the Foreigners Act 1946, if the state presents credible evidence that raises doubt about a person’s citizenship, it is the individual’s responsibility to prove they are Indian.
The Laws Involved:
- Citizenship Act, 1955: Defines how citizenship is acquired and the documents needed to prove it.
- Foreigners Act, 1946: Places the burden of proof on the person suspected of being a foreign national.
- Representation of the People Act: Governs voter ID issuance, which is not linked to a citizenship verification process as rigorous as the Citizenship Act.

Why is Aadhaar and Voter ID not Enough?

Aadhaar is only proof of identity and residence, but not nationality.
PAN cards are for tax purposes, even foreign nationals can obtain one.
Voter ID is linked to electoral rolls; errors or fraudulent enrolment can occur.
Passport requires some citizenship verification but can be obtained fraudulently.

Hence, these documents are valid for day-to-day identification but are not decisive proof of nationality in a court of law.

SC issues notice to introduce ‘creamy layer’ in SC/ST Reservation

Context: The Supreme Court has decided to examine a petition to introduce a “system”, similar to the creamy layer concept for the Other Backward Classes (OBC). This seeks to achieve equitable distribution of reservation benefits among the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Provisions for Reservation in India, Concept of creamy layer. Mains: Creamy layer in SC/ST reservations: Pros & Cons.

The petition contends that the present system of reservation disproportionately benefits economically better-off members within SC/ST groups, while the poorest and most marginalised sections remain excluded from real upliftment.

Reservation in India

Reservation in India is primarily caste-based, intended to address historical discrimination and social exclusion.

Articles 15(4): Allows the State (Union or State governments) to make special provisions, including reservations in education and other affirmative measures for:
- Socially and Educationally Backward Classes (SEBCs)
- Scheduled Castes (SCs)
- Scheduled Tribes (STs)
Article 16(4): Permits the State to make laws or policies for reserving appointments or posts in public employment in favour of any backward class of citizens which, in the State’s opinion, is not adequately represented in its services.
Article 46: Directive Principle (DPSP) urging the State to promote educational and economic interests of SC/STs.

Creamy layer concept in Reservation:

The creamy layer concept was introduced in Indra Sawhney v. Union of India (1992) for OBCs, excluding the economically advanced among them from availing reservation benefits.
SC/ST reservations have so far been exempted from the creamy layer concept on the grounds that social discrimination against them operates regardless of income or education.

Over the years, concerns have been raised that within SC/ST communities, relatively affluent sections are cornering a disproportionate share of the opportunities.

Petition’s Key Proposals:

The petition sought the introduction of a two-tier reservation system to be implemented within SC/ST categories, prioritising individuals from economically weaker sections before extending benefits to those who are relatively well-off.
The proposal for restructuring does not involve any reduction in the current percentage of reservation for SC/ST or other minority communities but refine it by introducing income-based prioritisation.

Arguments in Favour of Applying Creamy Layer to SC/STs:

Ensures equitable distribution of benefits within the community.
Prevents the perpetuation of inequality within SC/ST groups.
Direct reservation benefits to those in greatest need of upliftment.
Aligns with economic justice principles in the Preamble.

Arguments Against:

Caste-based discrimination can persist despite economic advancement.
Risk of diluting the original purpose of SC/ST reservations which is to counter historical social exclusion, not just economic deprivation.
Practical difficulty in defining and implementing economic criteria fairly.
Potential to trigger social and political unrest within SC/ST communities.

Way Forward

Commission an empirical study to assess intra-community disparities in SC/ST groups.
Develop transparent and uniform income criteria if creamy layer is to be applied.
Maintain affirmative action for socially disadvantaged while ensuring economic prioritisation.
Consider phased implementation with extensive stakeholder consultation to avoid social backlash.

The proposal to apply the creamy layer principle to SC/ST reservations is a significant policy shift that attempts to reconcile social justice with economic fairness.

However, it must be approached with constitutional sensitivity, robust data, and political consensus to ensure that the most marginalised within these communities are not left behind.

Mains Practice Question:

Q. The introduction of a creamy layer within SC/ST reservations may improve the equitable distribution of benefits but risks undermining the core objective of affirmative action. Critically analyse.

CBSE plans Open-Book Exams

Context: The Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE) has approved the introduction of Open-Book Assessments (OBE) for Class 9 from the academic year 2026-27. This follows a 2023 pilot study which revealed strong teacher support for the move.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: What is the Open book exam and how is it conducted? Mains: Open Book Exam: Need, Advantages, Disadvantages.

The reform aligns with the National Education Policy (NEP) 2020 and the National Curriculum Framework (NCF) vision of moving away from rote memorisation towards competency-based learning.

What are Open Book Exams?

An open book exam is an assessment in which students are allowed to use approved resources (textbooks, class notes, reference material) during the exam.
E.g., In science facts may be given in the book, but students must link them logically to arrive at a conclusion.
Purpose: To test conceptual understanding, analytical ability, and application of knowledge, rather than memorisation.

History of Open Book Exams:

Hong Kong became one of the earliest adopters of OBEs in 1953, integrating them into school assessments.
In the US and UK, trials between 1951 and 1978 allowed students to use textbooks, notebooks, and lecture notes across various university courses, using formats from multiple-choice to essay-type questions.
Studies from this period found that OBEs encouraged deeper internalisation of concepts rather than rote memorisation and often benefited weaker students.
Despite early experiments, OBEs remained rare in high-stakes secondary exams worldwide, with most boards (E.g., UK GCSEs, US SATs) retaining closed-book formats.
The COVID-19 pandemic marked a turning point, as universities globally adopted open-book, open-note, and even open-web assessments for online examinations, though many reverted to traditional exams post-pandemic.

History of OBE in India:

In 2014, CBSE introduced the Open Text-Based Assessment (OTBA) for Class 9 in Hindi, English, Mathematics, Science, and Social Science, and for Class 11 in subjects like Economics, Biology, and Geography, with students receiving reference material four months in advance.
By 2017-18, CBSE discontinued OTBA, concluding it had not succeeded in developing the critical thinking abilities it had aimed to promote.
In 2019, the All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE) approved the use of OBEs in engineering colleges after expert recommendations.
During the COVID-19 pandemic (2020-2022), universities such as Delhi University, Jamia Millia Islamia, Jawaharlal Nehru University, Aligarh Muslim University, and IITs in Delhi, Indore, and Bombay adopted OBEs in online mode.
More recently, Kerala’s Higher Education Reforms Commission proposed using the OBE format only for internal or practical assessments.

What does Research say about OBE?

A Norwegian study in 2000 found that students taking OBEs were more likely to seek connections between ideas instead of just recalling facts.
Research at AIIMS Bhubaneswar reported that medical students experienced lower stress levels when taking OBEs.
At Delhi University, a study found that students scored higher in OBEs even without specific training in skills required for the format.
Another Research emphasises that real gains from OBEs require training in breaking down questions, analysing concepts, and applying knowledge rather than just looking up answers.

However, many students pointed out patchy internet connectivity as a significant drawback during online OBEs.

Carriage of Goods by Sea Act 2025 & Coastal Shipping Act 2025

Context: In the biggest overhaul of India’s maritime legal framework, two landmark legislations- ‘Carriage of Goods by Sea Act, 2025’, and the ‘Coastal Shipping Act, 2025’ have been enacted.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key provisions of ‘Carriage of Goods by Sea Act, 2025’, and the ‘Coastal Shipping Act, 2025.’

Overhaul of India’s Maritime Legal Framework

The Carriage of Goods by Sea Act, 2025 replaces outdated provisions of the Indian Carriage of Goods by Sea Act, 1925.
The Coastal Shipping Act, 2025 seeks to simplify and modernise the legal framework governing coastal shipping. It replaces outdated provisions of Part XIV of the Merchant Shipping Act, 1958.

Carriage of Goods by Sea Act, 2025

The Carriage of Goods by Sea Act, 2025 adopts Hague-Visby Rules, a globally accepted maritime standard. It standardises Indian maritime trade law with globally accepted norms (especially regarding bills of lading and cargo liability).
The Act lays out clearly defined roles, responsibilities, liabilities and protections for parties involved in the carriage of goods by sea to reduce legal disputes.
It caps carrier liability to provide predictability for shippers and insurers. Exemptions cover force majeure events like war and natural disasters, while allowing negotiated terms for special cargo.
The Act outlines clear rules around the Bill of Lading- including who is responsible if something goes wrong, and what rights both parties have. The government can update or modify the rules related to bills of lading, without needing to bring a new law to Parliament.

Bill of Lading:

It is a legal receipt issued by a shipping company to the person sending the goods.
It lists what goods are being shipped, their quantity and condition, and where they are going.
It acts as proof of ownership of the goods and is essential for international trade.

Coastal Shipping Act, 2025

The Coastal Shipping Act, 2025 consolidates rules for coasting trade, defined as cargo or passenger movement between Indian ports or related offshore activities.

It introduces a simplified licensing system for coastal shipping and lays down the framework for regulating foreign vessels engaged in coasting trade.
- It requires foreign vessels to obtain licences from the Director-General of Shipping.
- Indian vessels, while exempt from licensing, must meet reporting norms.
The Act mandates formulation of National Coastal and Inland Shipping Strategic Plan to map routes, forecast traffic and integrate coastal shipping with inland waterways. It has to be updated every two years.
It provides for creation of a National Database for Coastal Shipping to enable real-time access to authentic and regularly updated data. This database will keep potential investors informed about the government’s development plans and policy priorities.
Strict penalties target unlicensed operations, false declarations and safety breaches. The government is empowered to reroute or ban vessels in public interest or for national defence.

Significance of overhauling India’s Maritime Legal Framework:

Align India’s maritime framework with global conventions and international protocols.
Streamline coastal trade and prioritise Indian-owned vessels in domestic waters. Enhance supply-chain security by increasing Indian ships’ participation in domestic cargo movement.
The National Database for Coastal Shipping will promote transparency and confidence.
Reduce India’s dependence on foreign vessels thereby preventing the outflow of foreign exchange.
Promotes ease of doing business for Indian shipping operators, cuts freight costs and enhances multimodal transport efficiency.
Catalyses local economic development generating employment opportunities across coastal regions.

India moves a step closer to building a rule-aligned, integrated, efficient, and globally competitive coastal and inland shipping ecosystem, while securing the country’s vast 7500 km coastline for strategic and commercial benefit.

SC’s New Directions on Stray Dogs

Context: The Supreme Court has issued new directives to manage stray dogs in Delhi-NCR after the death of a six-year-old girl from rabies highlighting the need to balance animal rights with public safety.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act 1960; ABC Rules.
Mains: Balancing animal rights with human safety.

SC’s New Directions on Stray Dogs

In a suo motu case, the SC directed Municipal Authorities to pick up and house all stray dogs in Delhi and parts of the National Capital Region in dedicated shelters within eight weeks.
The SC directed that the stray dogs, once they are picked up and brought in, should be sterilised and immunised.
The dog shelters must be put under CCTV surveillance in order to ensure the dogs were neither released nor taken out.
Municipal Authorities must maintain a record of strays captured and housed in pounds, and produce the records in court.
The Bench directed the authorities to start a helpline to report incidents of dog attacks. The authorities would assist the victim in accessing treatment without delay.

Dog Bites in India

India has the largest population of stray dogs. In 2019, the government told Lok Sabha that stray dogs numbered 1.53 crore; it repeated this data in 2022.
In 2024, over 37 lakh cases of dog bites were reported throughout the country. Over 50 people died from rabies in 2024.
As per the WHO:
- Dog bites are responsible for about 96% of the mortality and morbidity associated with rabies in India.
- 36% of Rabies death in the world occur in India.
- 30-60% of reported rabies cases and deaths in India occur in children under the age of 15 years.

About Rabies:

Vaccine-preventable zoonotic disease caused by a RNA virus which infects the central nervous system of mammals, including humans.
Transmission: Bite of an infected animal (dogs, cats, bats, monkeys, foxes), contact with saliva or other bodily fluids of infected animal.
Symptoms: Fever and headache, hallucinations, paralysis and hydrophobia.
Treatment: Once symptoms appear, there is no cure for Rabies (100% fatal).
Vaccines are available such as RABIVAX-S, VaxiRab N and VERORAB to immunise people both before and after potential exposures.

Government Policy on Stray Dogs:

Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act, 1960 :

The Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act, 1960 provides the primary legal basis for regulating and protecting stray animals in India.
The Act aims to prevent the infliction of unnecessary pain or suffering on animals.
Under the Act, the Centre in 2001 promulgated the Animal Birth Control (Dogs) Rules.

Animal Birth Control (ABC) Programme :

The ABC (Dogs) Rules, 2001 mandate that stray dogs must be humanely captured, sterilised, vaccinated against rabies, and then released back into the same locality from where they were caught.
Under no circumstances are stray dogs to be killed unless they are rabid, critically injured, or fatally ill.
Under the ABC Rules 2023, stray dogs have been recognised as community animals, acknowledging their co-existence in public spaces. This classification allows for regulated community feeding and protection against displacement.

Previous Court Judgments on Stray Dogs:

Supreme Court’s Stand on Culling: In earlier hearings, the Supreme Court observed that indiscriminate culling of stray dogs is not permissible under Indian law. The SC emphasised that stray dog management must be carried out in accordance with the Animal Birth Control Rules.
Kerala High Court Observations (2015): In response to rising dog-bite incidents, the HC permitted local bodies to eliminate dangerous and rabid stray dogs. This order was challenged, leading to the matter being taken up by the Supreme Court.
Supreme Court Intervention (Post-2015): The SC stayed orders allowing mass killing of stray dogs and directed that the ABC Rules must be strictly implemented instead. The Court stressed that balance must be maintained between human safety and animal rights.
Bombay High Court (2018): The HC upheld the right of citizens to feed stray dogs, provided it is done at designated spots identified by local authorities. The Court underlined that feeding should not cause public nuisance or health hazards.

Also Read: Animal Birth Control Rules 2023

Aadhaar Face Authentication to ensure Exam Transparency

Context: The government is expanding Aadhaar face authentication to enhance fairness in exams, improve service delivery, and ensure inclusion.

Relevance of the Topic : Prelims: What is Aadhar Face Authentication and how it is done.

What is Aadhaar Face Authentication?

Aadhaar Face Authentication is a biometric verification method where a person’s live facial image is matched with the photograph stored in the Aadhaar database at the time of enrolment.
Uses liveness detection to ensure the person is physically present.
Operates through a smartphone or computer camera.

Why is it being used?

Transparency in competitive exams: It helps ensure the person taking the exam is the real registered candidate. The Staff Selection Commission (SSC) and the Railway Recruitment Board (RRB) already have approval to use it for examinee verification.
Solving biometric issues: Many labourers and elderly people have worn-out fingerprints, making fingerprint authentication unreliable. Face authentication bypasses that issue.

Recent adoption of Aadhaar Face Authentication:

Employment Provident Fund Organisation (EPFO): EPFO has mandated that Universal Account Numbers (UAN) for salaried employees and pensioners will only be generated after Aadhaar face authentication.
India Post Payments Bank: Recently adopted face authentication for services, saying it aligns with Digital India and Financial Inclusion goals ensuring equal access for all citizens.
Sports Authority of India (SAI): Approved to use Aadhaar authentication for athletes, coaches, and staff to verify identity during registration, attendance, and Direct Benefit Transfer (DBT) schemes like Khelo India and TOPS.

Legal and Administrative Framework:

Any Aadhaar authentication (including face recognition) requires IT Ministry approval.
In January 2025, new rules called the Aadhaar Authentication for Good Governance (Social Welfare, Innovation, Knowledge) Amendment Rules, 2025 were issued.

Under these rules:

Government & private organisations can submit authentication proposals to the IT Ministry.
Proposals are vetted by the Unique Identification Authority of India (UIDAI).
A new Aadhaar authentication portal (SWIK Portal) has been launched for submitting proposals. About 1-6 proposals are approved each month.

Significance:

Enhance Examination Integrity: Reduces impersonation in competitive exams and builds trust among candidates.
Social Inclusion: Addresses biometric failure issues for vulnerable groups.
Administrative Accountability: Ensures accurate beneficiary identification and transparent welfare delivery.
Ease of Access: Smartphone-based authentication reduces dependency on physical infrastructure.

Challenges & Concerns

Privacy Risks: Potential misuse of biometric data, if safeguards are weak.
Cybersecurity: Need for robust protection against spoofing or hacking.
Digital Divide: Access issues for those without smartphones or internet.

Aadhaar face authentication is becoming a central identity verification tool in India. It reflects the government's broader push for Digital India, Good Governance, and Financial Inclusion, while expanding the role of Aadhaar beyond fingerprints and OTPs.

Also Read: UIDAI notifies new rules for Aadhar Authentication

Need for a Unified Welfare Architecture in India

Context: India’s welfare architecture is vast and globally recognised by the International Labour Organisation (ILO). However, it remains fragmented and inefficient, underscoring the need for systemic unification.

Relevance of the Topic Mains: India’s Welfare Architecture - Issues, Need for a unified system.

India's Welfare Architecture:

India’s welfare architecture is one of the largest in the world. The Centre runs over 34 major social protection schemes and 24 pension schemes, while states have their own independent initiatives.
The International Labour Organisation (ILO) has acknowledged India’s achievement in delivering both cash and non-cash social protection.
ILO’s World Social Protection Report (2024) states that India’s social protection coverage has doubled from 24.4% in 2021 to 48.8% in 2024.

While these benefits reach over 100 crore beneficiaries, they operate in silos often duplicating efforts and creating administrative inefficiencies.

Issues with the Current Welfare System

Fragmentation of Schemes: Over 34 major central schemes, 24 pension schemes, and many separate state-level programmes run in silos.
Duplication & Overlap: Schemes with similar benefits are repackaged under new names by different states, leading to duplication of effort and resources. Institutions like E-Shram (unorganised workers) and EPFO (formal workers) overlap, but do not interconnect.
Poor Targeting: Eligibility criteria vary widely between schemes causing exclusion of deserving beneficiaries and inclusion of ineligible ones. No unified database (scattered data) or structure makes it difficult to identify the right people.
Complex Access for Citizens: People have to run between multiple government offices and platforms to claim entitlements. Lack of portability across states for migrants and informal workers.
Inefficient Use of Resources: Scarce fiscal resources spread thinly across many small schemes instead of pooled for greater impact.
Focus on Short-term Consumption, Not Long-term Growth: Most schemes are isolated cash payouts without linkages to skill development, asset creation, or economic empowerment.
Political Populism: Frequent election-season welfare promises add to fragmentation and fiscal stress.

These structural gaps highlight the urgent need for a unified welfare delivery system that consolidates schemes and integrates data across Centre and states.

Advantages of a Unified Welfare State

Eliminates duplication of schemes and saves administrative costs. Optimises scarce fiscal resources for deeper coverage.
Simplifies access: one platform for all entitlements. Improves interoperability between databases and schemes.
Strengthens targeting of genuine beneficiaries. Integrates benefits, allowing one entitlement to unlock others.
Shifts focus on collective outcomes instead of isolated scheme performance.

The G20 New Delhi Declaration’s call for “sustainably financed universal social protection coverage” further strengthens the case for a “One Nation, One Social Security” governance model.

Global Lessons:

Brazil- The Fome Zero Programme: Established the Unified System of Social Assistance (SUAS), integrating welfare services across all 26 states, the federal district, and over 5,500 municipalities.
South Korea (1990s Reforms): Consolidated fragmented programmes under the National Pension Service and National Health Insurance Service.

Proposed Framework for Unified Welfare Architecture in India:

Centre provides the unified architecture; states adapt to local contexts.
Use EPFO’s Universal Account Number (UAN) to route all transfers, earmarking a portion for pensions/insurance.
Employ Aadhaar, JAM Trinity, and Digital India Stack for portability and verification.
Reward states for improved coverage, efficiency, and outcome delivery.
Harmonise overlapping welfare laws while respecting state autonomy.

To unlock the full potential of its vast welfare network, India must move from fragmented silos to a unified, digitally integrated system that ensures portability, precision targeting, and lasting socio-economic upliftment.

India’s First Underwater Museum and Artificial Coral Reef

Context: Maharashtra is set to create India’s first underwater museum and artificial coral reef by scuttling the decommissioned naval warship INS Guldar near Nivati Rocks, Vengurla, in Sindhudurg district.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: About India’s First Underwater Museum; Artificial Coral Reef; INS Guldar.

India’s first Underwater Museum and Artificial Coral Reef

India’s first underwater museum and artificial coral reef will be developed around the decommissioned warship INS Guldar in Maharashtra.
Aim: To boost marine conservation and tourism, offering scuba diving and future submarine tours.
The underwater museum cum-artificial reef is estimated to cost Rs 78 crore. The initiative is supported by the central government. Centre will bear nearly 60% of the total cost and the state government the rest.

INS Guldar

INS Guldar, an 83 metre long Kumbhir Class landing ship, was built in Poland and commissioned into the Indian Navy in 1985. It was decommissioned in 2024.
It was designed for amphibious warfare and capable of beach landings. It was once part of India’s peace keeping mission in Srilanka combating attacks from the Liberation of Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE)
It has been officially handed over by the central government to the Maharashtra Tourism Development Corporation for conversion into a submerged museum.

Scuttling of INS Guldar:

Scuttling is the deliberate sinking (controlled sinking) of a ship to dispose of an old vessel, create an artificial reef, or prevent it from falling into enemy hands. The process of scuttling follows the Archimedes principle.
Archimedes principle: The buoyant force keeping an object afloat is equal to the weight of the water the object displaces.

The Concept of Necropolitics

Context: Necropolitics is a theory that examines how modern nation states determine whose lives are disposable and may be sacrificed in the name of security, threat, or political control.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: About the idea of Necropolitics. Mains: Essay: Necropolitics: What, How Necropolitics Operates?

What is Necropolitics?

Necropolitics refers to the power of the state (or other authorities) to decide who may live and who must die. It goes beyond physical killing as it includes slow neglect, abandonment, and structural violence where certain people are denied care, dignity, or justice.
E.g., Bengal Famine of 1943 - Millions died not due to a lack of food, but because British colonial policies prioritised imperial interests over Indian lives.
The idea of Necropolitics was coined by Cameroonian historian Achille Mbembe in a 2003 essay and later expanded in his book Necropolitics (2019). The concept of Necropolitics builds on Michel Foucault’s Notion of Biopolitics.

How Necropolitics Operates?

Necropolitics is not always about open violence. It works through invisible systems and everyday decisions. Mbembe identifies key features of necropolitical systems:

State terror and suppression: Even in democracies, dissent is crushed using surveillance, arrests, or killings.
Collaboration with non-state actors: Governments often work with militias or gangs, blurring lines between legal and illegal violence.
Enemy creation as governance: Politics often revolves around inventing an enemy- a community to blame, exclude, or control.
War and terror as economies: Violence fuels industries- arms, surveillance, and security become profitable.
Displacement of communities: Large-scale resource projects or conflict zones often force poor people out of their homes.
Varied forms of death: Torture, drone strikes, hunger, lack of healthcare, all can be tools of political death.
Moral justifications: Ideologies like nationalism, religion, or security are used to justify abandonment or violence.

‘Living Dead’ and ‘Death Worlds’

Mbembe introduces the idea of the "living dead", people who are alive biologically but have been stripped of all social, legal, and political recognition.
These people may not be killed directly, but live in conditions so degrading and unstable, it is like dying slowly every day.
For Example: During India’s COVID-19 lockdown, migrant workers were left without food, shelter, or transport. Many died walking back to their villages, not from the virus, but from state neglect.
Mbembe calls such spaces “death worlds”, zones where people live outside the protection of law, care, or justice.

The State of Exception:

Italian philosopher Giorgio Agamben describes the "state of exception", a situation where governments suspend laws and rights in the name of protecting them.
Mbembe extends this idea: For some communities (like refugees, slum dwellers, minorities), this exception is not temporary, it is permanent. In these zones, people are governed by logistics, not justice.

Necropolitics in Everyday Life:

Necropolitics is not confined to war zones. It thrives in the slow violence of poverty, caste, racism, and displacement. It exists all around us, through silence, neglect, and “routine” policy decisions.
Examples:
- Sterilisation of Dalit and Adivasi women: bodies controlled without consent.
- Police profiling of Muslims or Dalits: targeted surveillance.
- Neglect of refugees, slum dwellers, and tribal areas: systemic denial of basic rights.
It also exists in silence, in the world including states and global institutions, looking away as thousands of civilians, including women and children, are killed in places like Gaza, while the rest of us carry on with our daily lives.
In a necropolitical world, the aim must not just be survival. It must be the right to a dignified life- a life that is: Valued, Protected, Mourned if lost.

Way Forward

Challenge Necropolitics by:

Resisting narratives that normalise suffering.
Questioning systems that abandon the most vulnerable.
Demanding policies that protect all lives equally.

Recognising necropolitics around us is the first step towards building a state that protects, not abandons, a nation where every life counts.

India and Philippines upgrade ties to Strategic Partnership

Context: During the recent official visit of the Philippines President to India, both nations have elevated their bilateral relationship to Strategic Partnership. The move aims at renewed commitments in trade, defence and maritime cooperation, and digital collaboration.

Relevance of the Topic: Mains: India-Philippines Bilateral ties.

India and the Philippines established diplomatic ties in 1949. Over 75 years, the relationship has grown steadily. In recent years, amid the rising assertiveness of China in the South China Sea, shared democratic values and strategic interests have brought the two nations closer.

Key Outcomes of the Strategic Partnership

India-Phillipines Strategic Partnership Formalised

India and the Philippines have boosted their ties to a Strategic Partnership. India is now one of only five strategic partners of the Philippines.

India’s Strategic Partners in ASEAN:

Vietnam: Comprehensive Strategic Partner Defence, maritime security.
Indonesia: Comprehensive Strategic Partner Trade, energy, security.
Singapore: Strategic Partner in finance, defence training.
Philippines: Strategic Partner (2025) in Defence, PTA, maritime.

Trade and Economic Cooperation

Bilateral trade between the countries has crossed over $3 billion annually and is on a rising trajectory.
Decision to start negotiations on a Preferential Trade Agreement (PTA) to enhance bilateral trade further.
Both sides committed to expediting the review of the India-ASEAN Free Trade Agreement (FTA) to further strengthen regional trade linkages.

This is especially relevant as reciprocal tariffs imposed by the U.S. have impacted India and ASEAN exports, making regional trade cooperation more important.

Defence Cooperation

India’s indigenous defence industry is emerging as a key partner to Philippines’ ongoing military modernisation and regional maritime concerns.
The Philippines has acquired BrahMos supersonic cruise missiles from India in 2022.
The Philippines has expressed interest in other Indian systems like the Akash missile and air defence systems.
Agreement to conduct service-to-service talks for enhanced joint training and information exchange between their armed forces.

Maritime & Indo-Pacific Security:

Both leaders reaffirmed support for freedom of navigation and a rules-based order in the Indo-Pacific region.
The Philippines is seen as an important partner in India’s Act East Policy and MAHASAGAR vision.
Indian naval ships, including a hydrography ship, participated for the first time in a naval exercise in the Philippines during the visit.
The Philippines condemned the Pahalgam terror attack, expressing solidarity with India.

Digital and Scientific Collaboration:

India to support a pilot project to help the Philippines build its Sovereign Data Cloud infrastructure.
Ongoing joint research between the two countries in areas such as virology, AI, and additive manufacturing.

People-to-People & Connectivity Initiatives

Direct flights between India and the Philippines to begin in 2025.
India to offer free e-tourist visas to Filipino nationals for one year starting August 2025.

Strategic Importance of Elevated Partnership:

The partnership comes at a time when both countries are navigating economic challenges due to external trade disruptions and facing shared security concerns in the Indo-Pacific.

Strategic Indo-Pacific Engagement: Strengthens India’s Act East Policy by partnering with a key Southeast Asian nation amid growing tensions in the South China Sea.
Defence Diplomacy and Export Boost: Expands India's role as a defence exporter, with BrahMos as a flagship project, and supports the Philippines' military modernisation through indigenous Indian systems.
Economic Diversification through PTA: Launch of Preferential Trade Agreement (PTA) negotiations and ASEAN FTA review offers India a route to reduce dependence on traditional markets amid US tariff pressures.
Technological and Digital Collaboration: Positions India as a reliable digital partner through initiatives like the Sovereign Data Cloud and joint research in AI, virology, and additive manufacturing.
Maritime Security Collaboration: Enhances joint naval operations, coast guard interoperability, and supports freedom of navigation based on international law.

The elevation of ties to a Strategic Partnership marks a major milestone in India-Philippines relations. The particular focus is to deepen defence and maritime cooperation, as both countries seek to navigate their security concerns due to China’s increasing assertiveness in the Indo-Pacific region.

“From the Indian Ocean to the Pacific, we are united by shared values. Ours is not just a friendship of the past; it is a promise to the future.” - PM Narendra Modi

India’s First AI-Powered Anganwadi Centre

Context: The state government of Maharashtra has recently launched India’s first AI-powered Anganwadi in Waddhamna village, Nagpur district, Maharashtra.

Relevance of the Topic: Mains: Can be used as an argument/ example to show positive developments in the Early Childhood Education & Health landscape in India.

India’s First AI-Powered Anganwadi Centre

The initiative aims to bridge the digital divide for rural children as well as attract more children. It ensures that children from remote areas could learn in a modern, engaging environment.
The Anganwadi centre uses VR headsets from Meta, AI-enabled interactive smart boards, tablets, and other digital content to learn poems, songs, and fundamental concepts. The children can now draw on the interactive smart board, learn about animals via VR sets, and save their artwork digitally.
The AI system monitors each child’s progress with gamified learning tools, adjusting difficulty levels based on response times to ensure individual development.
The Anganwadi workers have been trained in smart learning methods. They will also be trained in generative AI tools to create new content such as text, images, and music.

Plans are underway to expand the project to more anganwadis in the state, closely track physical and cognitive developments, and use AI tools to evaluate nutrition as well.

About Anganwadi Services

Anganwadi means ‘courtyard shelter’, a type of rural child care centre in India. The Anganwadi Services Scheme (ACS) was started in 1975 as part of the Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) program to combat child hunger and malnutrition.
ACS was restructured as Saksham Anganwadi and Poshan 2.0, a centrally sponsored scheme under the Ministry of women and child development.
The Integrated Nutrition Support Programme provides early childhood care and development of the beneficiaries i.e., children in the age group of 0-6 years, address malnutrition in children, adolescent girls, pregnant women and lactating mothers through a large network of Anganwadi workers and Helpers.
- Anganwadi workers and Helpers are the basic functionaries of the ICDS, who run the Anganwadi Centres, and implement the ICDS scheme.
- Anganwadi Centres: Provide a platform for rendering all services under the scheme.
- A single Anganwadi worker, chosen from the community, manages one village or area. These workers undergo training in various areas such as health, nutrition, and childcare.

Also Read: Anganwadi Services

Six years after Abrogation of Article 370 in J&K

Context: August 5, 2025 marks the sixth anniversary of the abrogation of Article 370 in 2019, which revoked the special status of Jammu & Kashmir, and led to the effective repeal of Article 35A of the Indian Constitution.

As J&K completes six years as a Union Territory, there have been both positive and negative developments after the abrogation of Article 370.

Relevance of the Topic:Prelims: Key facts about Article 370; Article 35A. Mains: J&K after Article 370 abrogation: Key developments; Challenges.

On August 5, 2019, the government revoked Article 370 through a Presidential order and reorganised the state. J&K was split into two Union Territories (UTs): J&K (with legislature) and Ladakh (without legislature), effective from October 31, 2019.

What was Article 370?

Enacted in 1952, Article 370 granted erstwhile state J&K a unique degree of autonomy. The provision:
- Allowed the state to operate with its own constitution and flag
- The state retained the authority to make laws on all matters, except defence, foreign affairs, communications, and finance.
Article 370 was placed under Part XXI of the Constitution, which deals with temporary and special provisions. It also allowed the state’s Constituent Assembly to decide how much of the Indian Constitution would apply. Notably, it included a clause permitting the Assembly to recommend the article’s own repeal.
In practice, Indian laws could not be applied to J&K without the consent of its state government. Indian Parliament’s legislative reach was therefore significantly limited, requiring state concurrence for most matters.

What was Article 35A?

Article 35A, added to the Constitution in 1954, gave special rights and privileges to the permanent residents of Jammu and Kashmir.
Its roots lay in the 1952 Delhi Agreement between then-Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru and Jammu and Kashmir’s leader Sheikh Abdullah.
It empowered the Jammu and Kashmir state legislature to decide who qualified as a 'permanent resident' of the state. A permanent resident was someone who was a state subject as of May 14, 1954, or had lived in the state for at least 10 years and lawfully acquired property. These exclusive rights included:
- It allowed the state to grant special rights to permanent residents in areas like land ownership, government jobs, and education scholarships.
- It barred non-residents from permanently settling, buying property, or accessing state benefits.
- It had a discriminatory clause against women: if a female resident married someone from outside the state, she could lose her property rights, and the same applied to her children.
The laws made under Article 35A were shielded from judicial scrutiny. No act of the state legislature coming under the ambit of Article 35A can be challenged for violating the Indian Constitution or any other law of the land.

What has changed in J&K after Article 370 Abrogation?

Positive Developments:

Successful elections and participation of voters: For the first time in decades, UT J&K recorded an impressive over 63% voter turnout in the Assembly elections. Additionally, the 2024 Lok Sabha elections witnessed the highest voter participation in the region in the last 35 years.
Major dip in violence and stone pelting: The incidents of stone pelting have completely stopped in the UT (As per the Union Home Ministry data). E.g., In 2023, not a single case of stone pelting or strike was recorded, a significant decline compared to 2010 (over 2600 incidents of stone pelting and 132 strikes).
Infrastructural development and investment: Successful completion of several infrastructural projects.
- Inauguration of Rs 42,500 crore Udhampur-Srinagar-Baramulla Rail Link. It features the world’s highest rail bridge over the Chenab River. This bridge connects the Jammu region with Kashmir valley, and is crucial for regional integration, economic growth and defence mobility.
- Projects worth over Rs 76000 crore are currently in the pipeline in the UT. Centre approved 19 road and tunnel projects worth over Rs 10,000 crores in June 2025.
Tourism boost: Post Article 370 abrogation, the UT has witnessed a major boost to tourism and local economy. E.g., Over 21.1 million people visited the UT in 2023. However, the recent Pahalgam attack has caused a brief hiatus.

Pertaining Issues:

Security Concerns and Terrorism in J&K:
- Selective killings: Targeting tourists, non-local employees & entrepreneurs (those being issued domicile certificates) for derailing measures to promote industrial development and tourism. E.g., Recent targeted attacks in Pahalgam.
- Improvised weapons: Reliance on IEDs to avoid confrontation with security forces, using sticky bombs (detonated from distance) & simulated training conditions.
- New modes of weapon delivery: Air-dropping of bombs using UAVs by Pakistan-backed terror outfits.
Economic Slowdown of J&K’s economy as a centrally administered unit:
- Decline in GSDP: The growth in Gross State Domestic Product (GSDP) has declined both in nominal and in real terms. As a result, the contribution of J&K to the national GDP has declined to 0.77%.
- Slowdown in income growth and high unemployment: In 2025, in the 15-29 age bracket, the unemployment rate of UT J&K is more than 30%, which is almost double the national average.
- Poor Fiscal Health:
  - Decline in fixed and invested capital, accompanied by a sharp rise in borrowings. Despite better revenue mobilisation, J&K’s fiscal health has deteriorated significantly with higher debt and deficits compared to pre-2019.
  - Internal debt has almost doubled in just five years. Total outstanding liabilities of the UT are now almost 60% of the GSDP.
  - Fiscal deficit is around 6%, way above the stipulated FRBM limits.

The economy is heavily reliant on central grants (up to 70% of expenditure), and core sectors like agriculture and industry contribute far less than services.

The road ahead lies in the restoration of J&K’s statehood to usher in participatory democracy in J&K, confer more political, administrative and economic powers to the state government and will uphold federal principles.

Also Read: Supreme Court upholds abrogation of Article 370