Disasters & Disaster Management

Cold Wave Conditions in India: Causes, Criteria and Impacts

Context (TH): The India Meteorological Department (IMD) has issued a cold wave warning for several districts in Telangana, highlighting an unusual southward spread of cold-wave conditions. Telangana is also the only South Indian state included in IMD’s core cold-wave zone.

What is a Cold Wave?

A cold wave refers to an abrupt and significant drop in temperature below the normal climatological average of a region during winter.

Role of IMD

The India Meteorological Department monitors winter temperatures and issues colour-coded warnings (Green, Yellow, Orange, Red).
IMD uses minimum temperature thresholds and deviations from the long-term average to classify cold-wave intensity.

Climatological Baseline

Normal winter temperature values are based on IMD’s 1981–2010 climatology dataset.

Criteria for Declaring Cold Wave

1. Plains

Cold wave declared when:

  • Minimum temp ≤ 4°C, or
  • Minimum temp ≤ 10°C and 4.5°C–6.4°C below normal

2. Hilly Regions

  • Minimum temp ≤ 0°C, and 4.5°C–6.4°C below normal

3. Coastal Regions

  • Minimum temp ≤ 15°C and ≥4.5°C below normal

Severe Cold Wave

Declared when:

  • Minimum temp ≤ 2°C, or
  • Temperature is ≥6.5°C below normal

Why Do Cold Waves Occur in India?

1. Western Disturbances

The passage of Western Disturbances brings cold, dry north-westerly winds from the Himalayas and Central Asia.

2. High-Pressure Systems

The Siberian High intensifies and pushes cold continental air masses toward India.

3. Himalayan Snowfall

More snowfall → stronger cold air advection into the northern plains.

4. Clear Skies

Absence of clouds = strong nighttime radiative cooling, causing sharp temperature drops.

5. Dense Fog

Fog blocks daytime solar radiation, worsening cold conditions.

6. La Niña Events

IMD observations show La Niña years bring longer and more intense cold waves.

7. Continental Climate

Interior regions far from the sea lack maritime moderation, making them more vulnerable.

Consequences of Cold Waves

1. Health Risks

  • Hypothermia
  • Frostbite
  • Asthma & COPD exacerbation
  • Cardiovascular stress due to vasoconstriction
    India records ~824 annual deaths due to cold exposure.

2. Agricultural Losses

  • Frost damage to crops
  • Reduced livestock productivity
  • Stress on horticultural crops during flowering/fruiting

3. Infrastructure & Transport

  • Fog-induced delays in rail, road, and air transport
  • Power demand surges → outages
  • Water pipelines may freeze in northern hill states

About the India Meteorological Department (IMD)

  • Established in 1875, IMD is India’s National Meteorological Service.
  • Functions under the Ministry of Earth Sciences (MoES).
  • One of six Regional Specialized Meteorological Centres (RSMCs) under WMO.
  • Provides:
    • Meteorological observations
    • Weather forecasts
    • Disaster warnings for weather-sensitive sectors
cold wave in india infographic

Conclusion

Cold waves are a recurring winter hazard in India, driven by large-scale atmospheric circulation, local geography, and global climate patterns.

With rising climatic variability, timely IMD alerts, climate-resilient agriculture, and public health preparedness have become essential for reducing cold-wave impacts.

Why does Punjab keep Flooding?

Context: Punjab, often described as the “land of five rivers” and the “food bowl of India,” faces recurrent floods that devastate lives, agriculture, and infrastructure. 

Relevance of the Topic: Mains: Factors responsible for recurrent floods in Punjab.

Historical records show that Punjab has faced major floods in 1955, 1988, 1993, 2019, 2023. In 2025, all 23 districts of the state have been declared flood-hit with more than 3.8 lakh people affected and over 11.7 lakh hectares of farmland destroyed. 

image 30

Factors responsible for Floods

  • Geographical and Natural Factors: Punjab has three perennial rivers (Ravi, Beas, Sutlej) and seasonal rivers like the Ghaggar, numerous hill streams and seasonal streams which make it naturally flood-prone. Heavy monsoon rainfall in Punjab and upstream states like Himachal Pradesh and Jammu & Kashmir causes rivers to swell beyond capacity.
  • Failures of Flood Protection Infrastructure: Floods are aggravated by poor upkeep of barrages.  Poor maintenance and lack of periodic strengthening of Earthen embankments (dhussi bundhs) reduce their effectiveness during extreme events. E.g., Madhopur Barrage gate failure in 2025.
  • Role of Dams and Barrages:
    • Bhakra Dam (Sutlej), Pong Dam (Beas), and Thein/Ranjit Sagar Dam (Ravi) are managed mainly for irrigation and power, not flood control. Excessive rainfall forces dam authorities to release large volumes of water suddenly to prevent overtopping which floods downstream areas.
    • Punjab alleges that the Bhakra Beas Management Board (BBMB) keeps reservoir levels high in July-August to secure irrigation and hydropower needs, leaving little flood cushion for late monsoon rains.
  • Governance and Institutional Problems:
    • Punjab has limited say in the decision-making of the BBMB, especially after the 2022 amendment that allowed officers from across India (not just Punjab and Haryana) to hold top posts.
    • Lack of coordination and delayed warnings between dam operators and state authorities worsen the damage. 
    • Governments typically adopt a reactive rather than preventive approach, focusing on relief after disasters instead of long-term mitigation measures like desilting rivers and strengthening embankments. 
  • Border and Strategic Dimensions: Ravi river partly flows through Pakistan, where the military has built strong embankments and flood-control structures, altering the river’s behaviour and increasing risks for India’s side.
  • Climate Change Factor: Monsoons in South Asia have become more volatile, with 2025 witnessing 15-30% above-normal rainfall in Himachal, J&K, and Punjab. Extreme rainfall events are reducing the effectiveness of traditional dam rule curves and embankment defences.

Socio-Economic Consequences of Floods: 

  • Floods devastate Agriculture, destroying standing crops like paddy and delaying wheat sowing, directly impacting national food security.
  • Farmers lose not just crops but face costs of de-silting fields, repairing tube wells, and restoring soil health.
  • Agricultural labourers (dependent on seasonal employment) face joblessness and social insecurity after floods.
  • Rural economies collapse temporarily with large-scale distress migration possible in worst-hit areas.

Way Forward

  • Scientific Dam Management: Reservoirs should maintain a flood cushion during monsoon months with real-time monitoring and transparent release protocols.
  • Strengthening Embankments: Earthen dhussi bundhs must be reinforced, illegal sand mining curbed, and concrete structures built in vulnerable stretches, especially along border rivers.
  • Desilting and River Training: Rivers should be regularly desilted and trained to remove bottlenecks and increase their carrying capacity.
  • Integrated Early Warning Systems: A coordinated early warning system should link IMD, dam authorities, irrigation departments, and district administrations.
  • Reform of Indus Waters Treaty: The treaty should be updated to incorporate adaptive management and climate change resilience.
  • Comprehensive Relief Mechanism: Direct Benefit Transfers should be expanded to provide quick and targeted relief to farmers and agricultural labourers

Without structural reforms in dam governance, embankment strengthening, and adaptive water-sharing policies, Punjab will continue to face devastation. Effective flood management is critical not only for the state’s security and economy but also for India’s national food security and border stability.

Why are India, Afghanistan and Pakistan vulnerable to deadly Earthquakes?

Context: A 6.0-magnitude earthquake struck northeast Afghanistan. A 6.0-magnitude earthquake struck northeast Afghanistan. The quake originated at a shallow depth of 8 km, making the surface shaking extremely intense and destructive.

Relevance of the Topic: Mains: Why are India, Afghanistan and Pakistan vulnerable to deadly Earthquakes?

Why are India, Afghanistan and Pakistan vulnerable to deadly Earthquakes?

The region has experienced devastating earthquakes in the past :

  • 2001 Bhuj Earthquake (India)
  • 2005 Earthquake (Pakistan-administered Kashmir)
  • 2015 Hindu Kush Earthquake (Afghanistan)
  • 2023 Herat Earthquake (Afghanistan)
  • 2025 Afghanistan
image 23

Reasons for frequent Earthquakes in the Region: 

  • Tectonic Stress: The region lies on the collision boundary of Indian Plate and Eurasian Plate. The Indian Plate is moving northward at about 5 cm per year, colliding with the Eurasian Plate. This tectonic stress causes frequent earthquakes along active fault lines, especially in the Himalaya and Hindu Kush mountains. 
  • Delamination of Indian Plate: Recent studies reveal that the Indian Plate is splitting into two, with the lower part detaching and sinking into the Earth’s mantle (a process called delamination). In the Himalayan collision zone, delamination results in fractures that increase stress in the Earth’s crust, raising the likelihood of seismic events. 
image 24
  • Active Fault Lines: Presence of major faults like the Himalayan Frontal Thrust (HFT), Main Boundary Thrust (MBT), Chaman Fault (Pakistan-Afghanistan border), and Karakoram Fault. Sudden slip along these faults releases massive seismic energy.
  • Geological and Topographical Factors: Young fold mountains (Himalayas & Hindu Kush) are geologically unstable and continue to deform under tectonic pressure. The presence of steep slopes, deep valleys, and thick sedimentary deposits amplifies seismic waves. Plains such as the Indo-Gangetic basin are prone to soil liquefaction during major tremors.
  • Role of Climate Change: Rising global temperatures are causing accelerated glacier melt in the Himalayas, with up to 80% of glaciers projected to disappear by 2100. The loss of glacial weight leads to isostatic rebound, which shifts the earth’s crust and triggers quakes. Meltwater seeps into the ground, reducing friction along fault lines, thereby making slippage more likely.

Thus, while tectonics remain the primary driver, climate change acts as a risk multiplier.

What caused Flash Floods in Uttarkashi?

Context: Recently, flash floods and mudslides struck Dharali village in Uttarkashi, Uttarakhand. 

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Concept of Flash Floods and Cloudburst.Mains: Reasons behind flash floods in Uttarkashi.

While such disasters are frequent in the Himalayan region, this particular event was not caused by a cloudburst, but due to a dangerous combination of rugged topography, continuous rainfall, and geological fragility.

What are Flash Floods?

  • Flash floods are sudden surges in water levels in rivers or streams, often caused by intense rainfall, rapid snowmelt, or dam breaches. 

Causes Behind the Flash Floods in Uttarkashi: 

  • Rugged Himalayan Topography: 
    • Uttarkashi lies at an altitude between 800-6900 metres, with steep slopes, deep gorges, and narrow valleys. These steep gradients accelerate the flow of rainwater and landslide debris which make flash floods more intense and sudden.
    • The region's terrain causes rapid runoff, preventing water from percolating, and instead directing it forcefully into river systems.
  • Continuous Heavy Rainfall: Though not a cloudburst (which requires 100 mm/hour rainfall), Uttarkashi received persistent rainfall over several days, saturating the soil and weakening slopes. Saturated land is more prone to landslides and debris flow, which adds mass to flowing water, worsening the impact downstream.
  • Geological Vulnerability: The region consists of glacial moraines, unconsolidated sediments, and loose soil layers formed by past landslides. Even mild triggers like rainfall or tremors can cause massive slope failure, sweeping mud and rocks into river channels.
  • Accelerated Deglaciation due to Climate Change: Rising temperatures have led to increased melting of glaciers around Gangotri and Yamunotri. This meltwater, when combined with rainfall, increases the hydrological load, enhancing the chances of flash floods.
  • Lack of vegetation: Uttarkashi district is situated along the southern Himalayan slope, where there is limited vegetation and no significant obstruction. Mild triggers such as rainfall or earthquakes can cause loose moraine and soil to easily slither downhill, swallowing homes and roads along its path.

Why was it not a Cloudburst?

  • According to the India Meteorological Department (IMD): Rainfall of 100 mm or more in an hour over a roughly 10 km x 10 km area is classified as a cloudburst event.
  • On the day of the flash flood, Uttarkashi received only 2.7 mm, and stations reported well below cloudburst criteria. 
  • Thus, this was a widespread rain-induced landslide and flash flood, not a localised extreme rainfall event.
image 4

The Uttarkashi flash floods are a classic example of how vulnerable Himalayan ecosystems are to even moderate but prolonged rainfall, especially when climate change and poor land-use practices compound the risk. This underlines the need for sustainable development, robust early warning systems, and disaster-resilient infrastructure in fragile hill regions.

Flash Floods in India 

Context: Flash floods were recently reported in several districts of Himachal Pradesh due to intense rainfall over a short duration.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Concept of Flash Floods and affected regions. Mains: Key drivers of Flash Floods and mitigation strategies.

What Are Flash Floods?

  • According to the National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA): Flash floods are sudden and high-intensity floods that occur within six hours of a triggering event such as heavy rainfall, dam breach, cloudburst, or landslide. These floods are highly localised, short-lived, and destructive. 
image 1

Key Drivers of Flash Floods:  

  • Extreme Precipitation: According to the study, only 25% of the flash floods that occur in India are directly caused by extreme precipitation. The rest of them are a result of a combination of extreme rainfall and the condition of the soil before precipitation.
  • Pre-wet Soil Conditions: Saturated soil cannot absorb new rainfall, leading to instant runoff.
  • Geomorphological Factors: In the Himalayas, geomorphological factors such as steep slopes, and high relief contribute to flash floods. 
  • Flashiness of Sub-basins: River basins that react quickly to rainfall lead to sudden floods. In the West Coast and Central India, flash floods are driven by the high flashiness of sub-basins, meaning water levels peak quickly after heavy rainfall. Prevailing soil conditions significantly influence how fast water infiltrates these sub-basins.
  • Multi-day Rainfall Events: The study notes that an extreme rainfall event leads to immediate flash floods (within six hours) only 23% of the time. Usually, it is the prolonged (multi-day) low-intensity and high-intensity rainfall which results in these floods.
  • Climate Change: With rising global temperatures, extreme weather events such as flash floods are increasing in frequency and intensity across the world. For every 1 degree Celsius rise in average temperature, the atmosphere can hold about 7% more moisture, leading to more intense precipitation which exacerbates the risk of flash floods.

Increasing Frequency and Regional Spread of Flash Floods: 

Recent flash floods in Himachal Pradesh, Assam, Goa, and parts of Central India highlight their increasing frequency and regional spread across diverse terrains. A study by researchers based at the Indian Institute of Technology (IIT)- Gandhinagar has found: 

  • Notable increase in flash flood events since 1995. Flash floods are mainly centred in the Himalayas, the west coast, and Central India.
  • Most of the flash floods occurred in the Brahmaputra River basin, followed by the Ganga and Krishna River basins.
  • The sub-basins located in the Himalayan regions and the southern parts of the Ganga River basin are highly prone to flash floods, whereas the sub-basins in the central regions of the Ganga River basin exhibit low flash flood susceptibility.

Way Forward

  • Adopt Region-Specific Adaptation strategies based on factors such as topography and soil conditions, and not just extreme rainfall events. This can help in developing better early warning systems, targeted disaster preparedness, and long-term adaptation plans.
  • Identify potential flash flood hotspots and take measures like building climate-resilient infrastructure to limit the impact of the extreme weather event.
  • Enhance land-use and flood planning in the wake of rising temperatures and changing rainfall patterns.

Flood Vulnerability in Informal Settlements: Global South Crisis

Context: A recent global study highlights how flood risk disproportionately affects vulnerable communities, especially slum dwellers in the Global South.

Relevance of Topic: Prelims: Urbanisation trends Mains: Flood Vulnerability in Informal Settlements - reasons, consequences, suggestions.  

According to a 2024 Moody’s Report

  • More than 2.3 billion people are exposed to flooding every year.
  • In India, more than 600 million people are at risk of coastal or inland flooding.

According to Nature Cities Study: 

  • In the Global South, around 33% of informal settlements (housing over 445 million people) are located in flood-exposed regions.
  • India has the world’s largest number of slum dwellers living in vulnerable settlements in floodplains (over 158 million), most of them concentrated in the naturally food-prone delta of the Ganga river.
  • The largest concentrations and largest numbers of such people are in South Asian countries; northern India leads in absolute numbers, followed by Indonesia, Bangladesh, and Pakistan. 
  • Other notable ‘hotspots’ include Rwanda and its neighborhood, northern Morocco, and the coastal regions of Rio de Janeiro.

Regional Urbanisation Trends: 

  • Latin America & Caribbean: Highly urbanised (80%); most settlements are urban.
  • Sub-Saharan Africa: Less urbanised; 63% of informal settlements are rural.
  • In India, 40% of slum dwellers live in urban and suburban areas.

Why do people settle in Floodzones?

People settle in, or are forced to settle in, floodplains due to a combination of factors including : 

  • Access to jobs, social vulnerability, and financial constraints.
  • In the Global South flood zones offer cheaper land and housing, pushing low income households into more vulnerable areas. 
  • Absence of inclusive urban policies.
  • Flood-prone localities are not preferred by large builders for gated communities or IT parks, so those areas are available for migrant workers and informal settlements as they are cheaper.
  • However in wealthier regions like Europe, subsidised flood insurance premiums in high risk areas promotes the desirability of floodplain areas like beachfronts and water views.

Consequences of Living in Flood-Prone Areas: 

  • Floods result in the loss of livelihoods for vulnerable residents, especially those in informal employment.
  • Flooding disrupts essential services, such as sanitation, water, and electricity.
  • Poor drainage and waste systems heighten vulnerability to infectious diseases.
  • Informal settlements are typically tin-sheet, tent, or tarp housing, which are structurally weak and highly exposed to flood damage.

Way Forward

  • Adopt a human-centric approach instead of location-focused to improve inadequate infrastructure.
  • Governments should collaborate with communities, rather than relying only on traditional disaster preparedness.
  • Skill improvement in areas like sanitation, waste management, and installing drainage systems. It could enhance the resilience to not just foods but also other risks like infectious disease, while providing jobs.
  • Use data and machine learning for early-warning systems and future flood risk prediction.

The need of the hour is to prioritise action as the 2030 SDG deadline nears, especially goals on poverty, clean water, and climate action.

How can Cat Bonds plan for a natural disaster?

Context: India’s rising exposure to extreme weather events like cyclones, floods, forest fires and earthquakes calls for robust financial preparedness. One viable option for India is to sponsor cat bonds, through an intermediary like World Bank, to secure pre-arranged funding for post-disaster reconstruction.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key features of Cat bonds; Advantages and disadvantages of Cat bonds.

What are Cat Bonds ? 

  • Catastrophe Bonds or Cat Bonds are special bonds that raise money for disaster. Cat bonds emerged after major U.S. hurricanes in the 1990s, as a way to shift catastrophe risk from insurers and re-insurers to global financial markets (bond investors).
  • The investors buy the bonds and receive higher-than average returns compared to traditional bonds.
    • If a major disaster occurs (defined in the bond terms), the principal amount of the bond acts as the insured money to be used. The investor loses the principal amount. 
    • If no disaster happens during the bond’s defined term, the investors get their principal back. Along with it, the investors receive periodic interest payments (called coupons) during the bond term, as long as no disaster occurs.
image 26

Key Features of Cat Bonds

  • Hybrid insurance-cum-debt financial product that transforms insurance cover into a tradable security.
  • Disaster-linked instrument: Cat Bonds are tied to specific natural disasters like earthquakes, cyclones, or floods.
  • Risk transfer mechanism: Shift the financial burden of disasters from governments or insurers to investors.
  • Trigger-based payout: If a predefined disaster occurs (E.g., an earthquake of certain magnitude), investors may lose principal which is then used for relief and reconstruction. In case of a disaster, funds are released quickly, helping in immediate relief and reconstruction.
  • Higher coupon rates: Due to the high risk of losing capital, investors demand higher returns. There is much variation in coupon rates (interest) for a cat bond depending on the risks. E.g., In the US, earthquakes have lower premiums (1-2%), compared to hurricanes or cyclones.
  • Involvement of Intermediaries: Institutions like the World Bank, Asian Development Bank, or reinsurance companies act as intermediaries to structure and issue the bonds. This ensures transparency and reduces counter-party risk.
  • Attractive to global investors like pension funds and hedge funds as disaster risks are not linked to stock market movements, thus offering portfolio diversification.

Since the onset of cat bonds, there have been $180 billion worth of new issuances of cat bonds globally with about $50 billion currently outstanding.  

Does India need a Cat Bond?

  • Unpredictability and increase in frequency of extreme weather events like cyclones, floods, devastating earthquakes etc. in South Asia have increased India’s exposure to disaster-risk. Cat bonds can help India ring-fence public finances and ensure timely funds for relief and reconstruction, reducing sudden budget strain.
  • Low Insurance Penetration: Less than 10% of India's disaster-affected population has insurance cover for housing or livelihoods.
  • India’s strong sovereign credit rating and large scale of its hazard risk exposure can help in securing lower coupon rates for cat bonds, making them cost-effective.
  • Given India’s size and financial stability, India could be lead-sponsor for a South Asian cat bond, given that most such regional risks remain unhedged. 

Disadvantages of Cat Bonds

  • A defectively designed cat bond could lead to no payout despite a significant disaster. For example, an earthquake cat bond designed for a magnitude threshold of 6.6M for a certain grid may fail, if a 6.5M event occurs and causes extensive damage. 
  • Despite a contract if a disaster does not occur, it could lead to questions on the desirability of such expense.

Toxins of Bhopal Gas Tragedy 1984

Context: Toxic waste weighing 337 tonnes from the defunct Union Carbide factory has been completely incinerated at a private waste treatment facility in Pithampur industrial area, Dhar district in Madhya Pradesh. The waste was moved to the treatment facility in early 2025, more than 40 years after the Bhopal gas tragedy. 

Relevance of the Topic:Prelims: Heavy Metals, Persistent Organic Pollutants. 

What was the Bhopal Gas Tragedy? 

  • The Bhopal disaster or Bhopal gas tragedy was a chemical accident on the night of 2–3 December 1984 at the Union Carbide India Limited (UCIL) pesticide plant in Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh.
  • The world's worst industrial disaster occurred due to the release of nearly 40 metric tons of methyl isocyanate (MIC) from the plant. Over 5000 people lost their lives and thousands suffered physical disabilities due to the leak of toxic methyl isocyanate gas. 

Read also: Industrial Disaster

Toxins of Bhopal Gas Tragedy 1984

Toxins associated with Bhopal Gas Tragedy: 

  • Along with MIC, past reports have indicated the release of worrisome concentrations of toxins, persistent organic pollutants (POPs) and heavy metals.
    • Toxins included: Hexachlorobutadiene, Chloroform, Carbon tetrachloride, Trichlorobenzene
    • Heavy metals: Mercury, chromium, copper, nickel, and lead.

What are Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs)?

  • Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) are organic compounds that do not break down easily and remain intact in the environment for long periods.
  • They become widely distributed geographically, accumulate in the fatty tissue of living organisms and are toxic to humans and wildlife.
  • Their effects include- Cancer, allergies and hypersensitivity, damage to the central and peripheral nervous systems, reproductive disorders, and disruption of the immune system.
  • The Stockholm Convention on POPs is an international environmental treaty to protect human health and the environment from POPs.
    • The Convention was adopted in 2001 and came into effect in 2004. 
    • India is a party to the Convention. 

What are Heavy Metals?

  • Heavy metals are a group of metals and metalloids that have relatively high densities, atomic weights, or atomic numbers. They are classified as heavy metals because their density is at least 5x that of water. 
  • They are often characterised by their toxicity, persistence in the environment, and potential to bioaccumulate in living organisms and have adverse effects on human health and the environment.
image 1
  • Common Examples:
    • Mercury: Can damage multiple organs even at low concentrations by accumulating in soft tissue and preventing normal cellular function.
    • Lead: 
      • Can damage chlorophyll and disrupt photosynthesis in plants. 
      • Developmental issues, brain impairment & cancer. 
    • Arsenic: Carcinogenic. 
    • Chromium: Carcinogenic, impair immune system. 
    • Nickel: Carcinogenic. 

Crowd Management

Context: A recent stampede at M. Chinnaswamy Stadium in Bengaluru left 11 dead and more than 50 injured. 

India has the highest number of stampedes and resultant injuries and fatalities. Data from the National Crime Records Bureau reveal that between 1996 and 2022, India recorded 3,935 stampede incidents, resulting in more than 3,000 deaths.

Relevance of the Topic:Mains: Effective Crowd Management: NDMA guidelines. 

What is a Stampede?

  • Stampede is an impulsive mass movement of a crowd that often disrupts the orderly movement of crowds resulting in injuries and fatalities.
  • Factors leading to stampedes: Stampedes happen due to:
    • High crowd density
    • lack of understanding of crowd behaviour
    • lack of coordination, clarity in roles & responsibilities of various stakeholders
    • lack of proper planning on the part of organisers. 
  • Deaths in stampedes: Stampedes have high mortality rates. 
    • Most stampede casualties are caused by traumatic asphyxia (partial or complete cessation of respiration due to external compression of the thorax and/or upper abdomen). 
    • Other possible reasons include myocardial infarction (heart attack), direct crushing injury to internal organs, head injuries, and neck compression.
image 186

What is Crowd Management?

  • Crowd management is defined as a systematic process of planning, organising and monitoring large gatherings. Such management should strategise to reduce and mitigate the risks in advance.
  • Recognising the issue of recurring stampedes at mass gatherings, the National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) has issued guidelines for crowd management. 
  • Objective: To assist all stakeholders, including state governments, local authorities, and organisers/administrators of events and venues of mass gatherings, in overall planning and establishing required systems for effective crowd management.
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What are the NDMA guidelines for Crowd Management in India?

1. Capacity Planning: 

  • An effective method for counting and monitoring visitors passing through a staging point should be implemented to manage the flow. 
  • Ensure that there are designated physical or virtual locations that each visitor must pass through. 
  • Each staging point should provide adequate facilities for resting, eating, drinking water, and maintaining hygiene. 
  • Encourage multiple routes to enhance visitor movement and reduce congestion.

2. Crowd Control: 

  • During the crowd control focus should be on managing the demand-supply gap through:
    • controlling crowd inflow
    • regulating crowd movement at the venue
    • managing crowd outflow if necessary.

3. Conducting Hazard, Risk and Vulnerability Analysis (HRVA):

  • Conducting HRVA for mass gathering locations, along with pre-event scenarios can provide a foundation for preparing for all three phases of any severe incident: response, recovery, and mitigation.
  • The HRVA can facilitate the creation of a decision support system that can enhance the efficiency and effectiveness of rescue and relief operations.
    • Identifying Threats and Causes: Planners can utilise existing information to recognise a variety of potential threats and causes of disasters at places where large crowds gather.
    • Risk Assessment and Planning: After identifying these potential threats and causes, it is essential to assess their risks.

4. Failure Mode and Effect Analysis (FMEA): 

  • NDMA has recommended that all event organisers/planners conduct FMEA. This methodology involves rating every possible hazard on the dimensions of:
    • Severity
    • Frequency of Occurrence
    • Difficulty of detection on a scale of 1-10 to arrive at an overall Risk Priority Number (RPN). 
  • Higher the severity, higher the frequency of occurrence, higher the difficulty of detection, the score assigned would be higher. 
  • The basic premise is that if a disaster can be foreseen, the probability of occurrence is high. For every hazard, actions are then warranted to reduce/remove the risks.

5. Develop a Course of Action: 

  • A course of action should be created to address each threat, cause, or gap identified by FEMA. 
  • After selecting potential courses of action, the planning team should identify the resources required for each option and assess them against the resources available.

Way Forward for Effective Crowd Management

  • Having a right Stampede Risk-Reduction Framework, involving an inter-agency multi-disciplinary approach, for planning mass gatherings.
  • Improving the physical organisation and better design of spaces for effective crowd management.
  • Live surveillance of the crowd can help organisers monitor crowd density, bottlenecks, pressure buildup, and identify the source of disturbances.
  • Effective Inter-agency communication among organisers, local administration officials, police and the crowd. They need to establish who will be responsible for issuing the warning and determine how the crowd will be informed.

Emergency preparedness, including the deployment of medical aid, trained personnel, and effective chaos management protocols must be a non-negotiable standard. India must ensure the safety of its citizens, whether they gather for faith, fandom, or politics.

Urban Flooding

Context: India’s urban centres- Mumbai, Delhi, Kolkata, Hyderabad, and several other cities are getting flooded more often in the recent past. The reasons range from inefficient drainage systems to the implications of climate change. This is having an increasing impact on life, property and increased incidence of tropical diseases. 

Relevance of the Topic:Mains: Urban Flood: Causes, Consequences, Way Forward.

About Urban Flooding

Urban flooding has become increasingly frequent in India's major cities (Chennai floods, most recent in Hyderabad), with an increasing impact on life, property and increased incidence of tropical diseases.

Natural Factors Contributing to Urban Flooding in India:

  • Monsoon Rains:
    • Example: The Indian subcontinent experiences heavy monsoon rains from June to September. Cities like Mumbai, Chennai, and Kolkata frequently face intense rainfall during this period, leading to waterlogging and urban flooding.
  • Topography:
    • Example: Bengaluru's natural topography, with its undulating terrain, can lead to water accumulation in low-lying areas. This becomes problematic when combined with urban development that disrupts natural drainage patterns.
  • Cyclones and Storm Surges:
    • Example: Coastal cities such as Chennai, Visakhapatnam, and Mumbai are susceptible to cyclones and storm surges. The 2017 Cyclone Ockhi caused significant flooding and damage in coastal areas of Tamil Nadu and Kerala.
  • Soil Characteristics:
    • Example: Certain soil types, such as clayey soils found in parts of Chennai, have low permeability, leading to poor drainage and increased surface runoff during heavy rains.
  • Sea Level Rise:
    • Example: Coastal cities like Mumbai and Chennai are vulnerable to sea level rise, which can exacerbate flooding, particularly during high tides and storm surges. The 2019 floods in Mumbai were worsened by high tide conditions.
  • Climate Change:
    • Example: The increasing frequency and intensity of extreme weather events due to climate change are causing more severe and unpredictable rainfall patterns. For instance, the unprecedented rainfall in Kerala in 2018 led to widespread flooding.
  • Hills and Slopes:
    • Example: Shimla and other hill cities experience rapid runoff due to their steep slopes, leading to flash floods during heavy rains. The terrain accelerates water flow, increasing the risk of flooding in lower-lying urban areas.
  • Seasonal Variability:
    • Example: Cities like Lucknow experience seasonal variability in rainfall, with some years receiving exceptionally high rainfall. This variability can overwhelm urban drainage systems not designed for such fluctuations.

Anthropogenic factors

Anthropogenic factors - Urban Flooding
  • Rapid Urbanization without Adequate Planning:
    • Example: The city of Gurgaon, near Delhi, has seen rapid urban development without corresponding improvements in infrastructure. The lack of adequate drainage systems has led to frequent waterlogging during monsoon seasons.
  • Encroachment on Natural Water Bodies:
    • Example: In Chennai, extensive encroachment on natural water bodies and wetlands has significantly reduced the city's capacity to absorb and drain rainwater. The 2015 floods were exacerbated by the loss of these natural buffers.
  • Outdated Drainage Infrastructure:
    • Example: Mumbai's drainage system, parts of which date back to the British colonial era, is not equipped to handle the high-intensity rainfall the city experiences. The 2005 floods highlighted the inadequacies of the city's drainage system.
  • Poor Solid Waste Management:
    • Example: In Kolkata, improper disposal of solid waste often clogs drainage channels, leading to severe waterlogging during heavy rains. The accumulated waste obstructs water flow, causing flooding even during moderate rainfall.
  • High Population Density:
    • Example: Delhi's high population density puts immense pressure on existing drainage infrastructure. During the 2020 monsoon, several areas of the city experienced severe flooding due to the overburdened drainage system.
  • Illegal Construction:
    • Example: In Hyderabad, illegal constructions along the Musi River and other watercourses have obstructed natural water flow paths, leading to increased flooding during the monsoon season.
  • Lack of Urban Green Spaces:
    • Example: Bengaluru has lost a significant number of its lakes and green spaces to urban development. The reduced capacity for water absorption has led to frequent flooding in several parts of the city.
  • Water Mismanagement:
    • Example: In Surat, the release of water from the Ukai Dam without adequate warning during heavy rains in 2006 led to severe flooding. Poor water management practices and coordination issues often exacerbate flooding.
  • Unplanned Urban Expansion:
    • Example: Jaipur has expanded rapidly without proper urban planning, leading to the development of residential areas in low-lying regions prone to flooding. The lack of planned drainage networks has made these areas vulnerable to flooding during heavy rains.

 Strategies to Curb Urban Flooding:

  • Green Infrastructure:
    • Green Roofs: Installing vegetation on rooftops can absorb rainwater and reduce runoff.
    • Permeable Pavements: Using materials that allow water to infiltrate the ground can reduce surface runoff.
    • Rain Gardens: Small, vegetated areas designed to absorb and filter rainwater.
  • Stormwater Management Systems:
    • Retention Basins: Constructing basins to hold excess rainwater and release it slowly.
    • Detention Ponds: Similar to retention basins but usually dry until a storm event occurs.
    • Bioswales: Landscaped channels designed to concentrate and convey stormwater runoff while removing debris and pollution.
  • Upgrading Drainage Infrastructure:
    • Enlarging and Improving Drainage Systems: Ensuring that drainage systems are capable of handling increased volumes of water.
    • Regular Maintenance: Keeping drainage systems clear of debris and in good repair.
  • Urban Planning and Zoning:
    • Floodplain Management: Restricting development in areas prone to flooding.
    • Elevated Structures: Building homes and infrastructure above anticipated flood levels.
  • Smart Technology and Data:
    • Flood Monitoring Systems: Using sensors and IoT devices to monitor water levels and provide early warnings.
    • Predictive Modeling: Utilizing data and simulations to predict flooding and plan responses.
  • Community Involvement and Education:
    • Public Awareness Campaigns: Educating residents about flood risks and how to reduce their impact.
    • Community-Led Projects: Encouraging local initiatives to implement flood mitigation measures.
  • Nature-Based Solutions:
    • Wetland Restoration: Rehabilitating wetlands to act as natural sponges for rainwater.
    • Urban Forests: Increasing tree cover to enhance water absorption and reduce runoff.
  • Regulatory Measures:
    • Building Codes: Implementing stringent building codes that require flood-resilient construction.
    • Stormwater Fees: Charging fees based on impervious surface area to fund flood mitigation projects.

Case Studies:

Several cities worldwide have adopted the sponge city approach, with notable examples including:

  • Shanghai, China: Implementing green roofs, permeable pavements, and extensive green spaces as part of its sponge city initiative.
  • Berlin, Germany: Utilizing green roofs, rain gardens, and retention basins to manage stormwater and improve urban resilience.
  • Singapore: Integrating green infrastructure and advanced drainage systems to transform the city into a model of sustainable water management.

As the incidence of extreme weather events due to climate change, there must be more focus on urban flooding. Guidelines laid down by NDMA for urban flooding should be followed by cities

Delhi Earthquake

Context: Recently, Delhi witnessed an earthquake of 4.1 magnitude, and the epicenter being within Delhi raised concerns. 

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: Questions based on geographical phenomena related to earthquakes.

Mains: Detailed question on Indian earthquake risk zones, vulnerabilities and preparedness.

About Delhi Earthquake

  • Delhi witnessed an earthquake of 4.1 magnitude. As per National Center of Seismology it was the strongest earthquake to have originated in Delhi in the past five years.
  • How is this earthquake different from previous ones?
    • Epicenter: Previous earthquakes had an epicenter away from Delhi, like Afghanistan and Nepal. This time the earthquake originated within Delhi near Dhaula Kuan region.
    • Shallow depth: The earthquake had a shallow focus of about 5 km below the surface.
    • Peculiar sound: The earthquake was reported to have a low-frequency sound produced due to the passing of vibrations and shaking of material. Such sounds are observed when the epicenter is shallow. The high-frequency seismic vibrations generate short-periodic vibrations in the air above the surface leading to a sound, which is often referred to as the earthquake boom.

Reasons for the Earthquakes in Delhi

  • Aravalli-fold: Delhi lies on the Aravalli-Delhi fold belt which is a seismically-active geological belt extending from southern and eastern Rajasthan to Haryana and Delhi.
  • Presence of deformed rocks: The possibility of earthquakes is intensified due to the presence of deformed layers of rocks that have folded or bent due to geological processes hundreds of millions of years ago.
  • Alluvial soil: Delhi is dominated by the alluvial soil type that has high potency to transfer the vibrations without much loss of energy. Therefore, the presence of alluvial soil adds to the earthquake’s intensity. 
  • Proximity to the risk zones: Delhi is located near the Himalayan seismic belt, one of the world’s highest risk zones for the earthquake. The Himalayas lie at the active convergent boundary between the Indian plate and the Eurasian plate. 

Earthquake disaster vulnerabilities in Delhi

Delhi falls in earthquake Zone IV due to following vulnerabilities:

  • Geographical vulnerabilities: Delhi’s location is near Aravalli-fold and High risk seismic zones like Himalayas. Also, the domination of alluvial soil makes Delhi vulnerable for the earthquake led disaster.
  • Infrastructural vulnerabilities: Delhi is a densely populated location, also most of the infrastructure of Delhi is colonial and obsolete. These closely placed buildings and lack of seismic resistant buildings contribute to the vulnerability of earthquake led disaster. 
  • Demographic vulnerability: Delhi is a prime destination for migration contributing to the resource burden and poverty. Persistent migration and lack of resources leads to the slum proliferation. Slums and unsafe constructions due to encroachments also enhance the vulnerability of Delhi.

Preparedness initiatives in India

  • Zonation: The Geological Survey of India has identified and zoned the various earthquake regions based on their risks and vulnerabilities.
  • BIS standards: The Bureau of Indian Standards has released the detailed guidelines for material and construction in various zones of India. (On the basis of recommendations of BIS and Gujarat earthquake, India has reduced earthquake zones from five to four, removing the Zone I)
  • International efforts: India has founded the Coalition of Disaster Resilient Infrastructure (CDRI) to foster the investment and technological collaboration among the nations to enhance preparedness.
image 157

Key terms related to Earthquakes

  • Earthquake (EQ) is any sudden shaking of the ground caused by the passage of seismic waves through Earth’s rocks. 
  • Seismic waves are vibrations generated by an earthquake, explosion, or similar energetic source and propagated within Earth or along its surface. Earthquakes generate four principal types of elastic waves:
    • Body waves (P and S) travel within Earth. 
    • Surface waves (Love and Rayleigh) travel along its surface.
  • Focus: Point of origin of the vibrations below the surface of the earth.
  • Epicenter: Point on the Earth's surface directly above a hypocenter or focus, the point where an earthquake or an underground explosion originates.
  • Magnitude of EQ: It is a measure of the size or amplitude of the seismic waves generated by an earthquake source and recorded by seismographs. It is measured by the Richter Scale from 0 to 10.
  • Intensity of EQ: Intensity measures the strength of shaking produced by the earthquake at a certain location and its impact. It is measured by the Mercalli scale and Medvedev-Sponheuer-Karnik (MSK) scale. 

Read More: Earthquake Waves & Shadow Zones 

Forest Fire Incidents in India

Context: As per the latest data from the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, more than 5 lakh incidents of forest fires have been reported from just 5 states of India, which account for nearly 50% of India’s forest fire incidents over the last five seasons (2019-2024).

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Forest Fire.

Forest Fires in India

  • In 2019, the National Disaster Management Plan by National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) recognised forest fires as one of the national disasters.
  • According to the India State of Forest Report (ISFR) 2021, over 36% of the country’s forest cover is estimated to be vulnerable to frequent forest fires, during the November to June period.
    • Of this, 2.81% is classified as extremely fire-prone, while 7.85% falls under the very highly fire-prone category. 
  • According to the latest data from the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, five states of India, Odisha, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh account for nearly 50% of India’s forest fire incidents over the last five seasons (2019-2024). 
  • Top three States where the most fire incidences were observed in 2023-24 season: Uttarakhand, Odisha and Chhattisgarh.
wildfire impact on map

Factors that help the spread of Forest Fires

  • High aridity
  • Above-normal day temperatures
  • Clear sky conditions and calm winds 
  • High tree density
  • Note: As per FSI, severe fires break out in dry deciduous forests. 

Causes of Forest Fires

Forest fires are caused by both anthropogenic as well as natural reasons:

Causes of Forest Fires

Benefits of Forest Fires

  • Small and controlled fires in the form of prescribed burning are very useful and essential for good natural forest development and regeneration. As they keep the forest floor free from the natural annual build-up of the litter thereby reducing risk of catastrophic forest fire, improving silvicultural opportunities, increasing forage and habitat opportunities for wildlife, enhancing biodiversity etc.
  • According to the FSI:
    • Severe fires break out in dry deciduous forests, while evergreen, semi-evergreen, and montane temperate forests are comparatively less prone to fires.
    • Forests in southern India are comparatively less vulnerable to fires, as the vegetation type is mainly evergreen or semi-evergreen.

Negative Impacts of Forest Fires

  • Biodiversity change: In Himalayas, fires have made the situation less favorable for oaks to grow and favorable for chir/pine to grow.
  • Reduced soil moisture creates a possibility of forest fire in future. 
  • Reduce water infiltration due to heat induced chemical and physical changes in upper layer of soil which makes it impervious. 
  • Enhanced global warming: Due to destruction of forest Carbon sequestration potential and addition of newer emissions such as carbon monoxide, methane hydrocarbons, nitric oxide and nitrous oxide that led to global warming and ozone layer depletion.
  • Microclimate change caused by removal of litter and duff, opening of the canopy by killing over storey shrubs and trees and darkening of the soil surface by residual soot and charcoal can increase insulation causing temperature increase.
  • Soil erosion: Intense Forest fire always has a direct heating effect on soil at the depth below 7 to 10 cm. As a result, soil of the fire affected area loses its water holding capacity and becomes vulnerable for erosion.
  • Flooding due to water repellent soils and cover loss give rise to higher chances of floods.

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