Biology & Biotechnology

Stem Cell Therapy for treatment of Parkinson Disease

Context: Recently, two independent clinical trials demonstrate the safety of stem cell therapies for Parkinson’s disease. Researchers are investigating the use of cells derived from human induced pluripotent stem cells and human embryonic stem cells to treat Parkinson's disease. 

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Parkinson's Disease; Stem cells; Types of Stem Cells. 

Parkinson’s Disease

  • Parkinson’s disease is a neurodegenerative disease characterised by the progressive loss of neurons that produce dopamine, a neurotransmitter. 
  • Symptoms: It affects both the motor system and non-motor systems. The symptoms include:
    • Motor: Tremors, rigidity, bradykinesia, or slow movement, and postural instability.
    • Non-Motor: As the disease progresses, non-motor symptoms like cognitive decline, sleep disturbances, mood disorders often emerge. 
  • Treatment:
    • No cure is known and the treatment aims to mitigate symptoms. 
    • Cell therapy, specifically replenishing dopamine-producing neurons (dopaminergic) in the brain, could provide a potentially more effective treatment.
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What are Stem cells?

  • Stem cells are undifferentiated cells with the potential to develop into specialised cell types in the body. They can self-renew which makes them valuable for therapeutic applications. 
  • Stem cell therapy utilises stem cells to promote the repair, regeneration, or replacement of damaged or diseased tissues within the body.

Types of Stem cells:

  • Totipotent: Most versatile, with potential to differentiate into all different cell types of an organism and extraembryonic cells (including placenta and umbilical cord). Only found in fertilised eggs (zygote).
  • Pluripotent: Derived from inner cell mass of a blastocyst (an early-stage embryo). Can give rise to all different cell types in the body (except extraembryonic cells). E.g., Embryonic stem cells and induced pluripotent stem cells (genetically reprogrammed to the pluripotent state from adult cells). 
  • Multipotent: More specialised than pluripotent stem cells and can differentiate into limited range of cell types within a specific tissue or organ. E.g., Hematopoietic stem cells (give rise to various blood cell types), mesenchymal stem cells (can differentiate into bone, cartilage, fat cell etc.) 
  • Unipotent: Most specialised type of stem cells, can only renew themselves and differentiate into one specific cell type. E.g., Stem cells in skin that can only differentiate into another skin cell.

Clinical trials utilising Stem Cell Therapy to treat Parkinson’s Disease

1. Using induced Pluripotent stem cells:

  • Patients received transplantation of dopaminergic progenitors (early-stage stem cells capable of differentiating into dopamine-producing neurons) derived from human induced pluripotent stem cells into both sides of the brain. 
  • The transplanted cells produced dopamine without overgrowth or forming tumours. No serious adverse events were reported. The researchers observed a decrease in motor symptoms associated with Parkinson’s disease. 

2. Using human embryonic stem cells: 

  • Patients received surgical transplantation of bemdaneprocel (dopaminergic neuron progenitor cell product derived from human embryonic stem cells) on both sides of the brain. 
  • No severe adverse effects and some improvement in motor function was observed in patients.

Challenges using Stem Cell Therapy

  • Difficulty in making stem cells fully function like natural insulin-producing cells.
  • Risk of the body rejecting the transplanted cells. Avoiding rejection will require long-term immuno-suppression that could cause infections and cancer. 
  • Ensuring long-term survival and effectiveness of the transplanted cells.
  • Potential ethical concerns with using embryonic stem cells. Regulatory approvals by the authorities needed before becoming available to the broader public.
  • High cost and complexity of the therapy for widespread use. 

rt-LAMP assay: Indigenous Molecular TB test

Context: Indian Researchers have developed and tested a novel, indigenous, cost-effective, real-time LAMP (rt-LAMP) assay for early diagnosis of Tuberculosis.  

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about rt-LAMP assay test. 

What is rt-LAMP assay?

  • rt-LAMP (Real-time Loop-mediated Isothermal Amplification) is a molecular test that allows rapid detection of DNA. 
  • It utilises a one-step DNA amplification method that is able to detect TB DNA, even with as few as 10 copies per microliter in a sample. 
  • The test has received approval from Central Drugs Standard Control Organisation, and is waiting for validation from Indian Council of Medical Research. 

Key Features: 

  • Low cost: Utilises inexpensive dyes (uses Syto 16, a fluorescent dye) and primers.  
  • Sensitivity: Detects TB DNA with as few as 10 copies per microliter in a sample. 
  • One-step amplification: rt-LAMP test works at a single temperature; in contrast RT-PCR requires three different temperature settings.  
  • Time-Efficient: With a high rate of amplification, results of positive samples can be obtained in 10-20 minutes. 
  • High Throughput: process up to 96 or 384 patient samples in a single run.
  • rt-LAMP assay kit is developed as an open platform system which allows existing RT-PCR machines to be reprogrammed for TB diagnosis.
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Why is this significant?

  • As per the WHO Global TB report 2023: India is the highest TB burden accounting for nearly 27% of the global incidence.
  • The National Strategic Plan for TB Elimination (2017-2025) aims to end TB by 2025 and emphasises shift towards molecular diagnostics. 

Limitations of smear microscopy for TB diagnosis:

  • Presently, India continues to over-rely on smear microscopy for TB diagnosis, despite:
    • Low sensitivity, especially in cases with low bacterial load in a specimen. 
    • Inability to detect drug-resistant TB. 

Other Molecular TB Diagnostic tests in India

  • GeneXpert: cartridge-based polymerase chain reaction (PCR) test to detect Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB), the causative organism of TB. Accurate but expensive. 
  • Truenat: chip-based real time PCR test for the semi-quantitative detection and diagnosis of MTB.  

Eden – Edible alternative to Plastic Wrappers

Context: Innovators from Kerala have developed edible food wrappers named ‘Eden Wrap’. The eco-friendly wrapper is a sustainable innovation and can offer promising alternatives to plastic packaging. 

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: Key facts related to Eden. 

Mains: Can be used as an example in a step towards sustainable development.

Key Facts related to Eden

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  • The base material of the wrapper is derived from cellulose synthesised by specialised bacteria. 
  • Emulsifiers derived from bacteria along with essential oils extracted from specific plants are incorporated into the base material to form the wrapper. The essential oils give it an antimicrobial property, thus extending the shelf life. 
  • Despite its plastic-like appearance, Eden Wrap is fully-edible. If discarded, it naturally decomposes within a month.
  • Significance: The packaging material will extend the shelf life of food. The edible wrappers will help in reducing plastic waste and promote sustainable living.
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Plastic packaging accounts for approximately 40% of global plastic production, with food packaging emerging as the leading end-use sector. This underscores the urgent need for sustainable alternatives to conventional packaging materials.  

De Extinction of Dire Wolf

Context: Colossal Biosciences, a US-based bioscience company, claimed that it had revived dire wolves as the world’s first successfully de-extinct animal.

Relevance of the Topic:  Prelims: Key facts related to Dire wolf and gene editing. 

De-Extinction of Dire Wolf

  • Scientists extracted and sequenced DNA from two ancient dire wolf specimens — a 13,000-year-old tooth and a 72,000-year-old ear bone. This analysis identified 20 key genetic differences between dire wolves and their closest living species, grey wolves.
  • Using CRISPR technology, researchers edited the 14 genes in grey wolf DNA to incorporate 20 key genetic variants associated with dire wolf traits, such as larger size, broader heads and thicker fur. ​
  • The genetic material was inserted into an egg cell from a domestic dog. Once the embryos were developed, they were implanted into surrogate dogs. Consequently, the genetically engineered pups were born (named Romulus, Remus, and Khaleesi). 
  • Controversy: While Colossal Biosciences referred to these animals as “de-extincted” dire wolves, experts argue that they are genetically modified grey wolves rather than true representations of the extinct species.
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Dire Wolf

  • Dire wolves were large canines that dominated southern Canada and the US before their extinction about 13,000 years ago. 
  • Dire wolves resemble the grey wolves sharing 99.5% of their DNA. However, dire wolves are not the ancestors of grey wolves. The two species diverged millions of years ago and evolved separately.
  • Physical Appearance: Dire wolves are larger with white coats, more heavily built, thicker legs, broader heads and shoulders, and more pronounced snout. Dire wolves could be 3.5 feet tall, >6 feet in length, and weigh up to 68 kg.
  • Dire wolves hunted horses, bison, and possibly mammoths. One of the possible reasons behind their extinction is the extinction of its prey species.
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Gene Editing

  • Gene editing is a scientific method where scientists modify DNA — the genetic code that determines how an organism looks, grows, and behaves. Think of DNA like a biological instruction manual made up of letters (A, T, C, G). With gene editing, scientists can add, delete, or replace parts of that manual to change how an organism develops.
  • CRISPR (Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats) is the most popular gene-editing technology that allows precise modification of DNA sequences.  

Transplantation of a Gene-Modified Pig Liver to Human

Context: Recently, researchers from China have transplanted a gene-modified liver from a miniature pig into a human recipient diagnosed with brain death. The transplantation was carried out to evaluate the performance of the transplanted organ over a 10-day observation period.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Xenotransplantation. 

What is Xenotransplantation?

  • Xenotransplantation is any procedure that involves the transplantation, implantation or infusion into a human recipient:
    • live cells, tissues, or organs from a non-human animal source.
    • human body fluids, cells, tissues or organs that have had ex vivo contact with live non-human animal cells, tissues or organs. Essentially, it is the use of animal cells and organs to heal humans. 
  • Need: To bridge the need for a limited supply of organs and cells for clinical transplantation, and address the shortage of organs from human donors. 
  • Source:Pigs are the most commonly considered animals due to their size compatibility and organ similarities with humans.
    • Natural lifespan of a pig is 30 years, they are easily bred and can have organs of similar size to humans.
    • Gene editing in organs from pigs can reduce immune rejection, and can make organ transplants to humans possible. 
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Limitations

Successful xenotransplantation faces challenges such as organ rejection, risk of cross-species infections and social acceptance. 

  • In 2022, the first xenotransplantation of a genetically-modified pig heart was done. However, the patient passed away after two months.
  • In 2024, the first recipient of a modified pig kidney transplant passed away, around two months after the surgery was carried out. 

The latest development

  • Six genes had been edited in the transplanted liver. The gene edits included removal of genes that mediate rejection and the insertion of human transgenes to facilitate compatibility. The liver produced bile and albumin, maintained stable blood flow and showed no signs of rejection. 
  • These findings suggest that gene-modified pig livers can survive and function in human bodies. This can pave the way for using gene-edited organs for xenotransplantation. 

However, the study was limited to a 10-day observation period, and only basic liver functions were measured. Further research is needed to evaluate long-term outcomes. 

Sequencing of 10,000 TB genome samples completed

Context: The Department of Biotechnology under the Ministry of Science and Technology has completed the genomic sequencing of 10,000 samples of the bacterium behind tuberculosis (TB).

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Data-Driven Research to Eradicate TB (Dare2eraD TB) Initiative; TB-Mukt Bharat Abhiyaan. 

Data-Driven Research to Eradicate TB (Dare2eraD TB) Initiative

  • Genome sequencing initiative to detect drug-resistant TB and capture unique features of the TB bacterium. 
  • Launched in: 2022
  • Target: Genome sequencing of 32,500 samples of Mycobacterium tuberculosis, across India. 
  • Aim: To improve the understanding of drug-resistant TB and capture unique genomic features of the bacterium in India.
  • Of the 10,000 samples sequenced as part of the DBT project, 7% were reportedly resistant to a single drug.
  • Nine labs of the DBT, the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) and the Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) are involved in the programme, as part of a consortium called Indian Tuberculosis Genomic Surveillance.

Significance:

  • Data-driven research to eradicate TB: Genomic dataset developed has potential to revolutionise TB diagnostics and drug resistance prediction:
    • Improve diagnostic accuracy 
    • Enable faster resistance profiling, 
    • Develop advanced tests  and reduce the time taken to confirm TB to from weeks to mere hours or days. 
    • Tailor treatment regimens to individual patient needs.
    • Reduce the risk of treatment failure or relapse.
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Key Status of Tuberculosis in India

  • India has the highest number of diagnosed TB cases globally. 
    • As per the latest estimates, India had 1,990 cases per million in 2022, down from 2,370 per million in 2015.
    • India accounts for about 28% of new TB cases worldwide. 
    • Those with ‘latent’ or asymptomatic TB could be potentially up to 3,000 per million.
  • India has the target to eradicate tuberculosis by 2025. This is five years ahead of the World Health Organisation’s (WHO) target of 2030. 
  • In WHO parlance:
    • Eradicating a disease means bringing the number of cases close to zero. 
    • Eliminating TB means getting the number down to about one in a million.

TB-Mukt Bharat Abhiyaan: 

  • The 100-day TB-Mukt Bharat Abhiyaan started on December 7, 2024.
  • Under the campaign, over 13 lakh Nikshay Shivirs, or community screening and awareness camps were organised. 
  • Vital screening and diagnostic services to remote and underserved areas: using  handheld X-ray units and upfront Nucleic Acid Amplification Testing (NAAT). 
  • 12.97 crore people were screened for TB, with over 7 lakh TB patients notified across India in the 100-day campaign.

Also Read: India to roll out new treatment regimen for drug-resistant TB 

With India accounting for a significant portion of the global TB burden, this breakthrough in genome sequencing is expected to bolster national and global efforts to combat the disease. 

Genetically Modified (GM) Rubber

Context: Rubber farmers, under the aegis of NCRFRPS (National Consortium of Regional Federations of Rubber Producers Societies), have urged the Centre to allow the cultivation of GM rubber plants. 

The Central government has stated that the introduction of GM rubber plants is only possible after the State concerned gives permission to initiate confined field trials. 

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about GM crops; GM Rubber; Regulations related to GM crops.

What are GM crops?

  • Genetically Modified (GM) crops are plants that have had their DNA modified (altered) through genetic engineering.
    • It involves inserting new DNA into the genome of a plant. 
    • The seeds produced by these plants will inherit the new DNA.
  • E.g., BT cotton is a genetically modified variety of cotton that contains genes from the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis. 
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Benefits of GM crops:

  • Genetic modification is done to transfer a particular trait to the plant in order to:
    • Increased the yield of a crop
    • Increased nutritional content of a crop
    • Developing resistance to:
      • Abiotic stresses like temperature, salinity or herbicide-resistant
      • Biotic stresses like insect-resistant crops.

Regulations related to GM crops: 

  • Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs) and their products are regulated under the “Rules for the Manufacture, Use, Import, Export and Storage of Hazardous Microorganisms/ Genetically Engineered Organisms or Cells, 1989.”
  • The rules are notified under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986. These rules regulate the use, research, and commercialisation of GMOs, especially for environmental and biosafety concerns. 
  • The commercial cultivation and the field trials of GM crops require clearance from the Genetic Engineering Appraisal Committee (GEAC) under the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change. 
  • After the GEAC clearance, the state governments have the power to approve (or reject) the field trains of particular GM crops in their respective states.

Status of GM crops in India:  

  • BT cotton is the only GM crop that is commercially allowed for cultivation in India from 2002. 
  • Field trials of GM Mustard (DMH-11) were approved by GEAC in 2022, but its commercial release is still pending. 

Genetically Modified (GM) Rubber:

  • The world's first GM rubber plant was planted in Assam in 2021. 
  • Developed at: Kerala-based Rubber Research Institute of India 
  • GM rubber has additional copies of the gene MnSOD (manganese-containing superoxide dismutase) inserted in the plant. The MnSOD gene is derived from the rubber plant itself.
    • Natural rubber is a native of warm humid Amazon forests, and is not naturally suited for the colder conditions in the Northeast.
    • This particular variety of GM Rubber is developed exclusively for the northeast to survive the severe cold conditions during winter.
    • The GM rubber plants overexpressed the MnSOD gene as expected, and thus offer protection to young saplings. 
  • There is no risk of genes flowing from the GM rubber into any other native species. 
  • After the approval from the state governments, the confined field trials of GM rubber plants were initiated in Assam in 2021, and Tripura in 2024.

Why does Lung Cancer Recur?

Context: Lung cancer is the leading cause of cancer deaths worldwide, mainly because it gets detected late. A team of Indian researchers has uncovered a genetic cause for the early relapse of a certain type of lung cancer in some patients.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Applications of genetic sequencing. Here- Identification of disease causing genes/mutated genes.

Lung Cancer

  • Lung adenocarcinoma is the most common type of lung cancer, affecting both smokers and non-smokers.
  • India’s Lung Cancer Burden (WHO 2022 Data):
    • New Cases: 81,748
    • Deaths: 75,031
Lung Cancer

Major Highlights:

  • Patients with Lung adenocarcinoma carry a specific mutation in the Epidermal Growth Receptor Factor (EGFR) gene.
    • They are treated with targeted drugs called “EGFR tyrosine kinase inhibitors” that suppress the unusual growth of the cancerous cells.
    • However, cancer eventually relapses in some patients owing to resistance to these therapies.
  • Latest Research: When mutation in Tumor suppressor genes (TSGs) co-occurs along with EGFR mutation, it is associated with early relapse of cancer.
    • The researchers performed detailed genetic sequencing on tumor samples. 
    • They identified a group of 17 TSGs, a mutation in which results in resistance to EGFR-targeted treatments. This causes a relapse of cancer and lower survival rates.

Significance: 

  • The identification of the associated TSGs (genes) will help detect TSG mutations early in patients, and thus treatments can be tailored effectively. This can help delay or even prevent early relapse of lung cancer. 

How WHO names a new Disease?

Context: Recently, dermatologists from India and 13 other counties objected to the region-specific nomenclature given to a novel species of fungus — Trichophyton (T.) indotineae. 

The name of the fungus is prejudicial and ignores the recommendations of the World Health Organisation (WHO). These names often lead to considerable misinformation, stigma, and racial prejudice. 

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Trichophyton indotineae; How are diseases named?

About Trichophyton indotineae

  • The fungus was spotted in patients from India and Nepal in 2020. It was considered a new species and named Trichophyton indotineae.
    • However, the origin of the fungus is not clearly known.
    • Subsequently, it has been reported from more than 40 countries.
  • It causes widespread and hard-to-treat skin infections (often appearing as red, itchy, and scaly patches), and is resistant to most anti-fungal medicines (first-line drugs). 
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How are diseases named?

  • Assigning names to new diseases and to existing diseases (in rare cases) is the responsibility of the WHO under the International Classification of Diseases.
  • It is done through a consultative process which includes WHO member states, following the 2015 guidelines by WHO. 
  • Terms that should be avoided in disease names include:
    • Geographic locations (E.g., Middle East Respiratory Syndrome, Spanish Flu, Rift Valley fever)
    • People’s names (E.g., Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease, Chagas disease)
    • Species of animal or food (E.g., Swine flu, bird flu, monkey pox)
    • Cultural, population, industry or occupational references (E.g., legionnaires)
    • Terms that incite undue fear (E.g., unknown, fatal, epidemic).
  • The disease name should consist of generic descriptive terms, based on the symptoms that the disease causes (E.g., respiratory disease, neurologic syndrome, watery diarrhoea). 

Hantavirus

Context: Recently, the tragic deaths of actor Gene Hackman and his wife Betsy Arakawa drew attention to hantavirus pulmonary syndrome (HPS).

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Hantavirus

About Hantavirus

  • Hantavirus is a family of rodent-borne viruses that can cause severe illnesses and even death in humans. 
  • Transmission: 
    • Spread through urine, feces, and saliva of infected rodents. 
    • Do not spread from person-to-person.
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Types of Hantavirus Diseases: 

The two major types:

  • Hantavirus Pulmonary Syndrome (HPS):
    • Region: Western Hemisphere (mainly North and South America).
    • Primary host: Deer mouse.
    • Symptoms: Severe respiratory illness and fluid accumulation in the lungs.
  • Haemorrhagic Fever with Renal Syndrome (HFRS):
    • Region: Found primarily in Europe and Asia.
    • Symptoms: Bleeding disorders and kidney-related complications.
    • Rodent host: Varies by region.

Symptoms of Hantavirus Pulmonary Syndrome (HPS): 

  • Early Symptoms (1-8 weeks after exposure): Flu-like symptoms such as fatigue, fever, and muscle aches.
  • Progressive Symptoms: Respiratory distress caused by fluid accumulation in the lungs.
  • Mortality Risk: About 38% of individuals with severe respiratory symptoms may succumb to the disease.

Treatment and Management: 

  • Currently no specific treatment, cure, or vaccine for HPS. 
  • Some antiviral medications may help manage symptoms. 
  • Supportive Care: Early-detection and hospitalisation; respiratory support like breathing tubes or ventilators.  

Childhood Cancers: Impacts & Prevalence

Context: Childhood cancers account for 4% of all cancer cases in India. This leaves thousands of children vulnerable to the direct and indirect effects of cancer.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Cancer; Government Initiatives for Cancer Treatment.

What is Cancer?

  • Cancer is a condition of uncontrolled cell growth and division in any part of the body. 
  • Cancer occurs when some disruption in the DNA in a normal cell interferes with the cell’s ability to regulate cell division.
  • DNA disruption can be caused by mutation due to certain chemicals or sources of high energy (Sun, X-rays, Nuclear radiation), infection by some viruses and due to certain environmental and lifestyle factors. 
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Cancer on Children: Prevalence and Consequences

  • Prevalence: 
    • The National Cancer Registry Programme (NCRP) report found that childhood cancers (0-14 years) account for 4% of all cancer cases in India.
    • Common cancers: Leukemia, lymphoma, CNS tumours, neuroblastoma, bone cancer etc. 
  • Consequences: 
    • Loss of opportunity for education/ interruption of education.
    • Financial burden for the family/ cycle of generational poverty.
    • Risks of permanent (long-term) physical disability 
    • Psychosocial and mental health impacts.
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Government Initiatives for Cancer Treatment

  • National Programme for Prevention and Control of Cancer, Diabetes, Cardiovascular Diseases, and Stroke is a flagship program under the National Health Mission. Launched in 2010, it aims to prevent and control major non-communicable diseases, including cancer.
  • National Cancer Registry Programme (1982) under the Indian Council of Medical Research collects and maintains data on cancer incidence across the country.
  • National Cancer Grid is a network of major cancer centres across India that collaborate to standardise cancer care to improve the quality of cancer treatment.
  • National Cancer Institute at Jhajjar, Haryana has been established as a centre of excellence for cancer treatment and research. 
  • Ayushman Bharat Pradhan Mantri Jan Arogya Yojana (AB-PMJAY) includes coverage for direct medical costs of cancer treatment to over 10 crore families. 
  • Production Linked Incentive (PLI) scheme launched in 2020 for domestic manufacturing of oncology equipment and other medical devices. 

Also Read: Immunotherapy for Cancer Treatment 

Education is a pathway to economic empowerment for such children. The need of the hour is to enact comprehensive policies and interventions to improve access to affordable quality treatment, counselling for mental well-being, and solutions for economic sustenance.  

Darjeeling Zoo gets Biobank

Context: India’s first ‘bio bank’ in a zoo has been set up at Padmaja Naidu Himalayan Zoological Park or Darjeeling Zoo in West Bengal. 

Relevance of the Topic:Prelims: Key facts about Bio Banks; Darjeeling Zoo. 

Major Highlights:

  • The biobank was established in July 2024 and DNA materials — cellular and tissue samples — from 60 animals of 23 species have been collected, till date.
  • The facility collects and preserves:
    • Cell and tissue samples from endangered animals. 
    • Reproductive cells (gametes) from dead animals.
  • The samples are being preserved in minus 196 degree Celsius in liquid Nitrogen in cryogenic state (Cryo-preservation). The samples can be stored in the biobank for at least 40 to 45 years. 
  • Initiative of: Darjeeling Zoo, in collaboration with the Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology (CCMB), under the Ministry of Science and Technology. 

Utility

  • R&D: Samples can be preserved for future research. E.g., Study on mutations, impact of climate change on the organisms. 
  • Wildlife conservation: Samples can be used to potentially bring back critically endangered species that have gone extinct or are on the verge of extinction.

Cryogenics:

  • Cryogenics is the study of the production and behaviour of materials at extremely low temperatures (below -150 degrees Celsius). 
  • Most common gases turned into liquid for cryogenics are: Oxygen, Nitrogen, Hydrogen and Helium.

Potential applications of Cryogenics:

  • Cryosurgery: Cryogenic temperatures are used to kill unwanted or malignant tissues, such as cancer cells or moles.
  • Cryopreservation: Preservation of organisms, tissue, and genetic material using cryopreservation. E.g., Freezing of eggs and embryos for fertility preservation and research purposes, storage of vaccines, blood banking, food preservation. 
  • Cryonics: Cryopreservation of animals and humans with the goal of reviving them in the future. 
  • Cryoelectronics: Study of superconductivity, variable-range hopping, and other electronic phenomena at low temperature. 
  • Cryoengines: Rocket engine using cryogenic fuels, including liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen. 
  • Research: Cryogenic technology is used in Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) to determine the chemical structure of a molecule.

Biobanks

  • Biobank is a repository of biological samples, such as blood, DNA, cells, tissues, and/or organs alongside their genetic data. 
  • It collects and preserves samples from animals and consenting individuals (humans) to carry out research.
    • As of 2024, there are 19 registered biobanks in India, hosting many biological specimens, including cancer cell lines and tissues.
    • They provide researchers with access to diverse genetic information, enabling the development of targeted therapies. 
  • India needs comprehensive biobanking regulations to govern the collection, storage, sharing, and ethical use of biological samples at par with global standards.  
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Padmaja Naidu Himalayan Zoological Park

  • Location: Darjeeling, West Bengal. 
  • Largest high altitude zoo in India. 
  • Specialises in breeding animals adapted to alpine conditions, and has successful captive (conservation) breeding programs for species including:
    • Snow leopard
    • Endangered Himalayan wolf
    • Red panda 
  • Major fauna: The zoo contains endangered animals like snow leopards, red pandas, gorals (mountain goats), Siberian tigers and endangered birds.