The Indian Express

Mahabodhi Temple 

Context: All India Buddhist Forum (AIBF) has led large scale demonstrations across India advocating for Buddhist control over the Mahabodhi Temple in Bodh Gaya, Bihar. Buddhists want the repeal of the Bodh Gaya Temple Act, 1949 (BGTA), under which the temple is currently governed.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts related to Mahabodhi Temple.

Historical Background

  • According to popular legend, a wandering Shaivite monk named Mahant Ghamandi Giri arrived in Gaya around 1590, and established the temple as the Bodh Gaya Math, a Hindu monastery. Giri’s descendants continue to control the Mahabodhi temple as a Hindu site, considering Lord Buddha as the ninth reincarnation of Lord Vishnu.
  • Calls to transfer the Mahabodhi Temple to Buddhist control began in the late 19th century, led by Sri Lankan monk Anagarika Dhammapala, who even took Hindu priests to court. His efforts led to the passage of the Bodh Gaya Temple Act, 1949 (BGTA) by the Bihar Assembly in 1949, 16 years after his death.

Why is BGTA Controversial? 

  • The Bodh Gaya Temple Act, 1949 (BGTA) provided for the creation of a Committee to run the Mahabodhi temple.
  • The Committee shall consist of a Chairman and eight members nominated by the state government, of whom four shall be Buddhists and four shall be Hindus including the Mahanth.
  • The District Magistrate of Gaya shall be the ex-officio Chairman of the Committee. The state government shall nominate a Hindu as Chairman of the Committee for the period during which the District Magistrate of Gaya is non-Hindu.
  • While the Act gave Buddhists a stake in the management of the shrine, control effectively remained with Hindus. The Buddhist side claims that Hindu rituals have gained predominance in the temple over the years.
  • The Buddhists' case is further complicated by the Places of Worship Act, 1991. The Act provides for the maintenance of the religious character of any place of worship as it existed on August 15, 1947. Hence, the act blocked any legal attempts by the Buddhists to regain control of the temple.

Mahabodhi Temple

Mahabodhi Temple
  • The Mahabodhi Temple Complex is one of the four holy sites related to the life of the Lord Buddha, and particularly to the attainment of Enlightenment.
  • Other three holy sites are: 
    • Lumbini in Nepal: Birthplace of Buddha 
    • Sarnath in Uttar Pradesh: Death of Buddha (Mahaparinirvana) 
    • Kushinagar in Uttar Pradesh: The site where Buddha delivered his first sermon.
  • Location: Bodh Gaya, Bihar, on the banks of the Niranjana River.
  • In the 3rd century BCE, Emperor Ashoka built a simple shrine at the site, of which only the Vajrasana (Diamond Throne), a stone slab under the Bodhi tree, remains. It is the first temple built by Emperor Asoka in the 3rd century B.C
  • During the Shunga period (2nd–1st century BCE), additional structures were added.
  • In the late Gupta period (5th–6th century CE), the temple was entirely reconstructed in brick, forming the structure that largely survives today.
  • The Palas (8th-12th century CE) were the last major royal patrons of the Mahabodhi temple.
  • The shrine was largely abandoned between the 13th and 19th centuries. The temple was in a state of disrepair when Alexander Cunningham (founder of the Archaeological Survey of India) began its restoration in the 1880s. 
  • The temple was recognised as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2002. 

Labour needs as much focus as the Capital

Context: India is facing a growing challenge in creating formal sector jobs despite a labour-abundant economy. 

Relevance of the Topic: Mains: Amid shift towards capital-intensive production - need to focus on labour skilling and reforms.

Employment Trends in India

  • Job Deficit: Since 2017-18, India's working-age population has increased by 9 crore, however,  formal sector jobs have risen by 6 crore, leaving a deficit of 50 lakh jobs annually. 
  • Rise in Informal and Self-Employment: Most employment growth is from self-employment in rural areas and informal services, affecting both quality and quantity of work.
  • Capital-intensive Production process: Production processes, including traditionally labour-intensive manufacturing and services industries, are becoming more capital-intensive (more investment in technology and equipment) and automated. The advent of Artificial Intelligence will further reduce the need for human labour. 

Why is the capital intensity of production rising in a labour-abundant economy?

1. Demand-Side Factors (Industry & Market-Driven): 

  • Need for Higher Productivity & Cost Efficiency: Businesses adopt capital-intensive technologies to improve productivity and reduce long-term costs. Machines provide greater efficiency, precision, and output per unit of input compared to human labour.
  • Global Competition & Quality Standards: Indian firms competing in global markets must meet high-quality standards, which often necessitate automation and capital-intensive methods.
  • Falling Cost of Capital: With advancements in technology, the cost of machinery and automation has decreased, making capital investment more attractive than hiring and training labour.
  • Economies of Scale: Large-scale production benefits from automation as it reduces per-unit costs, making capital-intensive production more viable. 

2. Supply-Side Factors (Labour Market Issues):

  • Low Availability of Skilled Labour: Less than 10% of India’s workforce has formal vocational training. Many educated individuals lack industry-relevant skills, making them less competitive against machines. 
  • Rigid & Costly Labour Regulations: Stringent labour laws, high compliance costs, and restrictions on hiring and firing discourage firms from hiring more workers, making automation a preferable alternative. 
  • High Labour Costs in the Formal Sector: Though India has an abundant workforce, formal sector wages, social security obligations, and compliance costs increase the effective cost of hiring labour.
  • Uncertainty & Labour Unrest: Frequent labour strikes, job security demands, and union pressures lead industries to prefer mechanisation, which ensures uninterrupted production

Some Government Efforts:  

1. Production linked Incentive Scheme: 

  • The government offers incentives of 4% to 6% on incremental/additional sales. For example, earlier a company was selling goods worth Rs. 1 lakh in a year and now its sales increased to Rs. 1.2 lakh. Then the company will get an incentive of 4% on Rs. 20,000= Rs. 800.
  • Challenges:  
    • The current structure of the PLI scheme is primarily focused on expanding production of high-value products with backward linkages, which require high-skilled, specialised labour, and is relatively less focused on low- and middle-skilled labour-intensive sectors.
    • Over 50% of the PLI budget is allocated for large-scale electronics, IT hardware and drone manufacturing. However, the highest number of jobs under the scheme has been created in the food processing and pharmaceutical industries. 

2. Education-Employment Linked Internship (ELI) scheme:

  • The central government incentivises the private sector to hire more labour while also skilling them, through the ELI and other internship programmes. 
  • Challenge: While this policy does reduce the cost of labour by shifting (the initial) burden on to the government, the period of the subsidy or transfers is short (about two to three years) The scheme does not sufficiently focus on upskilling workers, limiting future employability. 

Way Forward

  • Integrated Policy Framework: Establish coordination between ministries of production, labour, and skilling to align production-linked incentive (PLI) schemes with current and future labor market needs.
  • Graded Incentive Structures: Modify PLI incentives from flat to graded, rewarding firms for certifying and upgrading workers' skills through on-the-job training.
  • Strengthen Skill Ecosystem: Enhance training institutes like ITIs by linking their funding and rewards to employment and earnings outcomes based on projected industry demand.
  • Flexible Labour Regulations: Encourage state governments to adopt flexible labor policies to reduce costs and promote labor-intensive technologies

Hence, there is a need to focus on both the quantity and quality of the workforce by investing in skill development programs that cater to high-value manufacturing sectors. India needs to develop dynamic frameworks that adapt to evolving industrial and technological demands, ensuring alignment with the vision of "Viksit Bharat." 

Why is Naini Lake seeing Record-Low Water Levels?

Context: The Naini Lake, one of Nainital’s key attractions, has recorded a water level of 4.7 feet in 2025 — marking a five-year low.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Location of the Lake; Factors responsible for deterioration of health of a wetland. 

Naini Lake

  • The Naini Lake is a natural kidney-shaped lake in the heart of Nainital, surrounded by seven hills. 
  • Location: Nainital, Uttarakhand
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Naini Lake Crisis

  • With the record depletion of water level, there are concerns that the lake could go below the zero level.
    • This does not mean that the lake will dry up, but that its water level will go below the normal gauge level, which is set for each lake based on historical data.
    • With its deepest point at 89 feet, the Naini Lake has a gauge level of 12 feet.
  • There are concerns over drinking water scarcity ahead of the summer season. 10 million litres is extracted everyday from the lake to supply drinking water to the city. Over 75% of the Nainital city’s water demand (in 2024) was met alone by the Naini Lake. 

Reasons for deteriorating health of the Lake:

  • Decrease in snowfall and rainfall in the winter months, compounded by long-term issues surrounding the lake’s upkeep. Annual mean temperatures in Uttarakhand have increased by nearly 1.5 degrees Celsius between 1970 and 2022. The warming is affecting rainfall and snowfall.
  • Man-made manipulations have led to the degradation of recharge zones.
    • Encroachments and illegal construction coming up near the lake have reduced the catchment area.
    • Also, construction of concrete structures causes low rainwater infiltration, worsened by the low rainfall in some years.
    • Enhancing siltation and dumping debris in Sukhatal Lake (major aquifer recharge area for Naini lake) is causing the lake to shrink from its two-hectare area. 
    • Pollution from discharge of untreated wastewater, solid waste, and inadequate sewer systems, which ultimately discharge into the Lake.
  • Pressure from increasing population, the increase in tourist activity, and commercialisation of nearby areas have impacted the health of the lake.

Several petitions have been filed in the Supreme Court and the state High Court to stop concretisation of the lake bed, revamp Sukhatal Lake, and ban commercial complexes in Nainital. However, there has been no concrete step to restore the health of the lake and its aquifers. 

Reforming India’s Textiles Industry

Context: India has set an ambitious target to elevate its textile and apparel (T&A) exports from $34.8 billion in 2023-24 to an eye-popping $100 billion by 2030. This requires game-changing reforms in the textile sector. 

Relevance of the Topic: Mains: Challenges in India’s Textile Sector and way forward

Key Stats in the Textile Sector

  • India has set an ambitious target to increase its textile and apparel (T&A) exports from $34.8 billion in 2023-24 to $100 billion by 2030. 
  • India’s Textile and Apparel exports have grown steadily from $11.5 billion in FY2001 to $34.8 billion in FY24, accounting for only a 4% share in global exports of $774.4 billion.
    • India's apparel export growth has remained stagnant at around 3% of global apparel exports from FY2001 to FY24, despite an increase in export value from $5.5 billion to $14.5 billion. 
    • In contrast, competitors like Bangladesh and Vietnam have significantly increased their global share during the same period. 
  • At this pace, achieving the $100 billion target by 2030 seems a tall order, unless dramatic, game-changing reforms are introduced. 
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Challenges in the Textile Sector

  • Stagnation in Cotton Production:
    • India’s cotton production surged after introducing Bt cotton hybrids (2002), but has declined since 2014. Production is projected to fall to 30 million bales (2024-25), the lowest in 15 years. 
    • India may become a net importer of cotton, with imports (2.6 million bales) surpassing exports (1.5 million bales).
    • Next-gen Ht Bt seeds not approved despite the clearance from Genetic Engineering Appraisal Committee (GEAC).    
  • Outdated Fibre Mix: India’s cotton-to-Man Made Fibre ratio (60:40) contrasts with the global average (30:70), indicating an outdated fibre mix, and the global shift towards man-made fibres.
  • Raw Material Cost: MMF (Man-Made Fibres) such as polyester and viscose are 20% costlier in India compared to competitors (Bangladesh, China, Vietnam). Non-tariff barriers like quality control orders hinder MMF-based apparel growth.
  • Decentralised Production: 80% of India's garment factories are in the decentralised sector, leading to inefficiency and low export potential. 
  • Lack of Modernisation: Slow adoption of modern technology and weak value chain integration.
  • Trade Barriers: High tariff rates on apparel exports to key markets: EU (9.7%) and US (11.47%). In contrast, the EU offers zero-duty access to Bangladesh under the “GSP Everything but Arms” arrangement and imposes a 1.66% tariff on Vietnam’s apparel exports under the “EU-Vietnam FTA”  this creates a competitive disadvantage for Indian exports. 

Reforms needed in India’s Textile Sector

  • India’s garment sector needs to transition into a fashion-driven industry. To support this transformation, it is crucial to incentivise and invest in MMF-based apparel while removing non-tariff barriers, such as the quality control orders on MMF.
  • The PM-MITRA scheme must be fast-tracked to create integrated textile hubs, which will enhance scalability and efficiency in fabric and garment manufacturing.
  • India needs to negotiate Free Trade Agreements (FTAs) with the EU and the US — key markets that account for nearly 66% of India’s apparel exports.
  • India should explore emerging markets like Japan, Russia, Brazil, and South Korea, which offer significant opportunities for products like women’s western wear, intimate wear, swimwear, and outerwear.
  • Improving cotton productivity and fibre quality. Expanding irrigation, promoting high-density planting techniques, and investing in precision farming can help India bridge the productivity gap (435 kg/hectare) with global leaders like China (1,945 kg/hectare) and Brazil.
  • Streamlining the approval process for GM crops and establishing a single-window clearance system to speed up the adoption of high-yield, pest-resistant, next-generation cotton varieties. 

To achieve the ambitious target of $100 billion in textile and apparel exports by 2030, India must address the challenges hampering the sector. This requires modernising production, adopting MMF-based apparel, enhancing value chain integration, removing trade barriers through strategic FTAs and capitalising on emerging markets. 

Sarhul Tribal Festival

Context: The Adivasis in Jharkhand and the larger Chhota Nagpur region welcome the new year and the spring season with the Sarhul festival. Sarhul is celebrated on the third day of the Chaitra month (Hindu calendar), which usually falls in April.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Sarhul tribal festival.

About Sarhul Festival

image 120
  • Sarhul, literally "worship of the Sal tree", is among the most revered Adivasi festivals.
  • Tribes celebrating the festival include: Oraon, Munda, Santal, Khadia, and Ho.
  • Origin: In the 1960s, Adivasi leader Baba Karthik Oraon, who advocated for social justice and the preservation of tribal culture, began a Sarhul procession from Hatma to the Siram Toli Sarna Sthal in Ranchi.
  • It is rooted in nature worship and celebrates the symbolic union of the Sun and the Earth. A male priest from the village (pahan) plays the role of the Sun, while his wife (pahen) becomes the earth.
  • Sal trees are seen as the abode of Sarna Maa, the deity protecting the village from inclement natural forces.
  • On the first day of Sarhul, the village's pahan, who observes a rigorous fast, fetches water for the ceremonies, houses and Sarna Sthals are cleaned, and Sal flowers gathered for rituals.
  • On the second day, the deity is presented with Sal flowers, and a rooster is sacrificed.

The final day is marked by a grand community feast, in which people share handia (rice beer) and enjoy a variety of delicacies. 

Sagaing Fault: Earthquake in Myanmar

Context: A powerful earthquake of magnitude 7.7 struck Myanmar, with the epicenter located approximately 17.2 km from Mandalay (city in Myanmar). This quake of magnitude 7.7 was the strongest one anywhere in the world in the last two years. 

Relevance of the Topic : Prelims : Earthquake, Sagaing fault, location of Mandalay. 

Sagaing Fault

  • Myanmar is vulnerable to earthquakes, largely due to its location along the Sagaing Fault.
  • Sagaing Fault is a major tectonic fault line between the Burma and Sunda plates. The fault runs approximately 1,200 kilometres (north to south) through the country and has a history of significant seismic activity. 

Recent Myanmar Earthquake:

  • Myanmar sits directly on top of the Sagaing Fault. In this region, the Indian and Sunda tectonic plates move in opposite directions at a speed of 49mm per year.
  • When these plates slide past each other horizontally, stress builds up due to friction.    This vast reserve of energy is then released in a violent 'slip-strike' earthquake.
  • The earthquakes from this fault are violent and extremely shallow, meaning they have the potential to cause enormous damage in nearby population centres.
image 113

How do Earthquakes originate?

  • An earthquake is a violent and abrupt shaking of the ground, caused by movement between tectonic plates along a fault line in the earth’s crust. 
  • The earth’s outermost surface (crust) is fragmented into tectonic plates.
    • These plates continuously move at a slow pace, colliding, sliding, or moving past each other. 
    • The edges of these plates, known as plate boundaries, are irregular and get stuck due to friction.
    • When the plates move far enough, the edges suddenly unstick, releasing the stored energy in the form of seismic waves. 
  • This release of energy causes the ground to shake, resulting in an earthquake. 
image 114

Key Facts related to Earthquakes: 

  • The point where the energy is released is called the focus of an earthquake or hypocentre. The point on the surface, nearest to the focus, is called epicentre (directly above the focus). 
  • The earthquake events are scaled either according to the magnitude or intensity of the shock. The magnitude scale is known as the Richter scale. Mercalli scale is used to measure the intensity of an earthquake. It assesses the effects and damage caused by an earthquake at a specific location. 
  • Earthquakes are divided into three zones: shallow, intermediate, and deep, based on their depth which range between 0 – 700 km.
    • Shallow earthquakes have a focus 0 – 70 km deep
    • Intermediate earthquakes have a focus 70 – 300 km deep
    • Deep earthquakes have a focus 300 – 700 km deep.
  • Shallow earthquakes are usually more dangerous because they release more energy when they reach the surface. In contrast, deeper earthquakes lose some of their energy as they travel a longer distance to the surface. 

Asbestos

Context: The Ministry of Education has banned the use of asbestos in construction or refurbishment of Kendriya Vidyalayas (KVs) and Jawahar Navodaya Vidyalayas (JNVs). 

Relevance of the topic : Prelims: Key facts related to Asbestos.  

Asbestos:

  • Asbestos is a group of six-naturally occurring silicate minerals composed of long, thin fibres.
  • Chemically, asbestos contains atoms of silicon and oxygen in their molecular structure. The main form in current use is chrysotile (white asbestos). 
  • It has a widespread commercial use owing to its material properties - durability, resistance to heat, and insulating properties.
image 112

Uses of Asbestos: 

  • Due to its heat and corrosion resistance, asbestos is widely used in Construction, textiles, automotive parts etc.  
  • Despite a ban on asbestos mining in 1993, India continues to import and use chrysotile (a type of asbestos) primarily for asbestos-cement roofing and other applications. 
  • India imports Asbestos mainly from Russia, Kazakhstan and China. 
image 25

Issues related with use of Asbestos

  • Exposure to asbestos causes chronic respiratory diseases such as asbestosis (fibrosis of the lungs), and other adverse effects on the lungs.
    • If products containing asbestos are disturbed, tiny asbestos fibers are released into the air. 
    • Asbestos fibers may get trapped in the lungs. Over time, these fibers can accumulate and cause lung scarring and inflammation. 
  • All six main forms of asbestos have been assessed by WHO as being carcinogenic to humans. It causes cancer of the lung, larynx and ovaries, and mesothelioma (a cancer of the pleural and peritoneal linings).
  • Continuous exposure to asbestos can cause damage to DNA.  

GSAT-18

Context: Public Accounts Committee has raised concerns over the underutilisation of six transponders in GSAT-18. It has recommended that the Department of Space be more economically prudent while planning future space projects.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: GSAT-18; Communication satellites. 

About GSAT-18: 

image 108
  • GSAT-18 is a communication satellite launched by Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) in 2016.
  • Launched using: Heavy-duty Ariane-5 rocket from Kourou, French Guiana.
  • Weight: 3404 kg (Ariane-5 was used because GSLV Mk-III was not operational, at that time)
  • Mission Life: 15 years (until 2032)
  • Location: Geostationary Orbit
  • Transponders: 48 communication transponders (Extended C-band, Normal C-band, and Ku-band)
  • Services provided: DTH broadcasting, Telecommunications, VSAT, broadband internet services.
  • It strengthens ISRO’s operational fleet of 14 telecommunication satellites, and ensures continuity of communication services by replacing ageing satellites.

Highlights of the PAC report

  • Economic viability concern: Presently, six transponders in GSAT are kept idle till the year 2027 (would be utilised from 2027-2032). The non-ulilisation of six transponders for 11 years (since 2016) raises concerns about the cost-effectiveness of the mission.
  • Loss of revenue: This non-utilisation has led to a financial loss of ₹117 crore.

The Department of Space has clarified that the GSAT-18’s extra transponders acted as a backup in case of any failure in transponders, to provide continuity in services. 

669 Asiatic Lions died in past 5 years

Context: As per the latest government data, 669 Asiatic lions have died in the last five years (2020-2024). The Gir forest in Gujarat is the only remaining natural habitat of Asiatic lions. 

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Asiatic lions; Project Lion; Big Cat Alliance; CDV. 

Key Data on Asiatic Lions

  • The maximum deaths of Asiatic lions occurred in the year 2024. Reasons for death include: Old age, illness, injuries from fights, cub mortality, falling into open wells, electrocution, accidents etc. No incidents of poaching led to lion deaths during these years.
  • Latest Estimate (2020): Asiatic lion population in Gujarat is 674 in 2020, up from 523 in 2015. A fresh population estimation will be conducted in May 2025.
image 106

Concerns: 

  • Geographical isolation: Experts have called for the translocation of lions in India, as the big cats remain geographically isolated in Gir. A second habitat would help protect them from extinction in case of an epidemic, a sharp decline in prey or natural disasters. 
  • Increased deaths due to disease outbreak: E.g., In 2018, 27 lions in Gir died due to canine distemper virus (CDV). 
  • Possibility of man-wildlife conflict: As per a 2022 report, 48% of the then lion population of 674 had moved outside protected areas, covering nine districts and 13 forest administrative divisions.

Canine Distemper Virus:

  • CDV is a highly contagious viral disease that affects a wide range of carnivores. It is caused by a single-stranded RNA virus. 
  • Impacts: Several body systems, including the gastrointestinal and respiratory tracts, the spinal cord, and the brain.
  • Symptoms: Dullness, lacrimation, cough, diarrhea, and seizures; 2 of the 87 captive lions showed lacrimation and respiratory distress. It has a high mortality rate.
image 107

Asiatic Lions

  • The Asiatic lion is a big cat of the subspecies Panthera leo. 
  • Range: Gir forest, a dry deciduous forest ecosystem in the Saurashtra region of Gujarat, is the abode of the last surviving population.
  • The total distribution range of lions in this region is estimated to be around 9000 sq. km. majorly of which GIR National Park, GIR Wildlife Sanctuary, Paniya Wildlife Sanctuary and Mitiyal Wildlife Sanctuary account. 
  • Conservation Status: 
    • IUCN Status: Endangered
    • CITES: Appendix I
    • Wildlife Protection Act 1972: Schedule I
  • Conservation Initiatives:
    • Project Lion (2020): Infrastructure development for protection and security of Indian lions, especially health infrastructure. Focus on conflict mitigation, habitat improvement, radio-collar monitoring,  and camera traps, and addressing human-wildlife conflict.
    • International Big Cats Alliance (2023): Foster international cooperation among 97 range countries for conservation of big cats. 

Wildlife Institute of India has identified the Barda Wildlife Sanctuary, about 100 km from the Gir National Park, as a potential site where a population of 40 adult and sub-adult lions could be accommodated within the larger landscape of Barda-Alech hills and coastal forests through natural dispersal. 

ESA retires Gaia Space Observatory

Context: The European Space Agency (ESA) has shut down its Gaia Space Observatory in March 2025. Gaia used its thrusters for the final time to slowly drift into its “retirement orbit” around the Sun.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Gaia Space Observatory. 

About Gaia Space Observatory

image 104
  • GAIA (Global Astrometric Interferometer for Astrophysics) is a space astrometry mission of ESA. 
  • Launched: 2013
  • Location: Lagrange point 2 (around 1.5 million kilometres ‘behind’ the Earth, when viewed from the Sun)
  • Aim: To create the most precise, three-dimensional map of the Milky Way galaxy. 
  • Gaia has tracked over 2 billion stars and space objects. The spacecraft is fitted with three instruments – an astrometer, a photometer and a spectrometer – that help interpret the location and motion of stars and other objects.
image 105
  • Lagrange points are positions in a moving two-body system where the combined gravitational forces of two large bodies (such as the Sun and Earth or Earth and the Moon) acting on a third body of smaller mass cancel each other out.
  • While absolute neutralisation is not achievable due to the influence of other celestial bodies (such as Moon, Mars, and Venus etc.), they provide a stable position where a spacecraft may be "parked" to make observations.

There are five Lagrange points located along the line connecting the two larger celestial bodies.  

  • L1 point: Located roughly 1.5 million kilometres from Earth. It provides an uninterrupted view of the Sun (the satellite can view the Sun without eclipses). 
  • L2 point: Provides an unobstructed view of the Universe and is stable enough for long-duration observations. Location for space-based observatories (James Webb Space Telescope). 
  • L3 point: Lies behind the Sun, opposite to Earth. Offers the potential to observe the far side of the Sun. Possible location for a future space-based observatory. 
  • L4 and L5 point: Stable locations but are relatively farther from Earth than L1.

Achievements of GAIA

  • Data allowed recreation of a precise 3D map of the Milky Way galaxy; Help understand the shape of our galaxy. 
  • Uncovered a new kind of black hole – including one close to the Earth. Black holes were previously discovered by light emitted by materials falling in, but  those discovered by Gaia can only be detected by their gravitational effects.
  • Detected over 1,50,000 asteroids and projected their orbits, including those that may pose a threat to the Earth in the future.

United Nations World Water Development Report 2025

Context: The ‘United Nations World Water Development Report 2025 – Mountains and glaciers: Water towers’ was released to mark the first-ever World Day for Glaciers on March 21. 

Relevance of the Topic: Mains: Impact of global warming on mountain ecosystems and its consequences. 

United Nations World Water Development Report (WWDR)

  • WWDR is a global report that provides a comprehensive assessment of the world’s freshwater resources. 
  • It is produced annually by the UNESCO World Water Assessment Programme, and published by UNESCO.

Major Highlights of the UNESCO’s Report

1. Glacial Melting:

  • Glaciers are disappearing faster than ever. Since 1975, glaciers (which do not include the Greenland and Antarctica ice sheets) have lost >9,000 billion tonnes of mass. 450 gigatons of mass was lost in 2024 alone.
  • Reasons for accelerating glacier melting:
    • Warmer temperatures
    • More frequent and intense wildfires
    • Dust storms lead to more deposition of black carbon and other particulate matter on glacier surfaces, leading to greater absorption of solar radiation (decreased Albedo).  
image 23

2. Accelerating Permafrost Thaw: In high-altitude regions, permafrost is any ground that stays frozen — 0 degrees Celsius or lower — for at least two years straight. Rising temperatures are melting permafrost in these regions rapidly. 

3. Decline in Snow Cover: Reduction in snow cover in nearly all mountain regions, especially in spring and summer. Snow cover is the total of all the snow and ice on the ground. It includes new snow and previous snow and ice that have not melted. Earlier, a 2024 study found a 7.79% decline in global snow cover between 1979-2022.

4. Erratic Snowfall Patterns: Due to atmospheric warming, the rain-snow transition zone is shifting upwards, i.e., mountain ranges are receiving a greater fraction of precipitation falling as rain rather than snow. Snow duration has reduced, snow-melt is taking place earlier than usual. 

Implications of the Changing Climatic Patterns: 

  • Consequences of permafrost thawing:  
    • Release of organic carbon into the atmosphere, exacerbating climate change. Permafrost contains a vast amount of organic carbon (4.5% of the global soil organic carbon) and other nutrients.
    • Mountain slopes become more vulnerable to erosion, increasing the risk of landslides and other hazards.
  • Consequences of increased glacial melting:
    • Increased glacial lake formation and higher risk of glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs). 
    • Rise in the sea level: Melted glacier ice contributes 25-30% of global sea-level rise. Between 2006 and 2016, the global mass loss of glacier ice amounted to 335 billion tonnes of lost ice per year, which corresponded to an increase in sea levels of almost 1 mm per year. 
  • Shorter snow duration: affects ecosystems, water supply, and agriculture. Earlier snowmelt means water is available too early in the season, causing shortages later. 

Abolition of Equalisation Levy

Context: The Central Government has proposed to abolish the 6% equalisation levy (EL) on online advertisements from April 1, 2025. This move is expected to benefit major US technology firms and ease trade tensions between India and the United States.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Equalisation levy. 

Equalisation Levy and Rationale behind its Introduction

  • Equalisation Levy (digital tax) was introduced in the Union Budget 2016 with the intention of taxing the digital transactions. 
  • Need: 
    • Digital companies harness the user generated data, enabling them to earn huge revenues through digital advertisements. 
    • The companies earn revenue by harnessing the data generated in a particular country, but are not obliged to pay adequate taxes in the source country. 
  • Thus, Equalisation Levy was introduced to bring such Internet-based companies within the ambit of tax. It aimed to create a level-playing field between resident and non-resident e-commerce companies.
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Details about Equalisation Levy

  • The equalisation levy of 6% is applicable to the income accruing to a foreign E-commerce company which is not a resident of India. 
  • Any person or entity in India, which makes a payment exceeding Rs 1 lakh in a financial year to a non-resident technology company (such as Google) for some B2B (Business to Business) transactions, needs to withhold 6% of the gross amount to be paid as equalisation levy.
  • Also known as the “Google Tax”, it affected offshore digital giants like Google, Meta, and Amazon.

Reasons for Abolishing Equalisation Levy: 

  • Trade Tensions with US: The US criticised the levy as “discriminatory and unreasonable”, arguing that it unfairly targeted American tech companies. A year-long investigation by the US deemed digital service taxes in multiple countries (including India) inconsistent with international taxation principles.
  • Alignment with Global Tax Reforms: India, the US, and other OECD/G20 members agreed in October 2021 on a two-pillar framework to reform digital economy taxation. India had already removed the 2% EL on e-commerce platforms in 2024, and the latest move aligns with ongoing global consensus efforts.
  • Encouraging Foreign Investment: By removing the EL, India signals a more accommodative stance to foreign businesses, possibly attracting greater tech sector investments. Experts believe this could prevent potential US tariff retaliation against Indian exports.

The abolition of the equalisation levy is a significant policy shift that aims to harmonise India’s digital taxation with global frameworks and boost foreign investment in the growing digital economy.

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