The Hindu

Ustad Zakir Hussain

Context: Tabla maestro and one of the greatest Cultural ambassadors of India, Ustad Zakir Hussain, passed away at the age of 73 in the US. He is known to take Indian classical music to the global stage.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Important facts about Zakir Hussain; Hindustani Classical Music.

About Zakir Hussain

He was the son of table maestro Ustad Alla Rakha.
He was known for incredible speed, dexterity, and creativity, mesmerising audiences across cultures and making him one of the greatest musicians of all time.
Specialisation: Hindustani Classical Music, Jazz and fusion.
He lent his musical genius to many Bollywood movies such as Parasmani, Muhafiz, Mr and Mrs Iyer, Parzania and Manto.
Awards:
- Government of India's Sangeet Natak Akademi Award in 1990, Sangeet Natak Akademi Fellowship (Ratna Sadsyata) in 2018.
- United States’s National Heritage Fellowship, the highest award given to traditional artists and musicians.
- He has won four Grammy awards.
Biography: Zakir Hussain: A Life in Music written by Nasreen Munni Kabir.

About Hindustani Classical Music

Hindustani Classical Music draws inspiration from Rigveda, Yajurvedic chants and Natya Shastra (gives information on scales, melodic forms, tala and musical instruments).
Key texts in Hindustani Music:
- Brihaddesi by Matanga compiled between 8th-9th century AD.
- Sangeeta Ratankara written by Sarangadeva (13^th century AD)
Tala System: Tala is the cyclic arrangement of time units which is central to Hindustani Classical Music.
Two broad categories of Musical forms:
- Anibaddha Sangeet: Free-flowing music, not restricted by meaningful words and tala. Its finest form is the alap.
- Nibaddha Sangeet: Structured compositions with tala and lyrics, such as Dhrupad and Khayal. Prabhandha is a specific type of Nibaddha.
  - Of all known prabandhas, Jayadeva’s (12th century) compositions are best known. His significant work was Gita Govinda, and his songs are ashtapadis (each song has eight couplets).

Main styles of singing in Hindustani Music:

There are 10 main styles of singing in Hindustani music like the Dhrupad, Dhamar, Hori, Khayal, Tappa, Chaturang, Ragasagar, Tarana, Sargam and Thumri.

Dhrupad: Oldest surviving classical style of Hindustani vocal music. It refers to both the poetry's verse structure and the manner in which it is sung. In the mediaeval era, dhrupad rose to prominence as the primary singing style.
- Baba Gopal Das, Swami Haridas, and Tansen (who was regarded as one of the Navaratna or nine gems of the Mughal court) were supported by Akbar.
- Man Singh Tomar, the Maharaja of Gwalior was responsible for the enormous vogue of Dhrupad. Bean and Pakhwaj were associated with Dhrupad.
Khyal: It means the idea or imagination is a Persian term. As it allows for more improvisation, this style is well-liked by artists. It is built on a collection of brief songs with two to eight lines. Khyal composition is typically also referred to as a Bandish.
- The origin of this style was accredited to Amir Khusaru (13th century). It attained its maturity at the hands of Niyamat Khan Sadarang and Adarang of the 18th century.
  - Amir Khusrau is believed to have invented the sitar and the tabla and is said to have introduced new ragas.
  - There are Gharanas in Khayal which are schools of singing founded or developed by various individuals or patrons such as king or nobility. Important gharanas are Gwalior gharana (oldest), Agra gharana (founded by Khuda Baksh) and Jaipur gharana (directly took off from Dhrupad), Rampur Saheswan gharana (Uttar Pradesh).
Thumri and Tappa: Thumri is a love song whereas Tappa consists of the song uttered in a fast note pattern.
Tarana Style: In this style, the rhythm plays a very crucial role and uses many words that are sung at a fast tempo. The origin of this style was also accredited to Amir Khusaru.

One Candidate Multiple Constituency

Context: After the recent recommendations of the Ram Nath Kovind Panel for Simultaneous Elections, there is a debate around various other aspects of electoral reforms. One of the issues is candidates contesting from multiple constituencies popularly called as One Candidate Multiple Constituency (OCMC).

Relevance of the Topic: Mains: One Candidate Multiple Constituency: Benefits & Challenges.

Background:

The Constitution of India provides for regular elections every five years to the legislative assembly and the lower house of Parliament.
The Constitution, other than providing for the Election Commission of India (ECI), has empowered Parliament to regulate the manner of conducting the elections.
The Representation of the People Act 1951 deals with the issue of ‘contesting from multiple constituencies.’
- Until 1996, there was no limit on the number of constituencies a candidate could contest. This resulted in candidates contesting from multiple constituencies. This necessitated by-elections frequently.

Advantages of Contesting Multiple Constituencies (OCMC):

Safety net for candidates: Contesting from multiple constituencies allows candidates to secure at least one win in tightly contested areas. This strategy is particularly beneficial in elections where outcomes are uncertain and elections are closely fought, providing a backup option if they lose in one constituency.
Leadership Continuity: OCMC can ensure the continuity of leadership within a party in case important leaders lose elections. This helps maintain party stability and leadership presence.
Demonstrating popularity and influence: By contesting from multiple seats, a candidate can showcase their popularity across different regions, enhancing their image as a leader with wide support. This also helps parties project strength and attract more voters by demonstrating their ability to contest effectively in various areas.
Strategic Vote Division: Contesting from multiple constituencies can strategically divide the opposition's votes, increasing the chances of winning in each constituency. This tactic can strengthen a party’s overall electoral performance by creating a ripple effect that may benefit candidates in surrounding areas.
Political Message: Leaders contesting from various constituencies can amplify their political message and visibility, leveraging their popularity to engage with a broader electorate. This approach can help reinforce a party's narrative and mobilise support more effectively.

Flexibility in Leadership Transitions:
- OCMC provides flexibility for political parties during leadership transitions or when a leader is unable to secure a seat. For example, Pushkar Singh Dhami, the CM of Uttarakhand, faced a similar situation where he contested multiple seats to ensure his party's leadership remained intact despite electoral challenges.

Challenges Involved:

Financial burden on Taxpayers: The administrative costs for Lok Sabha elections are borne by the central government, while state elections are funded by state governments. The estimated cost for the 2024 general election is ₹6,931 crore.
- If a candidate wins from two constituencies, the additional cost for holding a by-election can reach around ₹130 crore per instance.
Favoring ruling parties: By-elections generally favor ruling parties due to their ability to mobilize resources and provide patronage. This creates an uneven playing field against opposition parties, undermining democratic fairness.
Repeated financial strain on defeated candidates: Candidates who lose must bear the financial burden of campaigning again in by-elections if their opponent vacates a seat they won. This can strain party resources and discourage competitive politics.
Undermining democratic principles: The practice of contesting multiple seats can prioritize candidates' interests over voters' needs, contradicting the democratic ideal that elections should serve the public.
Against freedom of speech and expression: OCMC goes against the fundamental right to freedom of speech and expression of citizens. A petition filed in 2023 (Ashwini Kumar Upadhyay vs Union of India) argued that when people elect a representative, they trust that person to be their voice. Contesting multiple constituencies, winning them, and vacating one for a by-election violates Article 19(1)(a) of the Constitution.
Voter confusion: The practice leads to voter confusion and apathy, as seen in Wayanad when Rahul Gandhi vacated his seat after winning in 2024; voter turnout dropped significantly in subsequent by-elections compared to general elections.
International examples: While countries like Pakistan, Bangladesh continue OCMC, this practice has been phased out in mature democracies like the UK and other European democracies to ensure democratic integrity.

Since the challenges and misuse of OCMC outweighs the benefits, following reforms are recommended:

Amendment of Section 33(7) of RPA 1951: A recommendation has been made to amend this section of the Representation of the People Act (RPA) 1951 to prohibit candidates from contesting multiple constituencies for the same office. The Election Commission of India (ECI) has consistently recommended this ban since 2004, the law commission in its 255^th report has also recommended the same.
Recover cost for by-elections: Implementing a system where the candidate who vacates a seat after winning must bear the full cost of conducting a by-election could discourage simultaneous contests.
Delay in by-elections: Proposing that by-elections be held after a year instead of within six months could allow voters more time to make informed decisions and provide defeated candidates with an opportunity to prepare for future contests.

Thus, if “one person, one vote” is the core democratic principle for voters, it is time to enforce “one candidate, one constituency” for candidates to implement the next step in electoral reforms.

Carbon Market and its Working

Context: COP 29 in Baku, Azerbaijan has given a fillip to the idea of using carbon markets to curb the carbon emissions by approving standards that can help in the setting up of an international carbon market in near future.

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: Key understanding of bonds and Carbon Market.

Mains: Analytical question on Carbon market, its benefits and its lacunae.

Major Highlights:

Carbon Market is a market that allows the trade of the right to emit carbon in the atmosphere.
- Illustration- A government focusing on controlling emission will issue limited carbon credits to firms. Each carbon credit is equivalent to 1,000 Kgs of carbon dioxide. Firms/individuals who do not need carbon credit can trade them with interested buyers.
- Price of carbon credit will be market based i.e., will work on the principle of demand and supply.
Carbon Offset: These are the alternatives to carbon credit, sold by environmental NGO to bridge the gap of credit and actual emission.
- In case a business pollutes more than carbon credit and fails to secure them from other firms they can opt for this option.
- For example, Firm A breaches the credit limit and can buy carbon offsets from NGO planting trees.

Benefits of Carbon Market:

Cost effective emission reduction by limiting the emission with the help of imposing cost on polluters.
Promotes polluter pay principle by enhancing compliance burden on individuals and firms.
Incentivise the compliance- The Cap and trade system enforces limits on emissions, motivating organisations to stay within their allowances or invest in credit.
Pushes green funding for environmental NGO and organisations by the mechanism of carbon offset mechanism.

Issues in Carbon Market System:

Discriminatory in nature- As carbon credit and carbon market mechanism paves way for the excess emission by wealthy developed nations.
Greenwashing risk is associated with it as the polluter pay principle will provide unrestrained right to pollute.
Overestimation of the impact, as the projects may exaggerate their carbon reduction impact.
Risk of market saturation- The oversupply of the carbon credits and offset clause combined, can reduce the value of carbon credits that can hamper the reduction targets.

Conclusion: Carbon credits and markets are valuable tools for reducing emissions and promoting sustainability, but they face challenges like regulation gaps and potential misuse. To maximise their impact, strong oversight, transparent standards, and a focus on real emission reductions are essential, ensuring they complement broader efforts toward a low-carbon, equitable future.

Polavaram Dam Project

Context: The Biju Janata Dal (BJD) has recently intensified its efforts to highlight the potential adverse impacts of the Polavaram Dam project (Andhra Pradesh), on the tribal communities in Odisha’s Malkangiri district (Odisha).

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Polavaram Dam Project.

Polavaram Dam Project:

The Polavaram Project is an under construction multi-purpose irrigation project on the Godavari River. It is located in the Polavaram mandal of the Eluru district (formerly West Godavari district) in Andhra Pradesh.

AD 4nXd2GCDIN eZLanfkAasqwaFWftKosBdvFPuXilL3lKmd6qT2O2Ei xYXHLOCDQ6OmugvS370BK 5hK5fOGckHqlKYz7qvQgnLBtSArPb6pxYLhtwzFHn4WsEd933DjHXyxm fweWrxdGcDwTa34WQ?key=hBIXVSnzBiL QlDmpJYwcaPV

Purpose:

The project is a multi-purpose project on river Godavari for irrigation, developing hydropower and providing drinking water facilities to East Godavari, Visakhapatnam, West Godavari and Krishna districts of Andhra Pradesh.
- The project will provide irrigation facilities to 2.91 lakh hectares.
- The project has an installed capacity of 960 MW and will provide 23.44 TMC (663.7 MCM) of drinking water and industrial water supply to Visakhapatnam city and steel plant.
In this project, Godavari-Krishna inter-linking will be implemented under the inter-linking of rivers project. The project envisages transfer of 80 TMC of surplus water of Godavari river to Krishna river to be shared between Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Maharashtra.

Background:

The Polavaram Irrigation Project on the river Godavari was conceived as a part of the recommendations of the Godavari Water Disputes Tribunal (GWDT).
Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and Odisha had entered into an agreement dated April 2, 1980, where the project was to be executed by Andhra Pradesh.
As per Andhra Pradesh State Reorganization Act (APRA), 2014, the Polavaram Irrigation Project was declared as a National Project . As per the Act the Central Government shall execute the project and obtain all requisite clearances including environmental, forests, and rehabilitation and resettlement norms.

Objection raised by Odisha:

The Odisha State government in the year 2016 submitted to the National Commission for Scheduled Tribes (NCST) that the project was going to submerge 7,656 hectares of land, including forestland, and displace more than 6,800 people including 5,916 tribals in Malkangiri.

**Though no comprehensive study has been carried out with regards to the likely submergence of the Malkangiri district due to the Polavaram project.

Steps taken by Ministry of Jal Shakti

The Ministry of Jal Shakti said that by providing remedial measures such as constructing protective embankments along Sileru and Sabari River in Odisha, and along Sabari River in Chhattisgarh, the submergence in both Odisha and Chhattisgarh could be avoided completely.
In August 2024 this year, the Ministry had asked the State Pollution Control Boards of Odisha and Chhattisgarh to conduct a public hearing for the construction of protective embankments without further loss of time as the project is in an advanced stage of construction.

Present status:

The Odisha State Pollution Control Board is yet to hold a public hearing.
The Odisha government had earlier expressed its reservation over the high protective embankment by stating that the construction of an embankment requires the diversion of forestland and creates flooding in Odisha territory.

Jalvahak Scheme

Context: The Union Government has recently launched "Jalvahak" scheme to incentivise movement of cargo along the inland waterways, reduce logistics cost and de-congest roads and railways.

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: Key facts about Jalvahak Scheme

Mains: Inland Waterways- Present status, benefits and constraints.

Present Status of Inland Waterways:

India has approximately 14,500 km of navigable waterways which consist of rivers, canals, backwaters, creeks, etc. However, the share of Inland waterway transport (IWT) in India is currently only around 2% in comparison to 35% in Bangladesh and 20% in Germany.

Benefits of Inland Waterways:

Reduce Logistics cost (12-14% of GDP) and bring it on par with the global standards (8-10% of GDP).
Lower Investment and maintenance cost in comparison to road and railways.
Environment Friendly:
- 50% lower carbon dioxide emissions in comparison to Roads.
- Negligible land requirement.
- Safe mode for hazardous cargo.
Streamline Infrastructure:
- Reduces pressure on Roads and Railways.
- Provide for carriage of vehicles in the form of Roll-on-roll-off mode.
- Easy integration of the IWT with sea transport.
- Safe and less risky in comparison to other modes.
Socio-economic development: IWT provides benefits in terms of trade and access to markets, enhance local community’s economic engagement, promote eco-tourism and boost employment opportunities. For example, Arth Ganga has potential to promote sustainable development with a focus on economic activities along river Ganga.

Constraints and Strategies:

Details about Jalvahak Scheme:

Rationale: Need to provide incentives on the lines of Europe's Marcopolo initiative to encourage modal shift towards Inland waterways from better funded and developed Road and Railways sector.
Duration of scheme: 3 years.
Implementation agency: Inland and Coastal Shipping Limited (ICSL)
Nodal Ministry: Ministry of Shipping, Ports, and Inland Waterways.

Design of the scheme:

Financial incentives will be provided directly to the cargo owners who shift cargo from road/rail to Inland waterways.
Incentive would be up to 35% of the total actual operating expenditure incurred on waterways.
Incentive would be provided only on long haul movement of cargo i.e. distances more than 300 km.

Is the incentive applicable for all the Inland waterways?

Presently, the incentives are applicable for movement of cargo along National Waterways 1 (river Ganga), National Waterways 2 (Brahmaputra river) and National Waterways 16 (River Barak). However, based on the success of the Scheme, it may also be extended to other waterways.

Way Forward: The inland waterways are cost-effective, fuel-efficient, safe and secure mode of transportation for goods and passengers. Going forward, the Jalvahak scheme should be implemented efficiently to increase the modal share of inland waterways from 2% to 5% as envisioned in Maritime India Vision 2030.

What are Black Holes?

Context: Black holes are some of the most fascinating objects in space. Recent research has suggested a new way to measure the properties of black holes (mass, spin) by analysing the echoes of light produced when light interacts with Black Holes.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Black Holes; Terms related to Black Holes; General Theory of Relativity.

Major Highlights:

Gravitational lensing: When light passes near a black hole, it bends due to the immense gravitational pull of the black hole. This phenomenon is called gravitational lensing.
Creation of light echoes: Gravitational lensing can create light echoes.
- Light passing around a black hole can take different paths: Some beams of the light may take a direct route to the viewer, while others may pass around the black hole a few times, before getting back on its original path.
- This causes the light emitted from a distant object to reach Earth at different intervals. This phenomenon is called a light echo (the beam to arrive second will be an echo of the beam that arrived first).
Long-baseline interferometry: Scientists theorised that they can use light echoes to measure masses and spins of black holes. The study proposes the use of a technique called long-baseline interferometry (which aims to detect the interference pattern between the light beams arriving at different times) to study characteristics of black holes.
Albert Einstein’s general theory of relativity has also predicted the phenomenon of light echoes.

Black Holes

Black holes are the regions of spacetime where gravity is so strong that nothing, including light and other electromagnetic waves, has enough energy to escape. The boundary of no escape is called the event horizon.

Formation: A black hole forms when a massive star (at least three times the mass of our Sun), exhausts its fuel, explodes in a supernova, and collapses under gravity into an incredibly dense core called a singularity.

Types of Black Holes:

Stellar Black Holes:
- Formed by the collapse of a single massive star at the end of its life cycle.
- Mass typically ranges between 3 to 100 times mass of the Sun.
Intermediate Black Holes:
- Formed through merger of stellar black holes or collapse of massive star clusters.
- Mass between 100 and 1,00,000 times that of the Sun.
Supermassive Black Holes:
- Found at the centres of most galaxies, including our Milky Way. Their origin is not exactly understood, but may involve accretion of matter, merger or collapse of massive gas clouds.
- Masses range from millions to billions of times the sun’s mass.

Are Black Holes Observable?

Black holes are not directly observable with telescopes that detect X-rays, light, or other forms of electromagnetic radiation.
However, their presence can be inferred through their effects on surrounding matter, and the gravitational waves they produce. E.g.,
- Emission of X-rays and powerful Gamma rays: If a black hole passes through a cloud of interstellar matter or if a star passes close to a black hole, it will draw matter inward in a process known as accretion. As the attracted matter accelerates and heats up, it emits X-rays and powerful gamma ray bursts that radiate into space. This reflects the presence of black holes.
- Gravitational waves: Merger of two blackholes produces powerful gravitational waves. The detection of these gravitational waves (Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory, LIGO) can confirm the existence/ location of the black holes.

Common Terms related to Black Holes:

1. Supernova:

Supernovae are incredibly powerful explosions that occur when a massive supergiant star reaches the end of its life (exhausts its fuel).
These explosions release an astonishing amount of energy, up to 10^44 joules.

2. Singularity:

The centre of a black hole is a gravitational singularity, a point where the general theory of relativity breaks down, i.e. where its predictions do not apply.
A black hole’s great gravitational pull emerges as if from the singularity.

3. Event Horizon (a point of no return):

The event horizon is like a boundary around a black hole (around the singularity). Once anything (matter, energy, light) crosses this boundary, it can not escape unless it travels faster than the speed of light (which is impossible).
This means nothing, not even light, can escape the black hole's strong gravity because the speed needed to escape at the event horizon should be greater than the speed of light.

4. Ergosphere:

The Ergosphere is a bigger sphere, outside the event horizon of a black hole, where matter can enter and then return (escape the black hole's gravitational pull), if they are moving with speeds very close to the speed of light.
Rotating (Kerr) black holes have an ergosphere. In the Ergosphere, spacetime is dragged along with the rotation of the black hole.
Ergosphere derives its name from the fact that energy can be extracted from the black hole via the Penrose process.
- Researchers have proposed the concept of directing objects into the ergosphere of a black hole, allowing it to accelerate there along the black hole’s direction of rotation, resulting in an increased velocity upon exiting.

5. Accretion Disc:

An accretion disc is a flat, rotating structure of matter (such as gas, dust, or other material) that forms around a black hole.
The material in the accretion disc spirals inward due to gravitational attraction of the black hole.
As it spirals inward, the material often heats up due to friction and gravitational forces, emitting various forms of electromagnetic radiation, including visible light, X-rays, gamma rays and radio waves.

6. Spaghettification:

Spaghettification refers to the effect of extreme gravitational pressure on any particle or body of matter, in particular, when exposed to the extreme forces of the black hole.
When a particle draws too close to the event horizon, it is stretched into long thin shapes. E.g., If an astronaut falls into the event horizon, as the gravity is inversely proportional to distance, the pull on the falling astronaut’s legs will be substantially greater than the pull on his or her upper torso. Subsequently, stretching him like spaghetti (pasta).

General Theory of Relativity (GTR):

GTR is a fundamental theory of gravitation published by Albert Einstein in 1915.
According to the theory:
- Massive objects cause a curvature in space-time structure, which causes other objects to move along a curved path.
- Speed of light is constant in all inertial reference frames. (Speed of light remains the same for all observers, regardless of their position or motion within a gravitational field)
GTR predicted the existence of gravitational waves, black holes, time dilation, gravitational lensing (light is deflected by objects with very strong gravity), and expansion of the Universe.

Key Predictions of GTR:

1. Gravitational Waves:

They are the ripples in space-time caused by accelerating massive objects (similar to ripples in a water pond).
The curvature of spacetime is directly proportional to the mass of the object causing the curvature, i.e., the greater the mass, the greater the curvature of spacetime it causes.
The waves travel at the speed of light and squeeze and stretch anything in their path.
Gravitational waves are difficult to detect because gravity is the weakest of the four fundamental forces. The waves were finally detected in 2015 by LIGO - Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory.

2. Black Holes:

Regions of spacetime where gravity is so strong that not even light can escape. Black holes have been observationally confirmed.

3. Time Dilation:

Time dilation refers to the idea that time is relative and runs/passes at different rates for different observers, depending on their relative motion or their positions in a gravitational field.
Closer an object's velocity is to the speed of light, the more pronounced the time dilation effect becomes.
GTR predicts that time runs slower in stronger gravitational fields. This has been experimentally verified using high-precision atomic clocks, observations of Quasars etc.

Trump’s return and the South Asia outlook

Context: Donald Trump will take over as 47^th President of the United States in January 2025, there is curiosity and nervousness regarding his return to office in many countries. However, South Asia is likely to offer a distinct continuity. His ideology and foreign policy goals will continue to push for increased cooperation, collaboration, and consultation with India in South Asia.

In this context, let us have a look over the factors in India US ties, likely irritants, and China as a factor in the growing ties.

Relevance of the Topic: Mains: Key aspects of India-US Relations.

Overview of U.S.-India Ties:

The relationship between the United States and India has evolved significantly since the early 2000s marked by strategic cooperation, shared interests in regional security, and economic collaboration.
The U.S. has recognised India as a key player in maintaining stability in South Asia, particularly in the context of China's growing assertiveness and establishing a rule-based world order.

Key Factors Strengthening Ties:

Strategic Partnership against China: The U.S. views India as a crucial ally in countering China's influence in the Indo-Pacific region. This partnership was continued by the Biden administration's Indo-Pacific strategy, which aims to bolster India's role as a net-security provider and regional leader.
Regional cooperation: Joint initiatives, such as the Millennium Challenge Corporation projects in Nepal and support for Sri Lanka's economic recovery, illustrate the growing regional cooperation. Similarly, Biden’s administration’s passive relations with Pakistan after withdrawing from Afghanistan helped India and the U.S. foster a mutual vision for the region.
Military and defense cooperation: India has been designated as a "Major Defense Partner" of the U.S., allowing it access to advanced military technology and equipment. This status reflects a commitment to deepening defense ties, which are seen as essential for regional security.
Economic collaboration: Bilateral trade has increased significantly ($128 bn in 2023), with both nations focusing on enhancing economic ties through initiatives like the U.S.-India Strategic Clean Energy Partnership. The potential revival of discussions around a Free Trade Agreement could further strengthen economic relations.
Political Dynamics: The political landscape in both countries influences their relationship. For instance, the Biden administration's approach to democracy and human rights has created tensions, Mr. Trump’s return is likely to assuage these irritants.

Despite the positive trajectory of U.S.-India relations, some challenges that persist are:

Human Rights Concerns: The U.S. has expressed concerns over India's human rights record, particularly regarding its treatment of minorities and its foreign policy choices that align with authoritarian regimes. This scrutiny could strain relations if perceived as interference in India's domestic affairs. (For example, the Biden administration was wary of India's relationship with Sheikh Hasina in Bangladesh and pragmatic engagement with the military junta in Myanmar.)
Geopolitical Tensions: India's historical ties with Russia complicate its relationship with the U.S., especially amidst ongoing geopolitical tensions due to the Russia-Ukraine war. Sanctions against Indian firms collaborating with Russia have also raised concerns about economic repercussions.

U.S.-India Relations under Trump:

With Donald Trump's return to the presidency, the dynamics of the U.S.-India relations are expected to shift towards a more collaborative and less contentious framework.

Here are the key factors that could contribute to this improved relationship:

Focus on Strategic Interests: Trump's foreign policy is likely to prioritise countering China, which aligns with India's strategic goals. By emphasising burden sharing and reciprocity, Trump may encourage India to take a more prominent role in regional security, effectively reducing areas of divergence between the two nations.
Reduced Emphasis on Human Rights: Trump's administration is expected to downplay issues related to human rights and democracy, which have previously created friction in U.S.-India ties. This shift could facilitate a more transactional relationship, allowing both countries to focus on mutual interests without the complications of human rights scrutiny.
Regional Stability Initiatives: Trump's approach may involve encouraging India to lead in regional stability efforts, particularly towards Afghanistan and Pakistan. His previous administration's strategy involved a mix of cooperation and pressure on Pakistan while urging India to engage actively in Afghanistan, a stance that could continue with less contention now that U.S. military involvement in Afghanistan has ended.
Economic and Defense Cooperation: The potential for increased defense collaborations and arms deals under Trump could bolster India's military capabilities. His administration's focus on enhancing security ties through initiatives like the Quadrilateral Security Dialogue (Quad) is likely to persist, promoting joint military exercises and technology transfers.
America First: Trump's "America First" policies may inadvertently benefit India by encouraging businesses to relocate manufacturing from China to India.

Challenges and Way Forward:

Despite the positive outlook, challenges remain, particularly regarding trade and immigration policies. Trump's history of imposing tariffs and his skepticism towards the H-1B visa program, statement on BRICS currency etc. could create tensions in economic relations, especially for sectors reliant on skilled Indian labor. However, there may be opportunities for negotiation around trade agreements that align with both nations' economic goals.
Trump's administration is expected to support India's growing influence in South Asia while encouraging smaller countries like Sri Lanka and Bangladesh to strengthen ties with India rather than China., enhancing India's regional leadership role and fostering collaborative policies across various sectors.

Bottom Trawling in Indian Ocean

Context: According to Sri Lanka’s Minister of Fisheries the enduring fisheries conflict in the Palk Bay can be decisively resolved only if the Indian side stops using the destructive bottom-trawling method.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: - Bottom Trawling Method

Bottom Trawling Method

Bottom trawling is a method of fishing that involves dragging heavy weighted nets across the sea floor, in an effort to herd and capture the target species, like ground fish or crabs.
It is a favoured method by commercial fishing companies because it can catch large quantities of product in one go.

Ecological Impacts of Bottom Trawling:

Habitat Destruction: Trawling can cause physical damage to the seabed and the structures that support marine life. The heavy gear used in trawling can crush or remove vulnerable habitats such as deep-sea corals, sponges, and other benthic organisms.

Biodiversity Loss: The indiscriminate nature of trawling nets can lead to the capture of non-target species, including various marine organisms. This bycatch often includes species that are not commercially valuable and can result in the depletion of non-targeted populations, leading to biodiversity loss.

Altered Ecosystem Dynamics: The removal of large quantities of marine organisms through trawling can disrupt the balance within ecosystems. Targeted species and their predators may experience declines, leading to cascading effects throughout the food web.

Slow Recovery: Deep-sea ecosystems have limited resilience, and the slow growth rates of many deep-sea species mean that recovery from trawling impacts can take decades or even centuries. Some species may struggle to rebuild their populations, if at all.

Carbon Sequestration: Deep-sea ecosystems play a crucial role in carbon sequestration. Trawling can disturb sediments and release stored carbon, contributing to climate change. Additionally, the destruction of deep-sea habitats reduces their ability to sequester carbon effectively.

India - Sri Lanka:

Demarcation of Boundary:

India and Sri Lanka share a maritime border of more than 400 kilometres, which cuts through three different seas - the Bay of Bengal in the north, the Palk Bay in the center, and the Gulf of Mannar (which opens to the Indian Ocean) in the south.
Even before the Law of the Sea was negotiated at the United Nations, and India declared its 200-nautical-mile EEZ, India and Sri Lanka signed the maritime agreements of 1974 and 1976.
- The 1974 agreement demarcated the maritime boundary in the Palk Strait and ceded Kachchatheevu to Sri Lanka.
- The 1976 agreement demarcated the boundary in the Gulf of Mannar and the Bay of Bengal and barred either country's fishermen from fishing in the other's waters.

Maritime Conflict:

Sri Lanka is under pressure from its Northern province fishermen to act against Tamil Nadu fishermen, who they accuse of resorting to destructive bottom trawling. Notably Sri Lanka has banned bottom trawling since July 2017.
While India promised to end bottom trawling in the Palk Bay and incentivise fishermen to take to deep-sea fishing under the Blue Revolution Scheme, bottom trawlers are still active.
Fishermen also face a practical problem as under the Tamil Nadu Marine Fishing Regulation Act 1983. The Act, aimed to protect fishing rights of traditional fishermen near the coast, permits mechanised fishing boats to only fish three nautical miles away from the coast. Since the distance between Dhanush Kodi (Tamil Nadu) and the International Maritime Boundary Line is just nine nautical miles, breaches do occur (i.e., mechanised boats might cross into Sri Lankan waters).

Urban Local Government Elections

Context: The ongoing discourse around ‘one nation one election’ can serve as the right opportunity to streamline the Elections in Urban Local Government structures (ULGs) which face the problem of neglect and delays in elections.

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: Constitutional Provisions regarding Urban Local Government structures.

Mains: Issues associated with ULGs.

Importance of timely elections in ULGs:

India has over 4,800 ULGs that oversee nearly 40% of the population, which is estimated to cross 50% by 2050.
Well administered cities are the backbone of the country’s economy, contributing over 60% to India’s GDP.
Ensuring regular elections to install democratically-elected governments in our cities is not just constitutionally mandated but also important for economic and social development.

Constitutional Provisions regarding elections to ULGs:

The system of Urban Government was constitutionalised through the 74^th Constitutional Amendment Act of 1992.

Article 243ZA: Article 243ZA of the Constitution of India provided that the superintendence, direction, and control of electoral rolls, and the conduct of all elections to the municipalities should be vested in the State Election Commission.
- The State Election Commission consists of a state election commissioner to be appointed by the governor.
- The state legislature may make provision with respect to all matters relating to elections to the municipalities.
Article 243R: Article 243R provided that all the seats in the municipality should be filled by persons chosen by direct election from the territorial constituency in the municipal area, known as "Ward".

Issues associated with ULGs:

Despite the constitutional mandate, there are various issues:

Uncertainty and Delays in Elections: Elections for ULGs are frequently delayed, with over 60% of ULGs in India experiencing such delays, violating the constitutional mandate to hold elections every five years. This undermines the principle of decentralization and limits citizen representation and accountability.

Delay in Council Formation: Even after elections are held, it is seen that there are significant delays in constituting councils. For example, in Karnataka, councils took an average of 11 months to form post-election results, leaving elected representatives unable to address local development needs effectively.

Disempowerment of State Election Commissions (SECs): The SECs, responsible for conducting ULG elections, are often disempowered. Only 4 out of 15 states have granted them authority for ward delimitation. The state government inaction in ward delimitation leads to delay in elections or legal disputes over reservations (highlighted in CAG report).

Political influence and discretion: There is a concern regarding the undue influence of state governments on election schedules. Government officials have the discretion to delay elections, which compromises the integrity of the electoral process as highlighted in the Supreme Court ruling in Suresh Mahajan v. State of Madhya Pradesh (2022).

Regional disparities in election timeliness: The extent of delays varies across regions. For example, while some municipalities like those in Chandigarh faced minimal delays, others such as Bengaluru and Mumbai have been awaiting elections for over one year after their previous councils' terms expired.

Challenges with women's reservation: In Nagaland, the government's attempt to hold ULG elections with a 33% reservation for women faced backlash from tribal organizations opposed to this mandate. Thus, there is a broader struggle between constitutional requirements and local customs.

Impact on citizen participation: Delays in conducting timely elections negatively affect public participation and trust in local governance. A survey indicated that about 61% of ULGs experienced delayed council elections, which leads to disillusionment among citizens regarding their local governance.

Past efforts to resolve the issue of elections to local bodies:

The 79th report of the Parliament Standing Committee on Law and Justice: Presented report on the ‘Feasibility of Simultaneous Elections,’ submitted in 2015, while advocating simultaneous elections to the Lok Sabha and State Assemblies, was silent on elections to ULGs.
NITI Aayog discussion paper (2017): on ‘Analysis of Simultaneous Elections’, kept ULGs out of its purview, arguing that the third-tier institutions are State subjects and that the sheer number of such institutions across the country makes it “impractical, and possibly impossible, to synchronise elections”.
- Similar reasoning is put forward in the 2018 draft report of the Law Commission of India on simultaneous elections.
High Level Committee (2024): High Level Committee constituted by the Government of India to provide a road map for implementation of simultaneous elections, deliberated on local body elections and recommended synchronising them within 100 days of simultaneous elections to the Lok Sabha and State Assemblies.

Way Forward:

Empowering State Election Commissions (SECs): Grant SECs the authority to manage ward delimitation independently, ensuring that state governments do not interfere in the electoral process. This would help prevent delays caused by political factors.
Timely Elections: Establish a legal framework that mandates ULG elections to be conducted within six months of the term expiration of existing councils, ensuring adherence to democratic principles and timely representation.

The HLC report, which was accepted by the Union government in September 2024, has touched upon the procedure of elections to local governments which can be synchronized within 100 days of simultaneous elections to the Lok Sabha and State Assemblies after taking consultation with stakeholders.

China Plus One Opportunity

Context: The NITI Aayog in its inaugural quarterly report ‘Trade Watch’ has highlighted that India’s has seen limited success in seizing ‘China plus one’ opportunity. Recently, the Chairman of the 16th Finance Commission has pointed out that India’s internal policies have acted as a significant constraint, hindering its ability to fully leverage the opportunity.

Relevance of the Topic: Mains: - Challenges in India hindering its ability to fully leverage China-plus-one opportunity.

What is the China Plus One Strategy?

China Plus One is the business strategy to avoid investing only in China and diversify business or channel investments into manufacturing in other developing economies such as India, Thailand, Cambodia, Vietnam, Malaysia etc.

Shift from China:

For the last 20 years, Western companies have heavily invested in China, drawn in by its low production costs, and vast domestic consumer market.
However the companies are looking to diversify due to-
- US-China Trade disputes: Escalating trade disputes and reciprocal trade restrictions have disrupted global supply chains.
- Higher Tariffs and Trade restrictions: The cost of doing business in China is increasing due to higher tariffs on Chinese imports and export restrictions on essential resources.
- COVID-19 Pandemic: The pandemic exposed the supply-chain vulnerabilities of over-reliance on one country and the need to find alternative supply chains.
- Emerging competitors: ASEAN and other developing countries are presenting attractive alternatives to China owing to their lower tariffs, simpler tax systems, cheaper labor, and proactive free trade agreements (FTAs).

Why is India lagging behind Competitors?

In contrast to Vietnam, Thailand, Cambodia, and Malaysia, India has had very modest success utilising the China Plus One strategy. The reasons include-

Internal Policy challenges:
- Policy uncertainty: Poor ease of doing business and greater amount of policy uncertainty deters foreign investors.
- Cumbersome land acquisition procedure and unavailability of cheap land.
- Delays in receiving permits, licenses, and approvals due to the involvement of multiple government agencies.
- Complex tax laws and limited Free Trade Agreements (FTAs) with major trade blocs.
Infrastructure challenges: Deficient infrastructure including transportation, power supply shortages impacts the reliability of India’s manufacturing sector/prospects.
Fragmented Labour laws: Variation of labour laws across different states and delayed implementation of New Labour Codes.
Higher Logistics Cost: India’s logistics cost is 14% of India’s GDP, which is high when compared to developed nations (where it ranges 8-10%). This reduces overall competitiveness.
Low R&D and Innovation: India spends hardly around 0.7% of its GDP on R&D, quite lower in comparison to the USA (2.1%), China (2.8%), Israel (4.3%) etc.

Skilled Human Resources: Despite having almost 53% of the population in the working-age group, there is a lack of availability of skilled human resources, adept in complex manufacturing processes.
Trade Facilitation Issues: In India, Trade facilitation as measured by "Trading Across Borders" is quite poor. Complex documentation processes and high export costs hinder trade facilitation.

Way Forward:

Improve Trade Competitiveness by improving access to factors of production (Land, Labour, Capital), Reduce Logistics costs (14% of GDP) to global benchmarks (8% of GDP), improving Ease of Doing Business by streamlining regulations etc.
Fast-track development of infrastructure projects under the National Infrastructure Pipeline (NIP). Leverage PM Gati Shakti Master Plan to integrate infrastructure planning and bring down logistics cost.
Focus on large-scale skills development, leveraging Skill India Program and Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Vikas Yojana.
Expedite signing of Free Trade agreements with key markets such as the European Union, United Kingdom & ASEAN.
Protect domestic markets from the import of cheap foreign goods through (a) strong and effective technical regulations (b) trade safeguards such as Anti-dumping duties.
Enhance digital governance and increase public and private spending on R&D to at least 1.5% of GDP by 2030.

Hence, to fully leverage the China Plus One strategy, India should improve the ease of doing business, enhance manufacturing capabilities and actively engage in global trade agreements.

Seasonal Outbreak of Influenza

Context: Every year, seasonal illnesses keep doctors and public health authorities busy. The outbreak of respiratory illnesses in children and adults caused by Influenza A ((H1N1), (H3N2), and Influenza B viruses, becomes more pronounced in winter in India.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: - Influenza; Types of Influenza Viruses

What is Influenza?

Influenza (flu) is a highly-contagious respiratory illness caused by influenza viruses that impacts the nose, throat and lungs.
Symptoms: Seasonal influenza is characterised by a sudden onset of fever, cough (usually dry), headache, muscle and joint pain, severe malaise (feeling unwell), sore throat and a runny nose.
Risks:
- Most people recover from fever and other symptoms within a week without requiring medical attention.
- But influenza can cause severe illness or deaths, especially in people at high risk. They include- young children and people with co-morbidities like asthma, diabetes, heart disease, weakened immune systems and neurological or neurodevelopmental conditions.

Types of Influenza Viruses:

Influenza viruses are of four different types: A, B, C and D.

Type A:
- Influenza A is associated with severe respiratory illness and deaths in humans. Only influenza type A viruses are known to have caused pandemics.
- They are further classified into subtypes according to the combinations of the proteins on the surface of the virus. E.g.,
  - H3N2 (HongKong Flu) and H1N1 (Swine Flu) viruses are subtypes of Influenza A virus.
  - H5N1 (Avian influenza/ Bird Flu) is also a subtype of the Influenza A virus that primarily infects birds but can also infect humans and other mammals.
Type B:
- Influenza B almost exclusively infects humans, and is less common than influenza A.

Type C:
- Detected less frequently and usually causes mild infections, thus does not present public health importance.
Type D:
- Primarily affects cattle and are not known to infect or cause illness in people.

Influenza viruses are constantly evolving, the factors include:

High population density, poor hygiene practices, weather conducive to the survival and spread of the virus increase the risk of flu transmission.
Indiscriminate antimicrobial use due to the absence of definitive diagnosis and influenza symptoms coinciding with other acute respiratory infections.
Low Vaccination rates as strategies for influenza prevention and control have not been prioritised by the Indian Medical Association. Influenza vaccine is not included into the government’s Universal Immunisation Programme.
Due to climate change, seasonal epidemics of influenza may shift spatially and temporally, with rising temperatures and abnormal rainfall patterns being contributing factors.

Way Forward:

Adult immunisation programmes in India must be leveraged for making Influeza vaccines available in the country. E.g., National Centre for Disease Control (NCDC) has recommended the prudent use of the Southern Hemisphere’s 2024 quadrivalent influenza vaccine.
Expansion of the Universal Immunisation Programme to include influenza vaccines can reduce community transmission, unnecessary antimicrobial prescriptions and superimposed bacterial infections that can complicate influenza.

What is Disease X?

Context: Disease X represents an unpredictable, novel threat that requires rapid global response and adaptation. This becomes significant due to increased interconnectedness of our world (with frequent international travel and trade), making it easier for localised outbreaks to escalate into pandemics, as seen with COVID-19.

Disease X?

Disease X is not a specific disease but is the name given to a potential novel infectious agent. It represents an illness which is currently unknown but could pose a serious microbial threat to humans in the future.
In 2018, the World Health Organisation (WHO) added Disease X to the ‘list of pathogens’ to prioritise preparation on the emerging diseases that do not yet have vaccines or drug treatments, and could give rise to a severe epidemic.
It could originate from Pathogen X, which could be a virus, a bacterium, a parasite, fungi, helminths, or even a prion (a misfolded protein capable of causing severe neurological diseases).

WHO’s priority list of Pathogens:

The list of pathogens is a strategic tool published by WHO in 2018 to focus global attention and resources on the most serious infectious disease threats.
This list identifies diseases that have:
- High mortality rates
- Epidemic or pandemic potential
- Lack of adequate preventive (vaccine) or therapeutic options.
The current list (not exhaustive ) includes: Ebola virus disease, Marburg virus disease, Lassa fever, Nipah virus, Rift Valley fever, Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever, Zika virus, Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS), Disease X.

Significance: It helps policymakers, researchers, and health organisations prioritise efforts toward controlling the diseases (to guide research and development, allocate funding, and enhance preparedness).

Risk Factors for Disease X:

Zoonotic Spillover: Increased risk of zoonotic spillover due to human encroachment on wildlife habitats, deforestation, and the intensification of agriculture.
- Since 1940, researchers have identified more than 300 emerging infectious diseases, about 70% of which have zoonotic origins (transmitted from animals to humans).
Increasing Antimicrobial Resistance: Resistance acquired by any microorganism (bacteria, viruses, fungi, parasite) against antimicrobial drugs or treatments to which they were previously susceptible.
- Incomplete doses of medication, self-medication, inappropriate disposal of unused or expired medication in the environment.
- Using antibiotics in farm animals, herbicides may enrich AMR genes (ARGs) and Mobile genetic elements (MGEs) by altering soil microbiomes.
- Biofilms on microplastics and untreated solid and liquid waste can act as a reservoir of AMR microbes.
Risk of Bioterrorism and Accidental lab leaks. Beyond the WHO’s guidelines, there is no universal law, regulation or international oversight mandating even basic requirements, such as external independent inspections of biosafety laboratories (which host a range of pathogens).
Climate Change:
- Climate change is expanding the burden of infectious diseases (transmitted by insect vectors and through contaminated water). It is also pushing pathogens to adapt to new hosts and environments.
- With global warming there is a risk of thawing permafrost which harbours viruses up to a million years old (older than the human species).

Way Forward:

Need for robust surveillance systems to detect new outbreaks early and global alliance for developing its treatment. E.g., Coalition for Epidemic Preparedness Innovations (CEPI) has set a target of 100 days to develop, test and produce a new vaccine against pathogen X (COVID-19 vaccine took 326 days).
Investing in Research and Innovation: Utilising advances in genomic sequencing, artificial intelligence, and real-time data sharing as essential tools for developing diagnostics, therapeutics, and vaccines.
Strengthening healthcare infrastructure particularly in low- and middle-income countries.
Global Collaboration: Frameworks like the Nagoya Protocol (which ensure equitable sharing of benefits from genetic resources) could be expanded to include biological materials like pathogens. It would promote global collaboration, ensuring fair access to research and medical countermeasures during outbreaks.

Conclusion: While epidemiology cannot predict the exact moment or source of Disease X, it can help identify high-risk regions and behaviours. Governments must work together to share data, pool resources, and ensure equitable access to diagnostics, treatments, and vaccines.

About Zakir Hussain

About Hindustani Classical Music

Main styles of singing in Hindustani Music:

Advantages of Contesting Multiple Constituencies (OCMC):

Challenges Involved:

Benefits of Carbon Market:

Issues in Carbon Market System:

Polavaram Dam Project:

Purpose:

Background:

Objection raised by Odisha:

Steps taken by Ministry of Jal Shakti

Present status:

Present Status of Inland Waterways:

Benefits of Inland Waterways:

Constraints and Strategies:

Details about Jalvahak Scheme:

Design of the scheme:

Is the incentive applicable for all the Inland waterways?

Black Holes

Types of Black Holes:

Are Black Holes Observable?

Common Terms related to Black Holes:

1. Supernova:

2. Singularity:

3. Event Horizon (a point of no return):

4. Ergosphere:

5. Accretion Disc:

6. Spaghettification:

Overview of U.S.-India Ties:

Key Factors Strengthening Ties:

U.S.-India Relations under Trump:

Challenges and Way Forward:

Bottom Trawling Method

Ecological Impacts of Bottom Trawling:

India - Sri Lanka:

Importance of timely elections in ULGs:

Constitutional Provisions regarding elections to ULGs:

Issues associated with ULGs:

Way Forward:

What is the China Plus One Strategy?

Why is India lagging behind Competitors?

Way Forward:

What is Influenza?

Types of Influenza Viruses:

Way Forward:

Disease X?

Risk Factors for Disease X:

Way Forward:

Trending now