The Hindu

Nalanda University

Context: The Nalanda University was established under the Nalanda University Act 2010, by the Ministry of External Affairs. The new campus of Nalanda University was inaugurated in 2024 and is located close to the ruins of the ancient university in Bihar’s Rajgir town. The University now has over 1200 students.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Nalanda University.

About Nalanda Mahavihara: 

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Introduction:

  • Nalanda Mahavihara, the 5th-12th Century AD (in ancient and medieval Magadha) university is considered to be one of the greatest centres of learning in ancient India.
  • The ruins of ancient Nalanda University in Bihar was declared as the World Cultural Heritage by UNESCO in 2016.
  • The details of the university can be found in the writings of the famous Chinese traveller Huang Tsang. According to him, there were 10,000 monks and 2000 teachers at Nalanda at that time.
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Foundation of the Mahavihara: 

  • Nalanda was established during the Gupta Empire period (3rd–6th century CE), and was supported by numerous Indian and Javanese patrons, both Buddhists and non-Buddhists.
  • The numismatic evidence discovered at Nalanda suggests that Kumaragupta I was the founder patron of Nalanda. 
  • Kumaragupta’s successors, Budhagupta, Tathagatagupta, Baladitya, and Vajra, later extended and expanded the institution by building additional monasteries and temples. Nalanda, thus flourished through the 5th and 6th centuries under the Guptas.
  • It was also patronized by King Harshavardhana of Kannauj (7th century CE) and the Pala rulers (8th-12th century CE). 
  • After the fall of the Palas, the monks of Nalanda were patronised by the Pithipatis of Bodh Gaya.

Curriculum and associated scholars: 

  • The curriculum at Nalanda was a skill full of secular and religious knowledge, of the theoretical and the practical.
  • Curriculum of Nalanda included major Buddhist philosophies like Mahayana, Madhyamaka, Yogachara, Sarvastivada, Hinayana, Samkhya
  • The curriculum also included other subjects like the Vedas, Sanskrit grammar, medicine, logic, mathematics, astronomy, arts, medicine and even metal casting technique. 
  • The mahavihara had a renowned library that was a key source for the Sanskrit texts that were transmitted to East Asia by pilgrims like Huang Tsang. 
  • Many texts composed at Nalanda played an important role in the development of Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism.
    • Examples: Works of Dharmakirti, the Bodhisattvacharyavatara of Shantideva and the Mahavairocana Tantra. 
  • One of the things that set Nalanda apart from other schools of the time was that it took international students from countries like Korea, Japan, China, Tibet and other parts of Asia.
  • Part of Nalanda’s mission was to bring Buddhism to the world. 
    • Nalanda was famed for its learned professors, or Upajjhaya (Upadhaya). 
  • Famous scholars associated with the Mahavihara: Nagarjuna, Aryadeva, Vasubandhu, and Asanga. 
  • In the 1190s, the university was destroyed by a marauding troop of invaders led by Turko-Afghan military general Bakhtiyar Khilji, who sought to extinguish the Buddhist centre of knowledge during his conquest of northern and eastern India. 

Daojali Hading: Neolithic Site in Assam yields evidence of Early Metallurgy

Context: Recently, a Neolithic habitation site with evidence of early metallurgy has been unearthed in Assam.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Neolithic site Daojali Hading.

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Daojali Hading: Neolithic Site in Assam

  • Archaeological findings at Daojali Hading have confirmed it as a major Neolithic site dating back over 2700 years. 
  • Location: It is situated in the Langting-Mupa Reserve Forest, Dima Hasao district, Assam. 
  • The site was uncovered during the construction of the Lumding-Haflong Road in the 1960s, leading to systematic excavations. These investigations have revealed polished double shouldered celts, cordmarked pottery, mortars and pestles, besides jadeite stone. 
  • The discovery of a furnace and iron slag indicate metallurgical activities. This has provided substantial support for earlier hypotheses that Daojali Hading was a major prehistoric settlement in the northeastern part of India.
  • The unearthed artefacts linked the site with the broader Eastern and Southeastern Asian Neolithic cultural complex. 

Read More: Neolithic Age

 

Growth in India’s Telecom and Internet Sector 

Context: In the India Mobile Congress (IMC) 2025, the Minister of Communications announced that India is the second largest telecom market in the world and will have 1 billion internet users by the end of FY26.

Relevance of the Topic:Prelims: India’s Telecom & Internet sector- Key Trends and Govt. Initiatives. 

Growth in India’s Telecom and Internet Sector: 

In the last decade-

  • India became the second largest telecom market in the world. India’s mobile market witnessed a growth from roughly 1 billion to 1.2 billion customers. 
  • The Internet market has grown from around 250 million to 974 million subscribers. 
  • The broadband market, with speeds greater than 2 Megabits per second (Mbps), has grown from 66 million (2014) to 940 million in 2025. India is expected to hit one billion Internet users in 2026.
  • Rise in Affordability: Call prices are down from 50 paise per minute to 0.003 paise per minute; data from 1 GB at ₹287 to ₹9 per GB. India is the cheapest data market in the world; the global average is $2.49 per GB.
  • Growth in manufacturing: From importing 80% of mobile phone requirements to exporting ₹1.75 lakh crore worth of mobile phones.
  • Patents of 6G: India ranks among the top six countries globally in terms of 6G patent filings. Bharat 6G Alliance is working to contribute a minimum 10% of 6G patents to the world. 
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Government Policies that contributed to the growth: 

  • Universal Service Obligation Fund (Digital Bharat Nidhi): USOF is funded by a 5% Universal Service Levy on telecom operators' Adjusted Gross Revenue to finance telecom expansion in rural areas. Digital Bharat Nidhi aims to ensure transparent management and targeted deployment of the funds.
  • BharatNet: Ambitious project aimed at providing affordable high-speed broadband connectivity to all Gram Panchayats (GPs) in India. It is the largest public sector investment in connectivity to the grassroots level costing over $16.9 billion.
    • In the first phase, almost 7 lakh kilometres of fibre optic cables were laid and 2.14 lakh gram panchayats were connected. 
    • The ongoing BharatNet II project aims to connect the remaining gram panchayats.
  • Advanced technology inBharatNet II:
    • Use of Multiprotocol Label Switching (MPLS) routers instead of Gigabit Passive Optical Network (GPON) routers for higher redundancy levels. 
    • Ring topography instead of linear topography to prevent incidents of single breakage disrupting all the downstream gram panchayats.
    • Central network operating centre to monitor and maintain the network throughout the country. 
    • Provide an Internet leased line with a minimum speed of 25 Mbps to every subscriber.
  • PM-WANI (WiFi Access Network Interface): To proliferate broadband access through public Wi-Fi networks and create a robust digital communications infrastructure in India, especially in rural areas.
  • Bharat 6G Alliance: Launched in 2023 by DoT, it is a collaborative platform that brings together the government, industry, and academia to develop 6G technology in India. It is working to contribute a minimum 10% of 6G patents to the world, development of at least one new radio technology originating from India, and creation of at least 10 standard essential patents (SEPs).
  • PLI Scheme for Smartphones: India has become a key player in global smartphone exports. Handsets are now the second highest exported products from India. As a result, India has come a long way from importing 80% of mobile phones to exporting ₹1.75 lakh crore worth of mobile phones (~$20 billion).

Also Read: India ranks among top six nations globally in 6G patent filings 

India needs to increase investment in research and development (R&D) to become the creators and innovators of global products in the telecom space.

SC recent judgment and deviation from POCSO Act  

Context: Recently, the Supreme Court of India declined to impose a sentence on a man convicted under the Protection of Children from Sexual Offences Act, 2012 (POCSO Act), noting that the victim did not view the incident as a crime. 

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts related to POCSO Act. 

Protection of Children from Sexual Offences (POCSO) Act:  

  • The POCSO Act, enacted in 2012, aims to protect children (anyone under 18 years) from sexual abuse and exploitation. 
  • It criminalises both penetrative and non-penetrative sexual assault, sexual harassment, and child pornography. 
  • It is a gender-neutral law, protecting both boys and girls.
  • POCSO deems all minors under 18 incapable of ‘consent’, and any sexual activity with a person under 18 is automatically considered abuse, even if the child agrees.
  • The Act mandates child-friendly procedures like special courts, in-camera trials, and video-recorded testimonies.
  • With strict penalties, a presumption of guilt on the accused, and time-bound trials, the Act aims to fill critical legislative voids and deliver swift, victim-centric justice.

Controversial ruling by the Calcutta High Court

  • Earlier, the Calcutta High Court overturned the conviction of a man under the POCSO Act, claiming his relationship with a 13-year-old girl seemed consensual. The HC further recommended legislative amendments to exclude consensual relationships from POCSO’s ambit. 
  • The judgment attributed ‘adolescent sexuality’ to climate change, food habits, early puberty, and a “taboo-free atmosphere” influenced by social media and pornography.
  • This ruling was controversial because POCSO clearly states that minors cannot legally consent.

How has SC deviated from POCSO in a recent judgment?

  • The SC in a suo motu proceeding set aside the Kolkata HC’s ruling, reaffirming that POCSO does not recognise ‘consensual sex’ with minors and its objective must not be diluted. 
  • However, exercising Article 142 (extraordinary jurisdiction), the SC withheld sentencing of the convict and directed the West Bengal government to ensure the welfare and rehabilitation of the victim and her child. 

Article 142: 

  • Article 142 empowers the Supreme Court to ‘pass any decree or make any order as is necessary for doing complete justice in any cause or matter pending before it’.
  • However, the term ‘complete justice’ is not defined.
  • This power is exclusive to the Supreme Court, not available to High Courts or lower courts.
  • It is a special and extraordinary jurisdiction used only in exceptional cases where strict adherence to existing laws may lead to injustice.
  • Orders passed under Article 142 are final and binding on all authorities and courts across India.
  • The SC withheld sentencing not to dilute the POCSO law, but because the victim's situation was highly complex and humanitarian concerns were involved. The apex Court emphasised that the unusual deviation from the child protection law in this case must not set a precedent.

However, any such exception risks weakening the core intent of the POCSO Act to protect minors from sexual exploitation. Opening the door to exceptions could lead to widespread misuse, with perpetrators hiding behind the guise of ‘family protection’ to exploit vulnerable girls.

This judgment reopens the debate to reconsider the POSCO Act to non-criminalise consensual romantic relationships between adolescents. 

Also Read: POCSO Act and Criminalisation of adolescent sex 

Govt. meets 4.8% Fiscal Deficit target for 2024-25

Context: The central government managed to meet the fiscal deficit target of 4.8% of the GDP for 2024-25, according to the provisional data released by the Controller General of Accounts.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Fiscal Deficit- Concept and Key Trends. 

What is Fiscal Deficit?

  • Fiscal deficit is the difference between the government's total expenditure and its total receipts excluding borrowing. 
  • Fiscal deficit arises due to either increase in expenditure or shortfall in revenues. 
  • Fiscal deficit can be financed through:
    • issuing new currency or printing money
    • borrowing from the central bank (RBI) 
    • borrowing from domestic markets (via instruments like treasury bills and bonds). 
    • borrowing from foreign sources. 

Govt meets 4.8% Fiscal Deficit target for 2024-25

  • Fiscal Deficit target (FY 2024-25): Budget 2024-25 had a fiscal deficit target at 4.4% of GDP. The revised estimates (RE) had a fiscal deficit target at 4.8% of GDP.
  • The central government managed to meet the fiscal deficit target of 4.8% of the GDP. The fiscal deficit stood at Rs 15.77 lakh crore, or 100.5% of the revised annual target. The target was met due to:
    • High dividend from RBI (Rs 2.11 lakh crore in FY24)
    • Robust direct tax collection (witnessed a robust growth of ~15.6% )
    • Controlled revenue deficit 
    • Expenditure management in subsidies and capital expenditure. 

Also Read: Fiscal Deficit

25 Years of India-Germany Strategic Partnership

Context: India and Germany celebrate 25 years of strategic partnership rooted in peace, prosperity, people-to-people ties, and sustainable development.

Relevance of the Topic:  Mains: India-Germany Strategic Partnership.  

With the recent articulation of Germany’s- Focus on India strategy, new German Coalition Treaty, and reaffirmation through high-level political engagements, the partnership is poised to deepen further.

As the 3rd and 4th largest economies in the world respectively, Germany and India share robust economic and developmental partnership, essentially standing on four pillars- peace, prosperity, people and the future of our planet.

India-Germany Bilateral Relations: 

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Multilateral Cooperation: 

  • Both countries exchange views in multilateral fora including G20 and in the UN on global issues such as Climate Change and Sustainable Development. 
  • Germany and India support each other on UNSC expansion within the framework of the G4. 
  • Germany is also a part of International Solar Alliance (ISA) and Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure (CDRI).

Bilateral exchanges: Since 2000, India and Germany have had a 'Strategic Partnership' which has been further strengthened with the launch of Intergovernmental Consultations (IGC) in 2011 at the level of Heads of Government. 

Economic Partnership: 

  • Germany is India’s largest trading partner in the EU, with bilateral trade crossing $25 billion (2022-23), showing strong economic interdependence. 
  • Collaboration on Infrastructure projects like- Projects like the Delhi-Meerut RRTS, operated by Deutsche Bahn (German National Rail Company). Around 2,000 German companies are active in India, and they create more than 750,000 jobs for Indians.
  • In 2022, Under Indo-German Green and Sustainable Development Partnership (GSDP), Germany committed €10 billion in preferential loans and grants for India, over a span of 10 years. 
  • India-EU Free Trade Agreement could further amplify the economic integration between two major global economies.

Energy Partnership: German technology and investment are supporting large-scale solar and wind energy projects, particularly in states like Gujarat. German private companies are contributing to India’s green infrastructure. E.g., producing rotor blades for wind turbines deployed in India.

Emerging technologies: Joint research in areas such as green hydrogen, AI, biotechnology, and climate tech. Cooperation in the renewable energy sector, biodiversity and smart city projects.

Defence cooperation: Bilateral Defence Cooperation Agreement provides the framework for bilateral defence ties. Joint military exercises like Tarang Shakti Exercise (2024). Mutual Legal Assistance Treaty between India and Germany ensures greater synergy in countering terror by sharing intelligence and coordinating joint operations. 

People-to-People Ties: Over 50,000 Indian students study Germany, the largest group of foreign students in German universities.

Enhanced cooperation in the Indo-Pacific, green technologies, and skilled workforce mobility, alongside progress on the India-EU Free Trade Agreement will be critical to advancing the full strategic potential of this bilateral partnership.  

World likely to breach 1.5°C limit in next five years: WMO

Context: A recent report by the World Meteorological Organisation (WMO) has sounded an alarm on climate change, warning that there is a 70% chance of global temperatures exceeding the 1.5°Celsius threshold above pre-industrial levels between 2025 and 2029.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key trends related to climate change; Paris Climate deal; India’s climate commitments. 

Major Highlights of forecasts by WMO

  • Global mean near-surface temperature for each year between 2025 and 2029 will be between 1.2°C and 1.9°C above the pre-industrial average. There is a 70% chance that average warming will exceed 1.5°C, if the current warming trend continues.
    • In 2024, WMO estimated that the average global temperature was between 1.34°C and 1.41°C higher than pre-industrial levels (1850-1900).
    • WMO now projects the 20-year average warming for 2015-2034 to reach around 1.44°C above pre-industrial levels.
  • Average Arctic temperature over the next five winters (2025-2029) is expected to be 2.4°C warmer than the 1991-2020 average. Sea ice is expected to keep shrinking, particularly in the Barents, Bering, and Okhotsk Sea. This will contribute to rising sea levels and disrupted weather patterns worldwide.

About Paris Climate Agreement

  • Adopted in 2015 by 196 Parties during the 21st Conference of Parties (COP21) to the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) at Paris, France.
  • Aim: To limit global warming to well below 2°C, preferably 1.5°C, above pre-industrial levels.
  • Key Features of the Climate deal: 
    • Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs): Each country sets its own emission reduction targets, with updates every five years to enhance ambition.
    • Global Stocktake: A periodic review of the progress on climate action at global level (not the national level) and identify overall gaps, conducted every five years.
    • Climate Finance: Developed countries pledged to mobilise $100 billion annually by 2020 to support climate action in developing nations, with plans for scaling this amount post-2025.
    • Adaptation and Resilience: Focuses on helping countries adapt to climate impacts and build resilience against future challenges.
  • Significance: First universal, legally binding, global climate deal. It emphasises global cooperation, fairness, and a commitment to sustainable development while recognising the individual capacities of nations.
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India’s Panchamrit (nectar elements) of climate action: 

The Government of India at the COP26 to the UNFCCC held in Glasgow, United Kingdom 2021 made the following commitments. The five elements of India’s climate action:

i. Reach 500 GW Non-fossil energy capacity by 2030.

ii. Meet 50% of the total energy requirement from renewable energy by 2030.

iii. Reduction of total projected carbon emissions by one billion tons from now to 2030.

iv. Reduction of the carbon intensity of the economy by 45% by 2030, compared to 2005 levels.

v. Achieve the target of net zero emissions by 2070.

Concerns: 180 of the 195 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) countries are yet to submit their next round of nationally determined contributions (NDCs) or climate plans for 2031-35 before the 30th Conference of the Parties (COP30). Climate plans are crucial to limit global temperature rise to 1.5°C.

A growing number of climate scientists now hold the 1.5-degree target to be impossible to achieve due to the increasing levels of CO2 emissions.

Bridging gaps in Foundational Literacy and Numeracy 

Context: Quality Early Childhood Care and Education is the necessary propellant for the cognitive development of children. Various governmental and non-governmental surveys indicate that a large proportion of elementary students in India are lacking basic foundational literacy and numeracy skills.

Relevance of the Topic: Mains: Foundational Literacy and Numeracy: Concept & Challenges in Achievement. 

Education is the most potent tool for socio-economic mobility and a key instrument for building an equitable and just society. India is a party to UN Sustainable Development Goals, whose SDG4 aims to deliver quality education for all.

Foundational Literacy and Numeracy

  • Foundational Literacy and Numeracy (FLN) refers to basic skills in reading, writing, and mathematics. It is the ability to read and understand a basic text and perform simple mathematical calculations by the end of grade 3. 
  • Significance: Strong literacy and numeracy help children to learn, experiment, reason and create, to be active and informed citizens, and to contribute socially, culturally and economically. National Education Policy (2020) accords the highest importance to the achievement of Foundational Literacy and Numeracy.
  • India Early Childhood Education (ECE) Impact Study found that:
    • Only 15% of pre-primary children could match basic objects, a skill essential for letter recognition in Class one. 
    • Only 30% could identify larger and smaller numbers, which are foundational for arithmetic. 

As a result, children often start formal schooling without the skills they need, with many bypassing essential ECE years entirely.

Challenges in the achievement of Foundational Literacy and Numeracy:

  • Lack of Early childcare and education: Over 85% of a child’s cumulative brain development occurs prior to the age of 6. Presently, quality ECCE is not available to crores of young children, particularly children from socio-economically disadvantaged backgrounds. Only 9% of pre-primary schools have a dedicated ECCE teacher.
  • Poor status of Anganwadis: The Anganwadi workers are overworked, with duties and responsibilities that centre around her being a teacher, a nurse and a social service provider. AWW is not equipped with the necessary tools to be able to engage children in learning experiences. AWW spends only 38 minutes per day on preschool instruction, which is far short of the scheduled 2 hours.
  • Nutritional deficiencies among children: The relationship between nutrition, health and learning is undeniably strong. As per GHI 2024, India has the highest child-wasting rate (18.7%) of all the countries, with a child stunting rate of 35.5%. This malnutrition adversely affects children’s cognitive development.  
  • Inadequate budget: National Education Policy of 1968 recommended India should spend 6% of its GDP on education. However, as per the Economic Survey (2024-25), India spends just 2.7% of its GDP on education. The government spends only ₹1,263 a child annually on ECE compared to ₹37,000 a student on school education, largely on producing teaching-learning materials that are often underused. 
  • Inadequate infrastructure: Though RTE Act (2009) mandated basic infrastructure in schools like toilets, safe drinking water, playground etc., the 2023-24 UDISE+ data shows that infrastructural deficit still persists, particularly in government schools. 
  • Low pupil-to-teacher ratio: As per the Right to Education Act 2009, the desired Teacher Pupil ratio (TPR) in primary schools is 1:30 in primary and 1:35 in upper primary levels. But, TPR varies in India across different states and regions, indicating uneven distribution of teaching resources. As per the UDISE data, the proportion of single-teacher schools in India is as high as 14.7%. 
  • Poor pedagogic skills: The medium of instruction is often different from the mother tongue of children. It negatively impacts the child’s motivation to engage in classroom processes.

Way Forward

  • Increase budget allocation, with focused investment in Foundational Literacy and Numeracy.
  • Provision of Primary education in the Mother tongue.
  • Alignment of synergies between the Ministry of Women and Child Development and Ministry of Education.
  • Since nutrition and education are both equally important and require significant time and effort, it may be worthwhile to consider having two Anganwadi workers per Anganwadi.
  • Ensure minimum instruction time in schools and learning at home. The Right to Education Act (2009) requires that children from grades I-V spend 200 days involving 800 instruction hours in school. Currently, different states are seen allocating different amounts of time for literacy instruction, which ranges from 35 min in some states to about 90 minutes in some others. There needs to be a standard block of time across all the states.

National Education Policy 2020 stipulates that Foundational Literacy and Numeracy (FLN) is critical for education and lifelong learning success. In this direction, the government has launched the NIPUN Bharat Mission (National Initiative for Proficiency in Reading with Understanding and Numeracy) to ensure that every child in the country necessarily attains FLN by the end of Grade 3, by 2026-27.  

Also Read: School education 

Ahilya Bai Holkar

Context: May 31st marks the birth anniversary of the 18th century Maratha queen Ahilya Bai Holkar who was a great administrator and visionary. In all her dealings with her subjects, Ahilya Bai was guided by her innate generosity and principles. 

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Ahilya Bai Holkar.

About Ahilyabai Holkar

Ahilyabai Holkar
  • Born in 1725, she was the Rani of Indore (Holkar dynasty) within the Maratha Confederacy.
  • She established Maheshwar (in Madhya Pradesh) as the seat of the Holkar Dynasty, south of Indore on the Narmada River. 
  • After the demise of her husband (Khande Rao) she was trained in military affairs by Malhar Rao Holkar.
  • She came to power after the passing of her father-in-law Malhar Rao Holkar.

Contributions in Culture:

  • Ahilyabai funded the reconstruction of the Kashi Vishwanath Temple in Varanasi (1780) which had been destroyed in the past and subsequently converted into a mosque by Aurangzeb in 1669.
  • The current structure of Vishnupad Temple, Gaya, Bihar was built by Maharani Ahilya Bai Holkar in 1787.
  • Ahilya Bai resurrected the jyotirlingas across the country. Renovations in Somnath, Varanasi, Trambak, Gaya, Pushkar, Vrindavan, Nathdwara, Haridwar, Badrinath, Kedarnath and many other sacred sites were undertaken during her reign.
  • The Maheshwari Sari are also part of the queen’s legacy. She not only promoted the traditional weave but also paved the way for skilling women, thus empowering them. The production of these saris was not only a way to increase the revenue collection of the state, but provided a steady source of income to the weavers. Under her encouragement, the production of Maheswari saris gained momentum and popularity.

About Holkars of Maratha Confederacy:

  • The Holkars were Subedar (one of the designations of a governor of a Subah/province) under Peshwa Baji Rao I (Pune seat).
  • When the Maratha Empire began to weaken due to internal clashes, the Holkars declared themselves the rulers of Indore in Central India, existing as an autonomous member of the Maratha Empire until 1818. After this they were under the protectorate of the British Empire.
  • The dynasty was founded with Malhar Rao, who joined the service of the Peshwas of the Maratha Empire in 1721, and quickly rose to the rank of Subedar.
  • In the 1720s, he led Maratha armies in Malwa region, and in 1733 was granted 9 parganas in the vicinity of Indore by the Peshwa.
  • By the time of his death, he ruled much of Malwa, and was acknowledged as one of the five virtually independent rulers of the Maratha Confederacy.
  • He was succeeded by Ahilyabai Holkar (his daughter-in-law). 

Conservation of Dugong 

Context: Dugongs once widespread along India’s coastline are now regionally endangered, with fewer than 200 individuals left.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts related to Dugong.

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About Dugong

  • Herbivorous mammal found in India’s marine ecosystems. Also known as sea cow, it resembles a cross between a seal and a whale.
  • Distributed through the Indo-Pacific region. It is found along the Indian coastline, primarily inhabiting warm waters around the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, the Gulf of Mannar, Palk Bay, and the Gulf of Kutch. 
  • Inhabits shallow coastal waters- primarily feeds on seagrass. 
  • Key characteristics: 
    • Dugong is able to live up to 70 years. 
    • They rapidly regrow teeth in multiple iterations throughout their lives. 
    • They are typically solitary or seen in small mother-calf pairs. They are shy and avoid interacting with humans. 
    • They are air-breathing mammals that must surface regularly. 
    • They reach reproductive maturity after nine or ten years, and give birth at intervals of three to five years.
  • Conservation status: 
    • IUCN status: Vulnerable
    • CITES: Appendix I
    • Wildlife Protection Act 1972: Schedule I 
  • In India, they are classified as regionally endangered. Once widespread in Indian waters, their numbers have dwindled to an estimated 200 individuals, with both their population size and geographic range continuing to decline.

Factors responsible for declining population of Dugong: 

  • Habitat Degradation: Seagrass meadows are being lost at an alarming rate due to climate change, rising sea temperatures, ocean acidification, and extreme weather events like cyclones.
  • Marine Pollution: Pollution has led to accumulation of mercury and organochlorine compounds in their muscle tissues.
  • Changing fishing methods: Bottom trawling damages seagrass beds, accidental entanglement in fishing gear.
  • Illegal Hunting: Poaching, especially in the remote areas of Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

Government Efforts

  • India is a party to the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals.
  • India is a signatory to the Convention’s Memorandum of Understanding on Dugong Conservation and Habitat Management across their range since 2008.
  • Govt. has announced the creation of the country’s first dugong conservation reserve. It spans 448.3 sq. km in the coastal waters of Palk Bay, Tamil Nadu.

Dugongs are gentle giants and act as gardeners of the sea, quietly shaping our oceans by nurturing seagrass meadows. 

About Sea Grass

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  • Seagrass is an underwater flowering plant, not to be confused with seaweed. It is classified as a wetland ecosystem.
  • Significance: Seagrass meadows stabilise the seafloor, support fisheries, capture carbon, and shelter marine life such as turtles and fish.
  • The National Centre for Sustainable Coastal Management documented 516.59 sq. km of seagrass habitat in India (2022). This translates to a carbon dioxide sequestration potential of up to 434.9 tonnes per sq. km each year. 
  • India’s most extensive seagrass meadows occur along- Gulf of Mannar and Palk Bay, off the coast of Tamil Nadu. It together supports more than 13 species of seagrass, the highest diversity in the Indian Ocean.

Why Covid cases are rising?

Context: The number of COVID-19 cases in India has been steadily increasing with Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, and Kerala accounting for the majority of new infections. A new virus subvariant- NB.1.8.1 was found in a sample and sent to India's genome sequencing consortium. 

Relevance of the Topic:Prelims: Key facts about SARS-CoV-2 Virus. 

SARS-CoV-2 Virus

Coronavirus (COVID-19) is a highly contagious viral illness caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). 

  • SARS-CoV-2 is a novel beta coronavirus belonging to the same subgenus as the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV) and the Middle East Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus (MERS-CoV). 
  • Coronaviruses are positive-stranded RNA viruses with a crown-like appearance due to the presence of spike glycoproteins on the envelope. 
  • Like other RNA viruses, SARS-CoV-2 is prone to genetic evolution/mutation over time. This results in mutant variants that may have different characteristics than its ancestral strains.
  • Origin: widely postulated to have originated from an animal, implicating zoonotic transmission. 
  • Transmission: Exposure to respiratory droplets carrying the infectious virus from close contact or droplet transmission from presymptomatic, asymptomatic, or symptomatic individuals.  
  • Vaccines: mRNA vaccines (Pfizer); viral vector vaccines (Covishield; Sputnik V); inactivated viral vaccines (Covaxin); DNA vaccines (ZyCov-D); protein subunit vaccines (Novavax). 

SARS-CoV-2 has not disappeared. It has become part of a recurring cycle of illnesses, similar to the flu. Periodic waves of Covid-19, like other endemic respiratory diseases, are expected throughout the year. 

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Several factors could be contributing to the rise in cases:

  • Waning immunity: Protection from vaccination or past infection decreases with time, leaving individuals more vulnerable to reinfection.
  • New variants: Like other viruses, SARS-CoV-2 continues to mutate. Some of these new variants may spread more easily or evade immunity to a greater extent.
  • Seasonal patterns: Respiratory viruses often spread more efficiently in colder or more humid periods. 
  • Not enough testing: Covid-19 is now considered endemic, and testing and genome sequencing efforts have been scaled back, delaying the identification of outbreaks.
  • High-risk groups: Individuals with weakened immune systems or severe comorbidites remain especially vulnerable.

India's first gene-edited Sheep 

Context: A university in Kashmir (SKUAST-Kashmir) has created India’s first gene-edited sheep. It is the nation’s first success in editing the genes of livestock and a major milestone in India’s push for innovation in animal biotechnology. 

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key concepts- gene editing, gene modification & their applications. 

Gene-edited Sheep:  

  • The lamb’s DNA was carefully altered using CRISPR-Cas9 technology. A particular gene- myostatin gene (natural brake on muscle growth) in Indian sheep was edited. 
  • By altering this gene, researchers were able to increase muscle mass by 30%. Such a feature exists naturally only in some European breeds like the Texel, not in Indian sheep.
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How is Gene Editing different?

Gene editing is distinct from crossbreeding and gene modification. 

  • Gene editing involves using technologies like CRISPR-Cas9 which enable the addition, removal, or alteration of genetic material at specific locations within an organism’s genome. Unlike genetic modification no foreign DNA is introduced. It offers faster and safer results and aligns with India's current biotech regulations. 
  • Crossbreeding is the traditional breeding of two different breeds from the same species to create a new breed. Generally, breeds chosen have complementary traits that will enhance the offsprings’ economic value. However crossbreeding is a slow process, with viable traits visible after a few generations. 
  • Gene modification (transgenic animals) involves inserting news from one species into the other to create a transgenic organism. 

Significance: 

The progress is a turning point in livestock genetics. Gene editing allows precise changes without foreign genes which makes it more acceptable for regulators and consumers alike. This can have applications in: 

  • Production of gene-edited species (increased muscle mass) for meat consumption.
  • Increasing output in cattle (E.g., Milk, wool etc.)
  • Elimination of disease causing genes in cattle (disease-resistant animals).