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Notaries and Issues with their functioning

Context: Department Related Parliamentary Standing Committee on Personnel, Public Grievances, Law & Justice recently released a report on the 'Functioning of Notaries'.

About Notaries

  • Notary (also called Public Notary) is a public official whose chief function is to authenticate contracts, deeds and other documents by an appropriate certificate with a notarial seal.
  • The profession of notaries in India is presently regulated by the Notaries Act, 1952 (Passed by Parliament) and Notaries Rules, 1956.
  • Notaries Act is a Central Legislation but the subject 'Legal Profession' falls in the Concurrent List of the VIIth Schedule of the Constitution of India. Hence, both Central and State Governments are administratively competent to appoint notaries.
  • Appointment of Notaries: Under the Notaries Act, both the Central & State Governments have been vested with powers to appoint any legal practitioners or persons who possessing prescribed qualifications as notaries. Central Government can appoint notaries for the whole or any part of India while State Governments can appoint notaries for the whole or any part of the State. Currently, an interview based system is followed by Central/State Governments to appoint Notaries.
  • Period of Practice: According to Notaries Act, Notaries are entitled to practice for 5 years, which may be renewed for 5 years. Thus, before the end every 5 year period, Notaries need to renew their certificate of practice as Notaries from their appointing authorities.
  • Maximum number of notaries to be appointed by Central and State governments is specified in the Notaries Rules, 1956.
  • Eligibility criteria for appointment as a Notary: Notary Rules, 1956 prescribes eligibility criteria for appointment as a Notary. They qualifications are as follows:
    • At least 10 years of practice as an Advocate, or
    • At least 7 years of practices as an Advocate for a person belonging to SC/ST/OBC/Woman, or,
    • A person who had been a member of the Indian Legal Service under the Central Government, or,
    • A person who had been at least for 10 years

(i) a member of Judicial Service, or

(ii) Held an office under the Central/State Government requiring special knowledge of law after enrollment as an advocate, or

(iii) Held an office in the department of Judge Advocate General (JAG) or the legal department of Armed Forces.

  • Duties of Notaries: According to Notaries Act, following functions are performed by Notaries.
    • Verify, authenticate, certify or attest the execution of any instrument.
    • Present any promissory note, hundi or bill of exchange for acceptance or payment or demand better security.
    • Administer the oath to or take affidavit from any person.
    • Translate or verify the translation of any document from language to another.
    • Act as a Commissioner to record evidence in any civil or criminal trial if so directed by any court or authority.
    • Act as an arbitrator, mediator or conciliator, if so required.

Of the above functions, the bulk of work performed by notaries is related to verifying or authenticating the execution of an instrument and administering oaths or taking affidavits from any person.

  • Fees to be charged by Notaries: Currently, fees to be charged by Notaries for Notarial act is prescribed by the Notaries Rules, 1956.

Issues with Profession of Notaries:

  • Degradation of profession of notaries: Notaries have been known to issue false certificates leading to fraud and other legal issues. Notaries have been known to operate from public vehicles and taxis, thus lowering the dignity of Notarial profession, this happens as there is no designated spaces for notaries to sit.
  • Low fees prescribed for Notaries: Currently, Notaries Rules, 1956 prescribes the fees to be charged by Notaries which is very meagre. This fees was last updated in 2014. Notaries do not receive any remuneration or pay from the government.
  • Lack of transparency in appointment of Notaries: Present interview appointment system for notaries lacks transparency and objectivity and is ritualistic. There is no objective criterion for holding interviews for the selection of notaries. There have been allegations of corruption and misuse of transparency in the process.
  • Low sanctioned strength of Notaries: Notaries Rules, 1956 prescribes the maximum number of notaries to be appointed by Central/State Governments and enhancement of this quota in line with population. However, the number of notaries is limited and unevenly distributed across the country, leading to difficulty is accessing notarial services, especially in rural and remote areas.
  • Issues with qualifications of notaries: Current requirement of 10 years of practice as advocate for practice as eligibility for appointment as notary is very high. Also, there have been many instances where applicants having no experience of practicing in courts to be appointed as notary based on their years of enrolment as advocates.
  • Issues in renewal of certificate of practice of Notaries: There are huge delays in the disposal of applications for renewals of certificates of practice. This leads to many Notaries sitting out of work leading to loss of their practice, income and reputation. There are also allegations of corruption and misuse of discretion in the renewal process.
  • Lack of training of Notaries: Notaries in India are not adequately trained and supervised and there is no mechanism for ensuring their accountability and quality of service.
  • Issues in notarising of documents: Notarial work is largely paper based and manual which increases the risk of fraud, forgery and tampering of documents. There is a lack of digitisation, standardisation and verification of notarial records and certificates.

Suggestions for Notaries

  • Raising of fees charged by Notaries: There is a need to appropriately raise the fees charged by notaries which indexed to inflation. This will allow notaries to have a decent standard of living. This fees should be revised at regular intervals, every 5 years.
  • Appointment of Notaries: The interview based appointment of notaries should be done away with and instead appointment of notaries should be based on an objective type written examination along the lines of All India Bar Examination (AIBE) conducted by Bar Council of India.
  • Sanctioned Strength of Notaries: Sanctioned strength of notaries in a state should be determined based on a set of objective criteria like population, volume of litigation, economic and commercial activities in the state etc. and this should be reviewed regularly.
  • Qualification of Appointment of Notaries: Eligibility for appointment as notaries should be reduced to 5 years from the current 10 years. This will attract young aspirant lawyers to this profession.
  • Renewal of certificate of practice of Notaries: Renewal of certificate of practice of Notaries is done to know about the antecedents of the Notaries and to ensure that the applicant is alive and ensure that nobody else is practicing in their place. To ensure smooth practice of Notaries, the committee has recommended that renewal of certificate of practice every five years should be done away with. After their appointment, notaries should be allowed to practice till a particular age prescribed by the Government.
  • Diversity in notaries' profession: Ideally, notaries profession should reflect the diversity of the state which will enrich the notarial profession and the legal system. Thus, adequate representation should be given to SCs, STs, OBCs, Women, Physically Challenged, Minorities etc.
  • Training of Notaries: Notaries should be provided with regular trainings and guidance and their performance and conduct should be monitored and evaluated by an appropriate government/authority. Some ethical and professional standards should be laid out by such government/authority to which notaries should adhere to. Also, complaints or grievances against Notaries should be promptly addressed and resolved.
  • Use of technology in appointment and notarial work: Government should make the Notary Portal of Department of Legal Affairs into a one-stop place for advertising vacancies of notaries, making applications, submitting fees, publishing results and downloading e-certificates of practice. Annual returns under Notaries Rules, 1956 should also be filled through this portal. Also, general public should be provided with state-wise list of public notaries, updated on a real-time basis, for verifying credentials of notaries. Services of this portal can be extended to States/UT also. Notaries should be equipped to handle electronic transactions, digital documents and online notarisation.
  • Designated areas for sitting of notaries: Government should ensure designated areas for sitting of notaries in every court complex from where they can do their notarial work in a dignified manner.
  • Change of notarial years for annual returns: The Notarial year should be changed from calendar year to financial year as this will help the notaries to synchronise their returns with that of Income Tax returns.
  • Notarising of documents: Notarial work should be modernised and digitised and the use of electronic signatures, stamps and seals should be encouraged. Notarial records and certificates should be stored and maintained in a centralised online database, which can be accessed and verified by concerned authorities and parties. Governments should ensure that all public notaries maintain a digital register to keep records of documents notarised by them.

National Human Rights Commission: An Analysis

Context: The National Human Rights Commission accreditation status under Global Alliance of National Human Rights Institutions (GHNRI) is about to be reviewed by the Global Alliance of National Human Rights Institutions (GANHRI).

About Global Alliance of National Human Rights Institutions (GANHRI):

  • GANHRI is a global network of 114 NHRCs which coordinates the relationship between NHRIs and United Nations.
  • It was conceived at the International conference held in Tunis in 1993. Participating NHRIs established the International Coordinating Committee of NHRIs (ICC) with the goal of coordinate the activities of the NHRI network. 
  • In 2016, the ICC changed its name into Global Alliance of National Human Rights Institutions (GANHRI).
  • GANHRI is incorporated as a legal entity under the Swiss law and has a Bureau consisting of 16 “A status” NHRIs representing the four regions of GANHRI. General annual meetings of GANHRI are held in cooperation with UN Human Rights in its capacity as the GANHRI secretariat.

The Subcommittee on accreditation: It conducts a peer reviewed process for initial accreditation and re-accreditation in every five years. Presently, India’s Human Rights body NHRC has A rating.

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About National Human Rights Commission (NHRC)

  • It is a Statutory body established in 1993 under the Protection of Human Rights Act, 1993.
  • It is considered as a watchdog of human rights in the country, i.e. rights related to life, liberty equality and dignity of individuals.

Composition of NHRC

  • It consists of Chairman and 5 members.
    • Chairman: Should be retired Chief Justice of India or a judge of Supreme Court.
    • Members: Serving or retired Judge of Supreme Court, serving or retired chief justice of High court and 3 members having knowledge or practical experience with respect to human rights (out of which at least one should be a woman.)
    • Ex-officio Members: Chairpersons of following bodies are ex officio members.
      • National Commission for Minorities.
      • National Commission for SCs
      • National Commission for STs
      • National Commission for Women
      • National Commission for Backward Classes
      • National Commission for Protection of Child Rights
      • Chief commissioner for Persons with Disabilities

Functions of NHRC

  • To enquire into violation of Human Rights or Negligence the prevention of such violation by a public servant.
  • To intervene into any proceeding involving allegation of violation of Human Rights.
  • Visiting jails and detention centers to study the living conditions of inmates.
  • Reviewing constitutional and other legal safeguards for the protection of human rights and recommend measures for their effective implementation.
  • Reviewing factors like terrorism, naxalism, militancy that inhibit the enjoyment of human rights and recommend remedial measures.
  • Study international treaties and instruments on human rights and make recommendations for their effective implementation.
  • To undertake and promote research in the field of human rights.

Achievements of NHRC

  • Intervention in mega projects: Intervention in individual cases of displacement on account of mega projects, disasters, and conflicts.
    • Outcome: Commission examined the provisions of the Land Acquisition (Amendment) Bill, 2007 and the Rehabilitation and Resettlement Bill, 2007 and recommended relief measures to the displaced.
  • Issues related to excessive use of police force: At various instances, commission has taken cognizance of killing of Adivasis and excessive use of force on Adivasis protesting Narmada Project and called for a report from the State DGP.
    • Outcome: Based on the reports, the commission recommended relief measures such as dropping of charges and implementation of adequate rehabilitation measures.
  • Intervention against high Suicide rates: The Commission took Suo motu cognizance of the reports about suicide by farmers of Maharashtra and sought reports from Government.
    • Outcome: The Government of Maharashtra in its report informed the Commission that it had appointed a Committee at District level under the Chairmanship of District Collector to monitor and supervise the implementation of various schemes, to assist farmers and to curb, dissuade them from committing suicide.
    • Families of farmers who had committed suicide were being provided financial assistance as per norms laid down by the State Government. The Government of Andhra Pradesh had also constituted a Farmers Welfare Commission to go into the causes of suicide. The Commission has set up a committee to study the problem and suggest solutions.
  • Violence against Adivasis: Violence by Maoists and Salwa Judum in Dantewada, Chhattisgarh was brought to the notice of the Commission.
    • Outcome: The Commission called for a report from the State Government. While the matter was under consideration of the Commission, the Supreme Court based on a writ petition filed before it, directed the Commission to examine/verify allegations relating to violation of human rights by Naxalites and Salwa Judum and the living conditions in the refugee settlement colonies.
  • Ratification of International conventions: India is not a signatory to UN Convention against torture, the commission is constantly advocating for its early ratification.

Issues or concerns with NHRC

  • Recommendatory nature: Functions of the commission are merely recommendatory; it has no power to punish the violation of Human rights.
    • The recommendations are also not binding upon the concerned government or body.
  • Limited powers concerning armed forces: Limited role, power, and jurisdiction with respect to violation of human rights by armed forces.
  • Administrative constraints: Being a Paris principle compliant institution, it must have functionaries and infrastructure suited for its smooth functioning, which is lacking at present.
  • Financial constraints: Presently, the commission receives grants in aid from MHA to function, for the effective functioning, it must have financial autonomy.
  • Manpower Constraints: Commission has rarely functioned at the sanctioned strength, due to increasing workload, it is compelled to hire retired government officials as consultant on contract basis.
    • Lack of legal manpower: The law division of commission lacks adequate resources to deal with cases because of shortage of trained manpower in field of human rights.
  • Lack of Suo moto uptake: Activists have alleged that arrests are made under UAPA law for exercising rights to freedom of expression and peaceful assembly, NHRC has maintained silence on these issues.
  • Lack of diversity: Critics argue that since the Chairman and members are mostly drawn from judicial fraternity, it restricts the diversity and plurality of the board. There is no mandatory representation of minority, SCs and STs in the commission.
  • Political Interference: The composition of the selection committee is highly skewed in favour of the party in power. This may result in political interference in the working of the NHRC.
  • Narrow Jurisdictions: NHRC can only investigate complaints of Human right violations which are registered within 1 year of the incident. This reduced the Jurisdiction of NHRC.
  • Control of Home Ministry: Most instances of human rights violations that the NHRC investigates are against the police and, it raises concerns as the commission comes under the Home Ministry. 

Suggestions to Make NHRC more effective:

  • Constitutional body: NHRC can be made a constitutional body on the similar lines of South African Human Rights Commission.
  • Report to be presented in parliament: It is suggested that the report of NHRC should be tabled in parliament, and based on the NHRC report, an action taken report on the recommendation should be presented by the government.
  • Mandatory time frame for action taken: Act should be amended to include a time frame for action taken and response formulation on NHRC recommendations.
  • Independent cadre: NHRCneeds to develop an independent cadre of staff including legal and human rights expert.
  • Financial independence: Commission must be provided financial autonomy to function because of the increasing workload and responsibilities.
  • Jurisdiction: Period of jurisdiction must be expanded; commission should be allowed to investigate the matters which are older than 1 year.
  • Contempt powers: NHRC should be accorded with power of contempt to ensure effective implementation of the recommendations.

About Paris Principles

The Paris Principles were defined at the first International Workshop on National Institutions for the Promotion and Protection of Human Rights held in Paris on 7–9 October 1991. They were adopted by the United Nations Human Rights Commission by Resolution 1992/54 of 1992, and by the UN General Assembly in its Resolution 48/134 of 1993.

The Paris Principles set out six main criteria that NHRIs require to meet. These are: 

  • Mandate and competence.
  • Autonomy from Government
  • Independence guaranteed by a Statute or Constitution
  •  Pluralism
  • Adequate resources
  • Adequate powers of investigation.

Pradhan Mantri Schools for Rising India (PM-SHRI) Scheme

Context: The Kerala state government has decided to approach the Supreme Court against the Centre’s decision to withhold the release of Rs 1,500 crore to the state under various centrally sponsored education schemes. The funds have reportedly been held back after Kerala refused to sign the PM SHRI scheme memorandum.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about the Pradhan Mantri Schools for Rising India (PM-SHRI) Scheme.

About PM-SHRI Scheme

  • PM-SHRI is a centrally sponsored scheme launched by Ministry of Education aiming to develop more than 14500 schools across the country as PM-SHRI Schools by strengthening select existing schools managed by Central/State/Local bodies.
  • These schools will showcase all the components of the National Education Policy, 2020 as model schools.
  • PM-SHRI schools are to act as exemplar schools, and offer mentorship to other schools in the vicinity.
  • It also aims to deliver quality teaching for the cognitive development of the students and provide the students with key 21st century skills.

Key Features of PM-SHRI Schools

  • Provide high-quality education in an equitable and inclusive environment, that will take care of the diverse backgrounds, multilingual needs and different academic abilities of children.
  • Schools under the scheme are to be developed as ‘Green School’, that will incorporate environment friendly aspects like Solar panels and LED lights, nutrition gardens with natural farming, water conservation and harvesting, climate change related hackathon etc.
  • The schools will adopt pedagogy that will be more experiential, holistic, inquiry-driven, discovery-oriented, and learner-centred.
  • Assessment of students will be based on conceptual understanding and application of knowledge to real life situations.
  • The scheme aims to provide linkage with the sector skill councils and local industry to enhance employability and to provide better employment opportunities.
  • To evaluate the schools at regular intervals, ‘A School Quality Assessment Framework (SQAF)’, will be developed, which will specify performance indicators.

Illustrative Illustrations under PM-SHRI Scheme

  • Quality and Innovation, includes learning enhancement programme, holistic progress card, innovative pedagogies, bagless days, internships with local artisans etc.
  • Under RTE Act, beneficiary-oriented entitlements will be provided.
  • 100% of PM-SHRI schools will receive Science and Math kits.
  • Focus will also be on early childhood care and education, that will also include Balvatika and Foundational Literacy and Numeracy.
  • Encourage flexibility in choice of subjects offered to students.
  • Local languages/mother tongue are to be encouraged as medium of instructions and use of technological interventions to help bridge language barriers.
  • 100% of the PM SHRI Schools will be covered under ICT, smart classrooms and digital initiatives.
  • To develop these schools with all modern facilities, saturation approach will be adopted.
  • The scheme also envisions to converge with existing schemes/Panchayati Raj Institutions/Urban Local Bodies and community participation for infrastructure upgradation of the school.

Implementation and Selection strategy of the scheme

  • It will be implemented through the existing administrative structure available for Samagra Shiksha, Kendriya Vidyalaya schools and Navodaya Vidyalaya schools.
  • The schools under the scheme shall be monitored vigorously to assess progress and understand the challenges faced in the implementation of National Education Policy, 2020.
  • The schools shall be selected through ‘Challenge Mode’, where the schools would compete for support to become exemplar schools.
  • The Elementary Schools, Secondary/Senior Secondary Schools managed by the Centre/State/UT governments/Local self-governments having UDISE+ code will be considered for selection under the scheme.
  • Maximum of two schools (one elementary and one secondary/senior secondary) would be selected per block/Urban local bodies with upper limit number of total schools across India.
  • PM-SHRI schools will be Geo-tagged for the selection and monitoring processes.
  • Services of Bhaskaryacharya National Institute for Space Applications and Geo-Informatics (BISAG-N) will be taken for geo-tagging.
  • For the final selection of schools, an expert committee would be constituted.
  • Beneficiaries under the PM-SHRI Scheme: More than 18 Lakh students are expected to be direct beneficiaries of the scheme.

India's second Indigenous Nuclear Power Reactor at Kakrapar achieves criticality

Context: India's second indigenous 700 MW Nuclear power reactor at Kakrapar Atomic Power Project (KAPP) in Gujarat has achieved its first criticality. It has set the stage for its gradual move towards producing electricity for commercial purposes.

Nuclear Fission

  • Most Nuclear Power Plants produce energy using Nuclear Fission mechanism.
  • Nuclear fission is the process of disintegrating a heavy atom’s nucleus, such as Uranium or Plutonium, into two or more smaller nuclei.
  • When a fissile atom, like uranium-235, absorbs a neutron, it splits into two smaller atoms and releases several more neutrons.
  • These neutrons can then go on to cause other fissile atoms to split, creating a chain reaction.
  • This process releases a substantial amount of Nuclear energy, which is harnessed and converted into steam to power a turbine that generates electricity.
  • Criticality of Nuclear Reactor: A Nuclear reactor is said to be critical when the number of neutrons produced in Nuclear fission reactions equals the number of neutrons lost through absorption, leakage, and other processes. This equilibrium state allows for a sustained and controlled chain reaction.
  • Fuel used: U-235 (low-enriched or reactor-grade uranium)
image 132

Uranium Enrichment

  • Naturally occurring Uranium is composed of three major isotopes:
    • Uranium-238 (99.284% natural abundance)
    • Uranium-235 (0.711%)
    • Uranium-234 (0.005%)
  • U-235 atomsis the only nuclide existing in nature (in appreciable amount) that is fissile with thermal neutrons.Since naturally occurring Uranium does not have a high enough concentration of U-235, Uranium enrichment is necessary to create an effective nuclear fuel out of mined Uranium.
  • Uranium enrichment is the process of increasing the concentration/percentage of U-235 in Natural uranium beyond through the process of isotope separation.
  • U-235 atomsis the only nuclide existing in nature (in appreciable amount) that is fissile with thermal neutrons.Since naturally occurring Uranium does not have a high enough concentration of U-235, Uranium enrichment is necessary to create an effective nuclear fuel out of mined Uranium.
  • Uranium enrichment is the process of increasing the concentration/percentage of U-235 in Natural uranium beyond through the process of isotope separation.

Present Installed Nuclear Power Capacity in India

Presently, India operates 22 nuclear reactors across eight sites, with a total capacity of 6,780 MWe. Among these 18 reactors are Pressurised Heavy Water Reactors (PHWRs) and 4 are Light Water Reactors (LWRs).

Pressurised Heavy Water Reactor (PHWR)

  • PHWR is a nuclear power reactor, commonly using unenriched natural uranium as its fuel and heavy water (deuterium oxide, D2O) as both coolant and moderator.
    • Coolant: Coolant in a nuclear reactor absorbs all the excess heat generated by the ongoing nuclear reactions, preventing the reactor from melting down.
    • Moderator: Heavy water acts as a moderator, slowing down neutrons to the right speed making them more likely to collide with other Uranium atoms and trigger fissions. This chain reaction is the very essence of how a PHWR produces energy.
  • Control Rods: Boron or cadmium control rods are used to absorb excess neutrons and regulate the nuclear reaction.
  • Advantages: PHWRs are known for their ability to use natural uranium fuel, produce less high-level radioactive waste, and operate at lower pressures compared to some other reactor types.
image 133

Kakrapar Atomic Power Station

  • Kakrapar Atomic Power Station is a nuclear power plant located in Mandvi, Surat district in Gujarat.
  • Operated by: Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited (NPCIL).
  • Kakrapar site consists of four pressurised heavy water reactors (PHWRs).
    • Two 220 MW units
    • Two 700 MW units
  • KAPP Unit-3 (first indigenously developed PHWR plants with modern safety features)had started commercial operation in August 2023.

JN.1 variant of Sars-CoV-2

Context: Kerala has registered the first case of infection due to JN.1 variant of Sars-CoV-2 — the latest sub-variant of the virus that is behind a spike of infections in several countries across the world.

JN.1 variant of Sars-CoV-2

  • The JN.1 sub-variant is a new sub-lineage of the BA.2.86 (also known as Pirola) — which itself is an off-shoot of the widely circulating Omicron variant of Sars-CoV-2.
  • The JN.1 variant has been classified as a variant of interest by the World Health Organisation.
    • Variants of Interest: Variants that, compared with earlier forms of the virus, are less effectively neutralised in labs by antibodies from infection or vaccination and have a potential to spread.
    • Variants of Concern: Variants that result in increased transmission, severe disease leading to hospitalisation, and reduce effectiveness of vaccines.
image 129

SARS-CoV-2 Virus

  • Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is a highly contagious viral illness caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2).
  • SARS-CoV-2 is a novel beta coronavirus belonging to the same subgenus as the severe acute respiratory syndrome Coronavirus (SARS-CoV) and Middle East Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus (MERS-CoV).
  • It was first identified in December 2019 in Wuhan, China, and then caused a global pandemic leading to the COVID-19 pandemic.
  • Coronaviruses are positive-stranded RNA viruses with a crown-like appearance due to the presence of spike glycoproteins on the envelope.
  • Like other RNA viruses, SARS-CoV-2, while adapting to their new human hosts, is prone to genetic evolution with the development of mutations over time. This results in mutant variants that may have different characteristics than its ancestral strains.
  • Origin: Although the origin of SARS-CoV-2 is currently unknown, it is widely postulated to have originated from an animal, implicating a zoonotic transmission.
  • Transmission: Exposure to respiratory droplets carrying the infectious virus from close contact or droplet transmission from presymptomatic, asymptomatic, or symptomatic individuals. 

What is mutation of a virus?

  • Mutation of a virus, in simple words, means that it is acquiring genetic changes. Mutations are errors in the replication of the virus’s genetic code.
  • During replication, the virus copies its genetic material (usually RNA or DNA) to create new copies of itself.
  • Sometimes, mistakes happen during this copying process. These mistakes can lead to changes in the virus's genetic code, which are called mutations.
image 130

Why do Viruses mutate?

image 131

Effects of mutations on the virus

  • Neutral: This means that they have no effect on the virus's ability to replicate or cause disease.
  • Potent: These mutations can make the virus more replicative or more virulent. E.g., Delta variant of COVID-19.
  • Less Potent: Some mutations could make the virus less replicative or less infectious. In some cases, these mutations can even make the virus unable to replicate at all.

India proposes Group Standards for Millets at Codex Alimentarius and gets elected to Executive Committee

Context: India has unanimously elected as a member representing Asian region in the Executive Committee of Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC) during 46th meeting of FAO Headquarters in Rome.

About Codex Alimentarius Commission

  • Codex Alimentarius  or 'Food Code' is a collection of internationally adopted food standards and related texts presented in a uniform manner. These standards are developed by consensus and are based on the most robust up-to-date science available. Codex Alimentarius standards are adopted by the Codex Alimentarius Commission.
  • Codex Alimentarius Commission is a body established by FAO and WHO to develop food standards under Joint FAO/WHO Food Standards Program.
  • Codex Alimentarius Commission meets in regular session once a year alternating between Geneva and Rome.
  • Codex Alimentarius Commission is based in FAO in Rome, Italy.
  • Scope: Includes standards for all principal foods, whether processed, semi-processed or raw for distribution to the consumer. Codex texts are voluntary and do not have binding effect on national food legislation. However, WTO Agreements on Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures (SPS Agreement) and on Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT Agreement) encouraged WTO members to harmonise national regulations with the international standards.
  • Members of Codex Alimentarius Commission: Currently, Codex Alimentarius has 189 Codex Members and 1 Member Organisation i.e., European Union. Membership to Codex Alimentarius Commission is open to all member nations and associate members of FAO and WHO which are interested in international food standards.

Mandate of Codex Alimentarius

  • Contribute to safety, quality and fairness of international food trade.
  • Protection of consumer's health
  • Promote coordination of all food standards at work.

Executive Committee of Codex Alimentarius

  • Executive Committee of Codex comprises of Chair, three vice Chairs along 6 regional and 7 elected representatives from various geographical groups of Codex.
  • Between sessions, Executive Committee acts as the Executive organ of the Codex Alimentarius Commission.
  • Executive Committee of Codex Alimentarius contributes substantially in International standard setting process for different food products and is involved in the decision making process. It makes proposals to Codex Alimentarius Commission regarding general orientation, strategic planning and programming of the Codex Alimentarius Commission.

India's Proposal for Group Standards on Millets

  • Codex Alimentarius Commission  accepted India's proposal for development of global standards for millets.
  • Currently, Codex Alimentarius Commission has brought out standards for Sorghum and Pearl Millets.
  • India put forward a proposal for development of global standards for millets, particularly for Finger millet, Barnyard millet, Proso millet and Little millet as group standards in case of pulses.
  • Currently, FSSAI (a statutory regulatory body mandated for food standards) has framed a comprehensive group standard for 15 types of millets specifying 8 quality parameters. They are:
    • Maximum limits for moisture content
    • Uric acid content
    • Extraneous matter
    • Other edible grains
    • Defects
    • Weevilled grains
    • Immature grains
    • Shriveled grains.
  • The group standard for millets developed by FSSAI will act as an important foundation for development of global standards for millets. The existing Codex standards for Sorghum and Pearl millet would also be reviewed while making group standards for millets.
  • Important standards proposed by India include Standard for Okra, BWG Pepper, Aubergines, Dried and Dehydrated Garlic, Dried or Dehydrated Chilli Pepper and Paprika, Fresh Dates, Mango Chutney, Chili Sauce, Ware Potatoes and labelling requirements for non-retail containers.

Article 99 of UN Charter Invoked by Secretary General

Context: UN Secretary General formally warns the Security Council to push for Gaza ceasefire by invoking Article 99 of the UN Charter. UN Secretary General has urged Israel to carry out a ceasefire in this conflict.

About Article 99 of UN Charter

  • Article 99 of UN Charter states that “The Secretary General may bring to the attention of the Security Council any
  • matter which in his opinion may threaten the maintenance of international peace and security.” Thus, it is a discretionary power of the Secretary General of the UN.
  • According to the UN, President of the UN Security Council is under the obligation to call a meeting of the UNSC, if the Secretary General brings to the attention of the UNSC any matter under Article 99 of the UN Charter. However, this provision has been rarely invoked in the past. Some instances when it was invoked are:
  • Article 99 of the UN Charter was invoked earlier in the Republic of Congo in 1960 after Belgium’s colonial rule ended and in 1961, when Tunisia demanded it after attack by its former colonial ruler France.

About Charter of United Nations

  • It is the founding document of United Nations, which was signed on 26 June 1945, in San Francisco, at the conclusion of United Nations Conference on International Organization.
  • UN Charter is an instrument of international law, and UN Member States are bound by it.
  • UN Charter codifies major principles of international relations, from sovereign equality of States to prohibition of use of force in international relations.
  • International Court of Justice, the principal judicial organ of UN, functions in accordance with the Statute of the International Court of Justice, which is annexed to the UN Charter, and forms an integral part of it.

Thallium- a lethal weapon

Context: In a crime-incident in India, Thallium, a toxic metal, was administered in food leading to a series of deaths and illnesses within a family.

About Thallium

  • Thallium is a chemical element with the symbol Tl and atomic number 81.
    It is a highly toxic metal that was once used in various industrial applications, including rat poison and as a depilatory agent.
  • Thallium is an abundant element and is present in about 0.7 mg/kg of the Earth’s crust.
  • Thallium does not exist in free elemental form in nature. It mostly exists in the form of ores with other elements, mostly potassium.
  • Commercially, thallium is extracted from its sulphide-ores of heavy metals, such as zinc, lead, copper etc.
  • Thallium compounds are tasteless, odourless, and colourless, which makes it particularly dangerous for human consumption.
  • Thallium poisoning can occur through various routes, including ingestion, inhalation, or skin contact with thallium compounds. It interferes with the normal functioning of cells by disrupting various enzymes and processes in the body.
  • Symptoms of thallium poisoning can vary and may include severe gastrointestinal distress, neurological symptoms, and hair loss.

Lewis Model of Economic Transformation not applicable in India

Context: There is a persistent debate with respect to the development models which would suit Indian scenario, traditionally the Lewis model (known as farm-to-factory model) was considered as a benchmark for industrialization, but NITI Aayog has recently come up with a new model called as farm-as-factory model.

About Lewis model

  • In 1954, Economist, W.A. Lewis wrote about the enormous industrialization opportunities available in developing countries due to availability of labour at subsistence wages.
  • Since the marginal productivity of such labour is already low because of surplus availability of labour, so, the withdrawal of such labour would also make existing holdings more viable and increase their productivity.
  • This surplus labour can be absorbed by expanding capital sector as long as it matches the wages earned in farm sector.
  • One success story of Lewis model is China which leveraged its large population from 1970-2000 to become the “world’s factory”.

How Lewis model has functioned in India

  • Agriculture employed around 66% of India’s workforce till early 90s.
  • It fell to 49% in 2011-12, the current share of labour employed by agriculture is 45.8%.
  • Paradoxically, the dip in share of agriculture employment has been accompanied by a dip in the manufacturing sector which stands only at 11.4 %.
  • Labour employment in manufacturing is even lower than labour force in construction sector (13%) and trade, hotels & restaurants sector (12.1%).
  • Thus, the virtuous structural transformation i.e., from farm-to-factory proposed by Lewis hasn’t happened in India.
  • Rather the movement of labour has been happening within the “subsistence sectors”, the jobs generated outside the agriculture sector are not in manufacturing sector.

At states level

  • In agriculture dependent states, the share of employment is more in construction sector compared to manufacturing.
  • In less agriculture dependent states, the labour force in services is 2-3 times more than manufacturing, with Gujarat as exception where the 24% of labour is engaged in manufacturing.
  • This makes Gujarat the only state which comes closer to Lewis model.

Relevance of Lewis Model

  • Thus, Lewis model had relevance for India of 1950s, as it was the time when industries such as jute and textile employed large number of people.
  • Even though India still has unlimited supply of labour, but manufacturing is becoming capital intensive, making the model less relevant.
  • With robotics and AI, technology is making manufacturing process labour saving and labour displacing.

Way forward

  • NITI Aayog is working on a new economic model where jobs will be created “in and around agriculture”.
  • Jobs such as aggregation, grading, processing, packaging, warehousing, transportation and retailing, supply of inputs and services to farmers.
  • Biofuel has also opened new avenues, crop stubble and residue collection and processing for biofuel industries too has potential for jobs.
  • There is a rising demand for bio-based products in cosmetics, medicine, polymers, chemicals, insecticides and fertilizers or even as construction material which can be avenues outside yet linked to farm.
  • Thus, even though the Lewis model of farm-to-factory didn’t work out for India, we can adopt farm-as-factory labour model to suit our requirements.

Cholera cases double in 2022: WHO

Context: According to World Health Organization (WHO), the world reported more than twice as many cholera cases in 2022 as in 2021. Also, between these years, the number of countries reporting more than 10,000 cholera cases doubled. Most cholera cases continue to be reported from Africa and Asia, with Europe accounting for a few imported cases.

About Cholera

  • It is bacterial infection of small intestine that causes a large amount of watery diarrhoea.
  • It is caused by ingestion of food or water contaminated (water-borne) with the bacterium Vibrio cholerae.
  • Vibrio cholerae has two strains called O1 and O139 of the bacteria Vibrio cholerae.
  • Of these, O1 is responsible for almost all outbreaks; outbreaks of O139 are rare and none have been recorded outside Asia.
  • V. cholerae O139 was first identified in Bangladesh in 1992.
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Symptoms of Cholera

  • It is highly contagious disease that can cause severe acute watery diarrhoea.
  • It takes between 12 hours and 5 days for a person to show symptoms like profuse watery diarrhoea, vomiting, leg cramps, sunken eyes, reduced urine output,etc.

Transmission of Cholera

  • Transmitted to humans through water or food which is contaminated with the cholera bacterium.
  • Cholera can spread rapidly in areas with inadequate treatment of sewage and drinking water.

Prevention and Control of Cholera

  • It is an easily treatable disease. Majority of people can be treated successfully through prompt administration of oral rehydration solution (ORS).
  • Zinc is an important adjunctive therapy for children under 5, which also reduces duration of diarrhoea.
  • Currently, there are three WHO pre-qualified oral cholera vaccines (OCV), Dukoral, Shanchol, and Euvichol-Plus. All three vaccines require two doses for full protection.

Initiatives

  • Global Task Force on Cholera Control (GTFCC) by WHO: Provide a forum for technical exchange, coordination, and cooperation on cholera-related activities to strengthen country's capacity to prevent and control cholera;
  • Created in 1992 in the context of an unprecedent cholera outbreak in Peru.
  • Ending Cholera: Roadmap to 2030: In 2017, aims to reduce cholera deaths by 90% and to eliminate cholera in as many as 20 countries by 2030.
  • Country Support Platform (CSP): To strengthen GTFCC support to countries, hosted by the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (IFRC) provides multisectoral operational support for countries.

Current Situation  

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  • Since 2021, there has been an increase in cholera cases and their geographical distribution globally.
  • In 2021, 23 countries reported cholera outbreaks, mainly in Africa and the Eastern Mediterranean. This trend has continued into 2022 with over 29 countries reporting cholera cases or outbreaks.
  • The average cholera case fatality ratio (CFR) reported globally in 2021 was 1.9% (2.9% in Africa).

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