Society & Social justice

All (4049)Current Affairs (4038)Mains Practice (126)Mains PYQs by Subjects (40)

What is the Legal Status of Polyandry in India?

Context: A tribal woman from the Hatti community in Himachal Pradesh married two brothers under a traditional system of Polyandry.

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: About Hatti tribe and the concept of polyandry in India.

Mains: Legal status of polyandry in India and key SC Judgements.

What is Polyandry?

Polyandry refers to a marriage system where one woman has more than one husband.
It has been practiced historically in Tibet, Nepal, and some tribal communities of India like the Toda in Tamil Nadu, Kinnaura in Himachal, and Jaunsaris in Uttarakhand.
In the Hatti tribe, polyandry is practiced primarily for preserving undivided family property, especially agricultural land, and reinforcing brotherly ties.

The Hindu Marriage Act, 1955:

The Act governs marriage applicable to Hindus, Buddhists, Jains and Sikhs.
Section 2(2) of the Act states that its provisions do not apply to STs, unless directed by the Central Government via a notification in the Official Gazette.
In the absence of such a notification, the Hattis continue to be governed by laws laid down under their customs, which are undocumented and uncodified.
The Act defines “custom” under Section 3 as a rule that has been observed for a long time, and has obtained the force of law.

Legal Status of Polyandry in India

Polyandry and Polygamy are outlawed by the Special Marriages Act 1954, the Hindu Marriage Act 1955, and criminalised under the Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita.
While marriage is governed by personal laws, customary practices of Scheduled Tribes (STs) are recognised by the Constitution under Article 342. STs enjoy distinct legal status and cultural autonomy under constitutional provisions like Part XXI and the Fifth Schedule.
But for a customary law to be valid, it must be certain, reasonable, and consistent with public policy.
When a customary law is challenged, it does not automatically gain legal recognition; courts have to be provided with proper evidence that such customary laws prevail.

Note:

The Uttarakhand UCC mandates the registration of marriage, establishes equal rights of spouses across religions and communities and prohibits polygamy. However, in line with the constitutional provisions of respecting tribal autonomy, it does not apply to Scheduled Tribes.
As per Section 2 of the Uttarakhand UCC Rules, 2025, the Code exempts members of Scheduled Tribes (as defined under Article 366(25) read with Article 342), and those whose customary rights are protected under Part XXI of the Constitution.

Key Supreme Court Judgments

Courts have held that customs must align with fundamental rights such as equality, dignity, and liberty; any custom violating these is deemed unconstitutional.

Triple Talaq Case (Shayara Bano v. Union of India, 2017): The Supreme Court declared the practice of triple talaq as unconstitutional as it was deemed arbitrary, unreasonable and violative of Article 14 and 21 of the Constitution.
Sabarimala Case 2018: The ban on entry of women of menstruating age into the Sabarimala temple was held discriminatory and unconstitutional, violating Articles 14, 15, and 21. The Court ruled that religious customs cannot override gender equality.
Ram Charan Vs Sukhram case 2025: In a case related to succession rights for tribal women, the court affirmed that excluding female heirs solely based on customary male preferences violates Article 14 of the Constitution.

In various judgments, the SC has observed that customs too, like the law, cannot remain stuck in time and others cannot be allowed to take refuge in customs or hide behind them to deprive others of their rights.

Sin Taxes and GST: Health-Focused Tax Framework

Context: Rising Non-Communicable Diseases (NCDs) in India highlight the need to reform GST on sin goods through a Health-Focused Tax Framework.

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: GST rates on Sin goods, India’s Non-Communicable Diseases (NCD) surge.

Mains: Structural gaps in the current GST framework for sin goods.

India’s Non-Communicable Diseases (NCD) surge

Non-Communicable Diseases (NCDs) account for nearly 63-67% of annual deaths in India.
Four major NCDs- cardiovascular diseases, cancers, respiratory conditions, and diabetes- cause nearly 80% of premature NCD deaths.

Key drivers of India’s NCD surge:

Rising consumption of sugar sweetened beverages (SSBs), Ultra Processed Foods (UPFs), Alcohol, and Tobacco.
Inactivity
Obesity
Poor diet
Pollution

Strong fiscal and policy measures to curb these products are crucial to reverse this trend. The WHO has long advocated higher taxes on tobacco, and now recommends similar measures for alcohol and sugary drinks, with potential taxes on Ultra Processed Foods (UPFs) under review.

Structural Gaps in GST Framework on Sin Goods

The 139th report of the Parliamentary Standing Committee on Health highlighted that Tobacco products in India remain among the cheapest globally.
- India’s current tax share on Tobacco is well below the WHO-recommended minimum of 75%. It is around 58% for Cigarettes and just 22% for Bidis, revealing a significant gap in effective Tobacco taxation.
- GST rates require consensus among states via the GST Council. This makes annual or inflation-linked revisions difficult, leading to increased affordability of harmful goods over time.
Alcohol taxation varies widely by State, leading to price disparities, with some States like Gujarat, Bihar, and Nagaland enforcing full bans.
Sugar Sweetened Beverages (SSBs) are taxed at 28%, but lack a dedicated health cess. Ultra Processed Foods (UPFs) are often taxed at lower rates.
Tobacco products also attract two key non-GST levies: Central Excise Duty (CED) and National Calamity Contingent Duty (NCCD).
- Though CED was initially subsumed under GST, it was reintroduced in Budget 2019-20 to restore fiscal control.
- NCCD, introduced in 2001 for disaster relief, remains in place.

What can be done?

The 56th GST Council meeting is expected to consider a 40% GST slab on sin goods. However, raising the rate from 28% to 40% alone may not suffice, especially with the Compensation Cess ending in 2026. A comprehensive approach is needed:

Revise Central Excise Duty (CED) and National Calamity Contingent Duty (NCCD).
Create a standalone adjustable GST slab for sin products, making them less affordable over time.
Introduce a dedicated Health Tax on harmful products like SSB, UPFs and tobacco. An additional Health Tax, alongside CED and NCCD can increase the overall tax burden within the GST framework, generate fiscal space, and fund public health initiatives like anti-tobacco efforts, awareness campaigns, and detox programmes.

There remains considerable scope to increase tobacco taxes, close loopholes, and expand the tax base. There is an urgent need for a comprehensive health tax framework for tobacco, SSBs, and UPFs.

Is Gini Index the Right Way to Measure Inequality?

Context: The government recently claimed that India is one of the most equal countries based on the Gini Index. However, the experts argue that this measure does not fully capture the real extent of inequality.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Gini Coefficient, Palm Ratio, World Inequality Database, World Bank recent report on inequality.

What is the Gini Index?

Gini Index or Gini Coefficient is a statistical measure of inequality. It quantifies how equally income, wealth or consumption is distributed across households or individuals in a country.
It ranges in value from 0 to 100. A score of 0 means perfect equality. A score of 100 means one person has all the income, wealth or consumption and others have none, hence absolute inequality. The higher the Gini Index the more unequal the country.
Graphically Gini Index can be explained by the Lorenz curve.
- A perfectly equal distribution will be shown by a diagonal line, while the actual distribution will be shown by the Lorenz curve.
- The Gini Index tells us how far the Lorenz Curve is from the ideal equality line; the farther it is, the more unequal the society.

India's Gini Index Trends:

As per the World Bank’s Poverty and Equity Brief- India ranks fourth globally in income equality with a Gini score of 25.5 (2022-23), after the Slovak Republic, Slovenia and Belarus.
The index was measured at 28.8 in 2011, and reached 25.5 in 2022. This shows that India has made consistent progress in combining economic growth with social equity.
India primarily uses a consumption-based Gini Index instead of an income-based one, relying on household surveys that measure inequality based on individuals’ consumption levels rather than their actual incomes.

However, economists argue that consumption-based Gini Index fails to reflect actual levels of inequality, especially in India’s context.

Trends from World Inequality Lab Database:

World Inequality Database which is based on income shows:

Income inequality in India is rising from a Gini of 52 in 2004 to 62 in 2023.
Wage disparity remains high, with the median earnings of the top 10% being 13 times higher than bottom 10% in 2023-24.
The top 1% earn more than 22% of national income. The bottom 50% earn less than 15%. India's inequality is now worse than colonial levels.

Limitations of Consumption-based Measures:

Underestimates Inequality: Rich people consume proportionally less and save more of their income. Poor people spend nearly all of their income leading to less visible inequality in consumption data.
Fails to capture Wealth Inequality: Wealth disparities such as those in property or financial assets are ignored.
Affected by Public subsidies: Free ration, subsidies etc. improves consumption data but may not always lower inequality in real life.

Thus, it is misleading to compare India's Consumption based Gini Index value with that of other countries, which use an income based Gini.

Limitations of the Survey data

Differential Non-response Bias: High-income individuals often decline to participate in surveys.
Sampling Errors: Probability of randomly including ultra-rich in a small survey is low.
Surveys largely capture the middle-income majority. But most inequality is driven by the top 1%, who are missing from survey samples.

Way Forward

Shift from a purely consumption-based approach to include income-based inequality measures, aligning with global standards.
Combine household survey data with income tax data to better capture top incomes and reduce underestimation.
Use Alternative Indicators like Palma Ratio. Palma Ratio measures the ratio of the richest 10% of the population’s share of national income divided by the poorest 40% 's share.

Is Palm Oil Bad for Health?

Context: Indian Food and Beverage Association (IFBA) issued a statement that Palm Oil has been consumed by Indians since the 19th century, and that the oil has a well-rounded fatty acid profile. As per IFBA, the use of labels such as palm oil free or no palm oil are misleading.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Palm Oil; Palm Production; NMEO-OP

About Palm Oil

Palm oil is among the most affordable and versatile edible oils valued for its long shelf-life and neutral taste.
Utility:
- Packaged foods including- potato chips, biscuits, ice cream, and chocolates.
- Non-food industry- soaps, shampoos, detergents, lipsticks, perfumes.
- Biodiesel production.

Contents of Oil and Health Concerns:

All oils mainly contain three types of fatty acids:
- Bad- saturated fatty acid (SFA)
- Good- mono-unsaturated fatty acid (MUFA)
- Good- Poly-unsaturated fatty acid (PUFA).
Fats that remain solid or semi-solid at room temperatures- including palm oil, coconut oil, ghee, butter, and lard - are high in saturated fatty acids (SFA).
- Coconut oil (90 grams/ 100 grams of oil) and ghee (70 grams/ 100 grams of oil) have the highest SFA content.
- Palmolein (the liquid part of palm oil) contains around 40 grams of SFA and 40 grams of MUFA, with the rest PUFA.
- Mustard, Safflower, and Sunflower have the lowest SFA content less than 10 grams per 100 gram of oil.
Apart from fatty acids, Trans Fatty Acids (TFA) are produced during the hydrogenation of liquid vegetable oils. (Hydrogenation- Addition of Hydrogen atoms into such oils converts liquid oil to semi-solid, and increases their shelf-life.)
Consumption of oils with high SFA increases the levels of bad cholesterol (low density lipoproteins). This in turn increases inflammation in the body, decreases insulin sensitivity, and enhances the tendency of clot formation. Consuming such oils can increase the risk of heart attacks and strokes, as well as the onset of type-2 diabetes.
Consumption of TFAs can increase the risk of diabetes, breast cancer, colon cancer, pre-eclampsia (high blood pressure during pregnancy), and disorders of the nervous system.

Is Palm Oil Bad for Health?

Palmolein (the liquid part of palm oil) contains around 40 grams of SFA and 40 grams of MUFA, with the rest PUFA.
Palm oil is semi-solid at room temperature so it does not need to be hydrogenated.
Palm oil contains tocotrienols (a type of antioxidant) which helps lower blood cholesterol levels.

Hence, the oil consumption should be done in moderation.

Indian Dietary Guidelines by ICMR:

As per the Indian Dietary Guidelines by ICMR (Indian Council of Medical Research):

Consumption of oil should be limited to between 20 and 50 grams (four to 10 teaspoons) per person per day.
Oils should not be reheated. Because once heated, PUFAs in the oil start to oxygenate, and form harmful compounds that increase the risk of cardiovascular disease and cancers.

Key Facts about Palm Oil:

India is the world's largest importer and second-largest consumer of palm oil.
Palm oil import dominates India's edible oils import. The top import countries are: Indonesia and Malaysia.
Indonesia is the world's largest producer of palm oil. Indonesia and Malaysia together account for almost 90% of the global palm oil production.
Major oil palm-growing states in India: Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, and Kerala.
The central government has launched the National Mission on Edible Oils-Oil Palm (NMEO-OP) in 2021 to increase oil palm cultivation and crude palm oil production.

Also Read: National Mission on Edible Oils-Oil Palm (NMEO-OP)

PARAKH Rashtriya Sarvekshan 2024

Context: PARAKH Rashtriya Sarvekshan 2024 reveals significant deficits in student learning in higher grades, particularly in Mathematics and Science.

Relevance of the topic : Prelims : Key Findings of PARAKH Rashtriya Sarvekshan 2024.

About PARAKH Rashtriya Sarvekshan

PARAKH (Performance Assessment, Review, and Analysis of Knowledge for Holistic Development) Rashtriya Sarvekshan is an assessment conducted by the Ministry of Education.
Formerly known as the National Achievement Survey.
Nodal Body: NCERT
Purpose: To provide system-level insights into student learning outcomes, support evidence-based policy-making, and assess alignment with National Education Policy (NEP) 2020 goals.
This large-scale national survey comprehensively evaluates the progress of learners across the Foundational, Preparatory, and Middle Stages.

PARAKH Rashtriya Sarvekshan 2024:

PARAKH Rashtriya Sarvekshan was conducted in December 2024. It assessed the performance of 21,15,022 children in Grades 3, 6 and 9 from over 74,000 schools (both private and government) in 781 districts of the country.
The assessment included the following subjects: language and mathematics (for Grades 3, 6, and 9), world around us (for Grades 3 and 6), and science and social science (for Grade 9).

Key Findings:

Best performing States and UTs in school education: Punjab, Himachal Pradesh, Kerala, Dadra Nagar Haveli and Daman & Diu and Chandigarh.

Learning Outcomes by Grade:

Grade 3:
- 67% of students can use and understand enough words for daily conversations.
- Only 55% of students can correctly arrange numbers up to 99 in ascending/descending order.
In Grade 6:
- Only 38% of students can solve basic math problems in daily life.
- Only 38% of students ask questions or make predictions based on nature (seasons, moon phases, trees, etc.)
In Grade 9:
- Only 31% of students understand complex number systems like integers, fractions, real numbers, and their properties.

Institution-wise Performance

Kendriya Vidyalayas, run by the Union government, recorded the lowest performance in Mathematics in Grade 3.
In Grade 6, government-aided and State government schools showed weak performance in Mathematics.
For Grade 9, students from Kendriya Vidyalayas performed the best across all subjects, particularly in language.

These learning gaps highlight the need for focused interventions to strengthen students' skills, refine instructional strategies, and provide additional learning support. Addressing these areas effectively will help improve overall student learning outcomes in the nation.

Also Read: Bridging gaps in Foundational Literacy and Numeracy

Recognising Adivasi Identity in the Census

Context: Activists and intellectuals from the tribal community demand a separate column titled ‘Adivasi/Tribal faiths’ (a separate religion code ‘Sarna’) in Census for identifying their religion.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Census. Mains: Demand for a separate column titled ‘Adivasi/ST faiths’ in Census.

About Census of India:

Census is the largest administrative exercise to collect demographic, social, and economic data of the country’s population. It has been conducted every ten years since 1881.
Conducted by: Office of the Registrar General and the Census Commissioner, under the Ministry of Home Affairs.
Conducted under the legal framework of the Census Act, 1948. It plays a crucial role in policy planning, governance, and resource distribution.
The next Census, originally scheduled for 2021, has been delayed due to the COVID-19 pandemic, preparations are now underway for the Census in 2026-27.

Issue related to misidentification of STs in Census:

Despite its importance and scale, the Census process has faced long-standing issues and criticisms. These include the lack of caste-based enumeration beyond SC/ST and exclusion of indigenous tribal religions from religious categorisation.

Census includes the religious demography of India through the registration of a person’s religious beliefs. The religions mentioned are Hinduism, Islam, Christianity, Sikhism, Jainism, and Buddhism.
For those with other beliefs, there is a general column titled ‘Other Religious Persuasion’ (ORP). There is no column for the beliefs of STs.
The restriction in the Census to six religions or the ambiguous ORP category leads to misidentification. This misidentification is reflected in the 2011 Census data:

The ST population was counted as 10.43 crore (8.6% of the then population of 120 crore).
However, only 0.66% of the population (or 79 lakh people) registered themselves under the ORP column in the 2011 Census, which means that the large majority of ST communities could not register their religious or spiritual identity and had to misidentify with other religions. This omission is unconstitutional on several counts.

Constitutional Implications of Exclusion:

Violation of Article 25, 26, 29: These articles guarantee freedom of conscience and the right to manage religious affairs. By clubbing tribal religions under the ambiguous “Other Religious Persuasion (ORP)” or assimilating them under Hinduism, the state denies STs the dignity of recognition. Article 29(1): Protects the right of any section of citizens to conserve its distinct language, script or culture. Exclusion from the Census contradicts this cultural right.
Undermines Fifth & Sixth Schedules: These schedules aim to protect tribal customs, traditions, and self-governance. Failure to officially acknowledge their spiritual traditions weakens the basis of their legal autonomy.
Breach of Constitutional Morality: The Constitution mandates respect for diversity. Forced religious misclassification violates the spirit of inclusivity and fraternity enshrined in the Preamble.
Other implications
- Leads to Cultivate Invisibility. Leads to loss of distinct tribal identity over time.
- Tribal students, especially in government/EMRS schools, are taught dominant religious content, leading to alienation from their own traditions.
- Leads to under-representation in cultural schemes and budgets.
- Affects the implementation of PESA, Forest Rights Act, and Minority-focused schemes.

In November 2020, the Jharkhand Assembly unanimously passed a resolution demanding a separate religious code for Sarna religion in the 2021 Census, but the Centre did not respond.

This is perceived by many tribal communities as centralisation and homogenisation of the ‘one nation, one culture’. Adivasis have been pushing back against new forms and methods of assimilation. The demand for recognition of their faiths in the Census is one such form of resistance.

Maternity Benefit is a Fundamental Right: SC

Context: The Supreme Court recognised maternity rights as a fundamental right under Article 21 of the Constitution, but key issues remain around financing.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts of recent judgment and Maternity Benefits Act 1961 Mains: Impact of the Judgment on Women empowerment

K. Uma Devi vs State of Tamil Nadu (2025)

In the landmark judgment, the Supreme Court has recognised maternity rights as a fundamental right under Article 21 of the Constitution.

Key Highlights of the Judgment:

The Court affirmed that maternity benefits are not just welfare measures but legal rights essential to a woman’s dignity, health, and livelihood.
The apex court referred to International Conventions and instruments i.e.,
- Universal Declaration of Human Rights
- United Nations Economic and Social Council
- Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW)
- Maternity Convention C183 (2000) of the International Labour Organisation (ILO) to highlight the requirement of ‘special assistance and social protection’ to working women before and after childbirth.
SC acknowledged that women are now a significant part of the workforce, and the state is obligated to protect their reproductive and maternity rights in order to ensure their equal participation in the workforce.
The Court treated the Maternity Benefits Act 1961, as a normative framework.

Maternity Benefits Act, 1961:

Provides 26 weeks of paid leave for women with less than two surviving children.
For women with two or more children, 12 weeks of paid leave is allowed.
Allows for work-from-home arrangements after maternity leave, depending on mutual agreement between employer and employee.
Since the 2017 amendment, adoptive and commissioning mothers are entitled to 12 weeks of paid maternity leave.
Establishments with 50 or more employees must provide a creche facility.
Applies to establishments with 10 or more employees, including factories, mines, plantations, shops, and private companies.
A woman is eligible if she has worked in the establishment for at least 80 days in the 12 months preceding her expected delivery.

The judgment is hailed as historic for strengthening working women’s rights, ensuring job security, and guaranteeing access to maternal and child care.

India with a maximum paid leave of 26 weeks has joined the league of 42 nations that provide maximum paid leave exceeding 18 weeks i.e., surpassing C183 of ILO. Maternity Protection Convention 2000 (C183 of ILO) sets a minimum standard of 14 weeks.

Associated Challenges

Despite being a landmark judgment, K Uma Devi Vs State of TN case also raises several pertinent questions:

Scope of Application: Will maternity rights as a fundamental right apply beyond public sector jobs to all forms of employment?
How will women in the informal sector be brought under its protection?
- Over 90% of India’s female workforce is in the informal sector. These women are often excluded from formal maternity benefit schemes.
Funding Challenges: Who will bear the financial burden?
- Large corporations may absorb maternity costs easily. But MSMEs struggle with the financial burden of both paid leave and temporary replacement. India lacks a national maternity financing system, unlike many developed economies.

Suggestions:

ILO recommends that maternity costs be shared through social insurance, public funds, or social assistance, not solely by employers- especially for informal and self-employed women.
Establish a Universal Maternity Fund aligned with ILO guidelines to ensure inclusive and sustainable maternity benefits financing.
Draw from global best practices outlined in the ILO’s World Social Protection Report 2024-26 to strengthen India’s maternity financing framework.
Adopt mixed financing models used by several countries combining social insurance, national social security systems, and tax-funded schemes to reduce the burden on individual employers.

WHO’s ‘3 by 35’ Initiative

Context: World Health Organisation (WHO) has launched the “3 by 35” Initiative calling on countries to raise ‘Health tax' or ‘Sin tax’ on tobacco, alcohol, sugary drinks by at least 50% by the year 2035.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: About the 3 by 35 Initiative.

WHO’s 3 by 35 Initiative

It is a global effort to increase the real prices of any or all of three unhealthy products – tobacco, alcohol, and sugary drinks by at least 50% by 2035 through tax increases, while taking into account each country’s unique context.

Key action areas of the Initiative:

Cutting harmful consumption by reducing affordability: Increase or introduce excise taxes on tobacco, alcohol, and sugary drinks to raise prices and reduce consumption, cutting future health costs and preventable deaths.
Raising revenue to fund health and development: Mobilise domestic public resources to fund essential health and development programmes, including universal health coverage. The initiative aims to raise $1 trillion over the next 10 years.
Building broad political support across ministries, civil society, and academia: Strengthen multi sectoral alliances by engaging ministries of finance and health, parliamentarians, civil society, and researchers to design and implement effective policies.

Significance of Health Tax/ Sin Tax:

Prevent global NCD burden: Consumption of tobacco, alcohol and sugary drinks is fuelling the Non-Communicable Diseases (NCD) epidemic which accounts for over 75% of all deaths worldwide. A recent report shows that a one-time 50% price increase on these products could prevent 50 million premature deaths over the next 50 years.
Augment shrinking development aid and growing public debt: These taxes cut the consumption of harmful products and create revenue governments can reinvest in healthcare, education and social protection.

India's Efforts

India has implemented tobacco taxation under the GST framework, with 28% GST and an additional compensation cess on cigarettes and select products.
However, bidis (smoked by low-income groups) and smokeless tobacco (SLT) (used by over two-thirds of tobacco users) remain under-taxed.

India’s current approach to taxing tobacco, alcohol and sugar-sweetened beverages represent a fragmented, revenue-centric model that lacks a coherent public health framework.

Gig Workers Missing from PLFS

Context: The Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS), India's primary source for labor statistics, lacks a clear classification of Gig Workers. Gig workers are subsumed under broad categories such as ‘self-employed’, ‘own-account workers’, or ‘casual labour’ in the PLFS. This leads to their under-representation in official data.

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: Concept of Gig Worker, Platform workers.

Mains: Gig workers: Growth drivers, benefits, challenges, recommendations.

Gig Workers:

Gig workers were first incorporated into the legal framework through the Code on Social Security 2020.
The Code on Social Security defines a Gig Worker as a person who participates in a work arrangement and earns from such activities outside of a traditional employer-employee relationship. The above definition separates gig workers from both formal and informal categories.
The Code on Social Security, 2020 defines Platform Work as a work arrangement outside of a traditional employer - employee relationship in which organisations or individuals use an online platform to access other organisations or individuals to solve specific problems or to provide specific services or any such other activities which may be notified by the Central Government, in exchange for payment.
According to NITI Aayog’s 2022 report ‘India’s Booming Gig and Platform Economy,’ the gig workforce is expected to reach 23.5 million by 2029-30. Presently around 77 lakh workers (1.5% of workforce) are employed in the Gig Economy and it is expected to increase to 2.35 crore workers by 2029-30.

Gig Workers face multifaceted challenges such as:

Non-recognition of workers as employees
Job and income insecurity
High commission and unfair penalties charged by platform companies
Lack of social security
Inability to form trade unions, lack of career growth and skill upgradation etc.

Lack of clear classification of Gig Workers in PLFS:

One of the major challenges is lack of clear classification of Gig Workers in India’s primary labour statistics source, the Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS).
Gig workers are subsumed under broad categories such as ‘self-employed’, ‘own-account workers’, or ‘casual labour’ in the PLFS.

It has following implications:

Lack of a distinct category leads to statistical invisibility, making gig workers’ vulnerabilities and working conditions under-represented in official data.
Social protection schemes under the Code on Social Security, 2020 such as the Social Security Fund and the National Social Security Board depend on PLFS data for evidence-based policy making. However, absence of a distinct classification for gig and platform workers in the PLFS undermines the goal of evidence-based policymaking. Inaccurate classification results in uneven access to welfare schemes and exclusion errors.

The 2025 PLFS revision introduced some important updates: a larger sample size, monthly estimates, and better rural representation. However, it still does not address the issues of how gig work is defined and understood.

In response to a query in Rajya Sabha, the Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation stated, “No update in the PLFS Schedule has been undertaken with the objective of specifically identifying persons engaged in the gig economy”.

However, all market activities performed for pay or profit, including gig work, fall under the scope of economic activity in the PLFS. Anyone engaged in such work during the reference period is considered employed.

Way Forward

NITI Aayog in its report titled “India’s booming Gig and Platform economy” has given following recommendations:

Official labour survey reports such as PLFS should collect data related to Gig Workers.
Launch Platform India Initiative on the lines of the Start-up India to provide handholding, funding support, skill development etc. to Gig Workers.
Accelerate financial inclusion: Unsecured loans to first-time borrowers may be classified as Priority Sector Lending.
Skilling and Issuance of skill certificates by platform companies to enhance employability of Gig Workers.
Enhancing Social Inclusion: Platform businesses should partner with NGOs to employ women and people belonging to vulnerable sections.
Enhancing Social Security: E.g., Provide Paid Sick Leave and Occupational Disease and Work Accident Insurance on the lines of Indonesia’s model.

Also Read: What is a Gig Worker? - Definition & Meaning

Using Technology to Empower Women and Children

Context: Over the past decade, the Ministry of Women and Child development has integrated technology into its programmes to ensure that the benefits reach the last mile swiftly, transparently, and efficiently.

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: Key technological initiatives for women and children.

Mains: Role of technology in women and children development.

Leveraging Technology for Women’s Rights and Well-being

1. Saksham Anganwadi Initiative:

Designed to modernise and empower over 2 lakh Anganwadi centres across India. These centres are being upgraded with smart infrastructure, digital devices, and innovative learning tools, enabling more effective delivery of nutrition, healthcare, and pre-school education services.
The integration of services provided by 14 lakh Anganwadi centres across the nation with the Poshan Tracker has enabled real-time data entry, performance monitoring, and evidence-based policy interventions.

2. Poshan Tracker:

Over 10.14 crore beneficiaries, including pregnant women, lactating mothers, children under six, and adolescent girls, are now registered on Poshan Tracker.
At its core, Poshan Tracker is driving the national vision of a Swasth Bharat, Suposhit Bharat. By equipping Anganwadi workers with smartphones and comprehensive training, the initiative ensures quality service delivery at the last mile.
It reimagines Anganwadi centres as digitally empowered community hubs that bridge the urban-rural divide.
Recognised with the Prime Minister’s Award for Excellence in Public Administration (2025), it also supports Poshan Bhi, Padhai Bhi, providing digital training modules to Anganwadi workers for early childhood education.

3. Facial Recognition and Leak-Proof Nutrition Delivery:

To plug leakages in the Supplementary Nutrition Programme (SNP), a facial recognition system has been introduced. This ensures that only eligible beneficiaries receive nutrition support.

4. DBT under Pradhan Mantri Matru Vandana Yojana:

Under the PMMVY Rules, 2022, pregnant women receive ₹5,000 for the first child, and an enhanced ₹6,000 for the second child if it is a girl, promoting positive reinforcement for daughters.
Delivered through a paperless Direct Benefit Transfer system, about ₹19,000 crore has reached over 4 crore women beneficiaries since its inception.
It is a fully digital programme leveraging Aadhaar-based authentication, mobile-based registration, doorstep assistance from Anganwadi/ASHA workers, and real-time dashboards.
A dedicated grievance redressal module and citizen-facing portal ensure transparency, trust, and accountability, strengthening the government’s commitment to Beti Bachao, Beti Padhao.

4. Tech-Led Women’s Safety Platforms

Beyond nutrition, the Ministry is ensuring safety and support for women through technology-led platforms.

SHe-Box Portal: A single-window platform to lodge complaints under the Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace (Prevention, Prohibition and Redressal) Act, 2013. It enables both online submission and tracking of complaints.
Mission Shakti Dashboard and Mobile App: It provides integrated assistance to women in distress, connecting them to the nearest one-stop centre, now operational in nearly every district. These interventions exemplify how technology is being used not just for efficiency, but for justice, dignity, and empowerment.

Tangible outcomes of Welfare Schemes:

These targeted efforts are delivering tangible outcomes. The latest reports from the Health Management Information System of the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare (MoHFW) reveal that:

Sex Ratio at Birth has increased from 918 (2014-15) to 930 (2023-24).
Maternal Mortality Rate has declined to 97 per 1,000 births (2018-20) from 130 per 1,000 births (2014-16).

Leveraging Technology for Child Protection and Welfare:

Digital transformation has played a key role in child protection and welfare.

Under the Juvenile Justice Act, 2015, digital tools are being used to protect and support children:

CARINGS Portal (Child Adoption Resource Information and Guidance System) streamlines and digitises the adoption process, making it more transparent and accessible.
Digitisation has also improved monitoring of child care institutions, foster care placements, and statutory support structures under the Act.
Platforms developed by the National Commission for Protection of Child Rights are tracking violations of child rights.
Mission Vatsalya dashboard strengthens convergence and coordination among various child welfare stakeholders.

Enabling Voting Rights for Migrants

Context: Under India’s election rules, eligible voters can only cast ballots in their constituencies, i.e., those working outside of their state have to return home to vote. As a result, a significant portion of the migrant population is excluded from exercising their voting rights.

Relevance of the Topic: Mains: Issues related to migration.

Migration is referred to as spatial mobility from one geographical unit to another which involves change in residence for a considerable period of time.

State of Migration in India

In 2021, the overall migration rate in India was 28.9%.
According to Census 2011, migrants constitute 37% of India’s total population, with women accounting for 68% of the migrant population, a trend reflecting the feminisation of migration.
Around 85% of migrants are Intra - state migrants.
A significant portion of migration in India is for marriage.
Around 10%, migration is for work.This number is significantly higher in certain northern and eastern States such as Bihar.

One of the major challenges associated with Migration in India is low electoral participation of migrants. E.g., In the 2024 Lok Sabha elections, voter turnout in Bihar was just 56%, well below the national average of 66%. One of the biggest reasons behind this gap is the inability of migrants to return home to cast their vote.

Reasons behind Low Electoral Participation of Migrants:

Around 85% of migrants are Inter-state migrants, high cost and long distances prevent return to home constituency.
Most migrants work in the informal sector, where lack of paid leave and daily-wage dependency hinder their ability to travel and vote.
Absence of local address proof prevents voter registration at destination.
Women migrants post-marriage often remain unregistered at new residence.
Low political visibility leads to exclusion from electoral outreach and campaigns.

This undermines the principle of universal adult franchise (UAF), migrants remain voiceless in shaping policies that affect them.

Mechanisms to increase Migrant Electoral Participation:

Mechanisms to Facilitate Voting for Intrastate Migrants: Intra-State migrant participation can be improved by enforcing statutory holidays on polling day and arranging special transport, allowing informal workers to vote without wage loss.

Mechanisms to Facilitate Voting for Inter-State Migrants:

Remote Voting Machines (RVMs): Pilot project by Election Commission of India to allow migrants to vote remotely across constituencies, though currently limited by administrative complexity and political concerns.
Postal Ballots: Extending postal voting, currently used for armed forces, to migrants. However the major challenge is it requires advance registration and streamlined logistics for ballot dispatch and return.
Switching Voting Constituencies: Allowing long-term migrants, living in a constituency for at least 6 months to register and vote in their place of work.
Targeted Voter Registration drives for women who migrate after marriage to ensure enrolment at their new residence.

Each of these options has its advantages and disadvantages. Enabling voting by migrants is a complex task and is made more complex by the heterogeneity of migrants. Therefore, a combined approach using RVMs, postal ballots, constituency switching, and logistical support is essential to ensure inclusive voting for both inter- and intra-State migrant workers.

India Needs a Thali Index

Context: Thali Index shows real hunger, urging a shift from calorie-based to practical, food-based poverty measures in India.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Poverty estimates in India. Mains: Issues with current poverty estimates.

Poverty Estimates in India

Officially approved poverty measurement in India has involved estimating the level of consumption expenditure sufficient to enable the minimum calorie intake necessary for living and working. If a person could afford food that gave them a certain number of calories (2400 cal in rural areas, 2100 cal in urban areas), they are not considered poor.
Committees like Tendulkar and Rangarajan suggested updates, but India has not revised its official poverty line since 2011-12.
This calorie-focused approach does not match how people actually live today. It ignores how expensive health, transport, and education have become.

Thali Index - A new approach:

A “thali” is a traditional Indian meal with rice or roti, dal, and vegetables. Indians recognise the thali as a fairly complete and nutritionally balanced unit of food consumption.
CRISIL estimated that in 2023-24, the cost of one such home-cooked thali was around ₹30. The researchers found that: 40% of rural Indians and 10% of urban Indians could not afford two thalis a day.
This paints a very different picture than the reports from SBI or the World Bank.
- SBI reported a remarkable decline in rural poverty, estimated at 4.86% in FY24 and urban poverty estimated at 4.09%.
- The World Bank’s report pegged “extreme poverty” at 2.8% for rural India and 1.1% for urban India in 2022-23.

Why does this gap exist?

Most poverty estimates look at total consumption spending. But in real life, people must first pay for essential expenditures like housing, transport, health, education, etc. Expenditure on food ends up as the residual expenditure.
That is why measuring actual food spending, like how many thalis one can buy, gives a clearer picture of people’s living conditions.

Benefits of Thali Index:

Thali Index can help make welfare schemes like PDS or food subsidies more targeted.
It pushes policymakers to consider real-life costs people face, not just abstract numbers.
It throws light on hidden hunger and malnutrition.

Limitations of Thali index:

Thali prices vary between cities and villages, and across seasons.
The Index focuses on food and may miss out on other aspects like schooling, sanitation, or shelter.

What can be done?

Use the Thali Index along with other tools like the Multidimensional Poverty Index.
Regularly update poverty measures to reflect current spending habits.
Eliminating the food subsidy at the upper reaches of the distribution while enhancing it at the lower levels.

India has made significant gains in income-based poverty reduction, but food deprivation persists at large. It is time to move beyond calorie counts to more practical indicators like the Thali Index, which focuses on real hunger and basic human needs.