Daily Current Affairs

December 2023

Current Affairs

Issues in Disaster Financing in India

Context: The destruction caused by Cyclone Michaung in Tamil Nadu has resulted in Tamil Nadu Government demanding extra funds from the Central Government to meet the relief and reconstruction demands. Tamil Nadu has been demanding declaring Cyclone Michaung as a 'National Disaster'. Central Government has replied that there is no provision in the current disaster management financing framework which allows for declaration of disaster as a national disaster. Centre has agreed to send team to assess the damage in Tamil Nadu to provide excess grants to Tamil Nadu government from the NDRF. All this brought about the issue of Disaster Financing in India into spotlight.

Disaster Financing in India

  • The mechanism of disaster risk financing in India reflects the distribution of responsibility in respect of disaster management. 
  • State Governments respond immediately to disasters - organizing rescue, evacuation and relief and providing people with assistance. After the disaster event, the responsibility for recovery and reconstruction also lies primarily with State Governments.
  • State Governments incur most of the expenditure on disaster management. These expenditures are met through SDRF. When States exhaust their SDRF resources, they can request financial assistance through the NDRF by submitting memorandums to the Union Government.
  • Union Government extends secondary support to states through deploying the National Disaster Response Fund and armed forces at the request of State Governments. NDRF replenishes and reinforces the State funds following a set of guidelines. 
  • Climate change is expected to significantly increase the frequency of adverse weather events severely increasing magnitude of disasters. India has been witnessing many large-scale floods (Tamil Nadu, Kerala); Cyclones (Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh); droughts and floods. This necessitates focusing on disaster management. 

Funds created by Disaster Management Act, 2005

Disaster Management Act, 2005 lays down the framework for disaster financing in India. The act establishes the following funds:

  1. National Disaster Relief Fund (NDRF): In the event of a calamity of a severe nature, where the requirement of funds for relief operations is beyond the funds available in the State’s Disaster Response Fund account, additional Central assistance is provided from National Disaster Response Fund. State Government is required to submit a memorandum indicating the sector wise damage and requirement of funds. On receipt of the memorandum from the State, an inter-Ministerial Central Team is constituted and deputed for an on-the-spot assessment of damage and requirement of funds for relief operations, as per the extant items and norms of State Disaster Response Fund and National Disaster Response Fund. 
  2. State Disaster Relief Fund (SDRF): States contribute 25% of funds of SDRF and rest is provided by Central Government. The State Disaster Response Fund shall be used only for meeting the expenditure for providing immediate relief to the victims of cyclone, drought, earthquake, fire, flood, tsunami, hailstorm, landslide, avalanche, cloud burst, pest attack, frost, and cold wave. 
  3. National Disaster Mitigation Fund (NDMF) & State Disaster Mitigation Fund (SDMF): Though provided in the Disaster Management Act, 2005, yet these funds had not been operationalised. 15th Finance Commission has recommended for the constitution of NDMF and SDMF. The Mitigation Fund would be used for local level and community-based interventions to reduce disaster risks and promote environmentally friendly settlements.

Concerns with the present disaster financing framework

  • Lack of focus on Mitigation: Allocations made through the SDRF and NDRF help governments meet their contingent liabilities in the face of disaster. However, these allocations do not help in reducing contingent liabilities. Mitigation refers to minimizing of adverse impact of a hazardous event by undertaking both structural and nonstructural measures. 
  • Lack of flexibility for states: Current guidelines for providing relief from the SDRF and NDRF are determined by the Central Government. States have been demanding greater flexibility for their unique needs of certain areas, especially remote and hilly terrains. 
  • Limited list of disasters eligible: Many State Governments have been arguing for widening the scope for inclusion of several calamities in the eligible list of disasters for funding support from the SDRF and NDRF. However, most of these calamities are State-specific or region-specific and can be difficult to quantify. For ex. Heatwaves, river and coastal erosion, fire hazards, lightning deaths are not eligible for ex gratia assistance.
  • Limited quantum of funds allocated to SDRF and NDRF: Current practice of allocating funds to SDRF and NDRF is based on past expenditures incurred by States and Union government on Disaster Management and Relief. The expenditure-based approach tends to favour better off states, which can allocate resources and show higher expenditures. Risk and vulnerability to disasters are currently not taken into consideration. 
  • Inability of states to meet matching grants towards SDRF: Mandates relating to operating of disaster-related funds require the States to transfer their matching share towards the SDRF along with Union's share received by them. However, some States do not make transfers into the public account maintained by them in a timely manner. This results in inadequate funds being available with States to tackle disasters of a severe nature and they seek additional central assistance from the NDRF.
  • Exclusion of long-term or permanent restoration works from the ambit of NDRF/SDRF: Existing norms for disaster relief from SDRF and NDRF do not provide sufficient funds for reconstruction of housing and infrastructure, resettlement of people from floodplains, coastal and hilly areas. This force states to look after World Bank or Central Government for long term resettlement and recovery efforts.
  • Slow process: Current process of assessment for the determination of Union assistance through the NDRF as well as its release is slow. Often funds required for disaster relief is required immediately, especially after severe disasters. 
  • GST regime: NDRF was financed by National Calamity Contingent Duty (NCCD). However, a substantial amount of NCCD has been subsumed under the GST. NCCD is currently being levied on very few products such as Tobacco and crude petroleum. This leaves very less fiscal space for the Union Government to finance NDRF. Thus, the central government will have to incur additional fiscal deficit for financing NDRF. 

Recommendations for strengthening disaster financing in India

  • Focus on disaster mitigation: NDMF and SDMF should be operationalised which should amount for 20% of overall funds allocated to NDRF and SDRF.
  • Risk based fund allocation: Allocation to SDRF should be a combination of capacity (as reflected by expenditure), risk exposure (area and population) and hazard and vulnerability (risk index). 
  • Separate window for long-term reconstruction: A separate Recovery and Reconstruction facility should be created with SDRF and NDRF with about 30% allocation. This will help people affected by disasters on a long-term basis.
  • Separate window for capacity building: Current disaster financing mechanism overlooks capacity building required to effectively respond to disasters in the States. Capacity building measures like early warning systems and emergency equipment etc. are essential for effective disaster management. Thus, a separate window for capacity building should be created in SDRF and NDRF.
  • Constitution of District level Disaster Response and Mitigation Funds: State Government can allocate resources to districts for preparedness and mitigation of disaster on an annual basis. 
  • Using flex-fund component of CSS towards disaster management: States hit by severe disaster should be permitted to use more than the 25% flexi-fund component of centrally sponsored schemes to carry out post-disaster permanent restoration works.
  • Mainstreaming disaster insurance pool: After the liberalisation of India's insurance industry, it is essential to leverage insurance sector to substantially reduce the financial burden of disaster management by households, particularly well-to-do ones.

International Space Station

Context: Russian and U.S. space agencies have agreed to keep working together to deliver crews to the International Space Station (ISS) until at least 2025. 

Russia has extended to use the ISS until 2028, an apparent reversal of an earlier announcement to quit the orbiting laboratory after 2024. 

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About International Space Station (ISS):

  • ISS is a modular space station (habitable artificial satellite) and the single largest man-made structure in low Earth orbit (approximately 408 kilometres above the Earth's surface).
  • Launched in 1998, it is a multinational collaborative project involving five participating space agencies:
    • NASA (United States)
    • Roscosmos (Russia) 
    • JAXA (Japan) 
    • ESA (Europe) 
    • CSA (Canada) 
  • It circles the Earth in roughly 92 minutes and completes 15.5 orbits per day, hosting a maximum of seven astronauts. 
  • It serves as a microgravity and space environment research laboratory in which scientific research is conducted in astrobiology, astronomy, meteorology, physics, and other fields.
  • NASA intends to keep operating the ISS until the end of 2030, after which the ISS would crash into Point Nemo over the South Pacific Oceanic Uninhabited Area (SPOUA).

Climate Milestones of 2023

Context: From registering the hottest summer on record to some significant steps at the yearly United Nations climate summit, 2023 was a year of extremes. Here are some climate-related milestones from this time.

Hottest year: 

  • The global mean near-surface temperature in 2023 (to October) was around 1.40 (± 0.12) °C above the 1850–1900 average. Based on the data to October, it is virtually certain that 2023 will be the warmest year in the 174-year observational record, surpassing the previous joint warmest years, 2016 at 1.29 (± 0.12) °C above the 1850–1900 average and 2020 at 1.27 (±0.13) °C.
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Highest sea surface temperature ever: 

Marine heat waves - periods when ocean temperatures are warmer than 90% of prior observations for a given time of year - were widespread in 2023. 

  • According to the U.S. National Ocean and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), 48% of global oceans experienced them in August 2023.

Global sea surface temperatures (SST) are usually highest in March. But as per data, global average SSTs remained at record highs throughout April, May, June, and July 2023.

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Sea level rise

In 2023, global mean sea level reached a record high in the satellite record (since 1993), reflecting continued ocean warming as well as the melting of glaciers and ice sheets. The rate of global mean sea level rise in the past ten years (2013–2022) is more than twice the rate of sea level rise in the first decade of the satellite record (1993–2002).

A graph showing the number of satellites.

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Lowest Antarctic Sea ice extent: Sea-ice extent is the area of ice covering the Antarctic Ocean at a given time. In 2023, Antarctic Sea ice had record low ice growth from April. 

  • According to NOAA, sea ice in the Antarctic reached an annual maximum extent of 16.96 million sq. km on September 10, 2023, the lowest since 1979. This year’s maximum was 1.03 million sq. km, below the previous record low set in 1986.

Record carbon dioxide levels: Global carbon dioxide emissions are expected to have hit a new high in 2023, up 1.1% from 2022. The Global Carbon Budget Report, published in December 2023, said overall CO2 emissions, which climbed to a record last year, had plateaued in 2023 due to a slight drop in deforestation.

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Ocean Acidification:

The ocean absorbs around one quarter of the annual emissions of anthropogenic CO2 to the atmosphere. CO2 reacts with seawater and alters the carbonate chemistry, resulting in a decrease in pH referred to as ‘ocean acidification’. 

  • Ocean acidification affects organisms and ecosystem services, including food security, by reducing biodiversity, degrading habitats, and endangering fisheries and aquaculture. 
  • The IPCC AR6 concluded that “There is very high confidence that open ocean surface pH is now the lowest it has been for at least [thousand years] and current rates of pH change are unprecedented since at least that time”.
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Loss and damage fund: The world’s first loss and damage fund for the impacts of climate change was created in 2023, at the start of the COP28 climate talks in the U.A.E. in early December. This money is meant to help countries trying to recover from climate induced disasters.

The fund will be based at the World Bank but managed by an independent secretariat.

  • According to a senior U.N. official, it has received pledges of $792 million from governments, which is a lot but still well short of the billions required to fulfill its purpose.

Impact of food systems: For the first time in the history of climate summits, 134 countries at COP28 pledged to tackle the climate impact of the food industry. 

  • These countries represent over 5.7 billion people, 70% of the food we eat, nearly 500 million farmers, and 76% of total emissions from the global food system. But observers noted the declaration doesn’t include quantitative targets.

Ayushman Card

Context: According to the Health Ministry, women account for approximately 49% of the total Ayushman cards created and approximately 48% of total authorised hospital admissions.

About Ayushman card: 

  • The national health authority (NHA) issues the Ayushman card, which offers access to a network of public and private hospitals across India. 
  • The health cards are given to the beneficiaries families and individuals. The family health folders are kept at the Health Wellness Centres (HWC) or nearby Primary Healthcare Centres (PHC) in paper and/or digital format.
  • Beneficiaries can use this card to avail cashless treatment and hospitalisation at these network hospitals. 
  • This ensures that every family knows their entitlement to healthcare through both HWC and the Pradhan Mantri Jan Arogya Yojana or equivalent health schemes of state and central government. 
  • Aadhar card is not mandatory for availing services under this scheme.

About National Health Authority (NHA)

  • It is the successor of the National Health Agency.
  • It is an attached office of the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare with full functional autonomy.
  • Governed by a Governing Board chaired by the Union Minister for Health and Family Welfare. 
  • It is headed by a Chief Executive Officer (CEO), an officer of the rank of Secretary to the Government of India, who manages its affairs. The CEO is the Ex-Office Member Secretary of the Governing Board.
  • It is an apex body for implementation for AB PM-JAY and National Digital Health Mission.
  • To implement the scheme at the State level, State Health Agencies (SHAs) in the form of a society/trust have been set up by respective States. 
  • SHAs have full operational autonomy over the implementation of the scheme in the State including extending the coverage to non SECC beneficiaries.

'Zero Coupon Zero Principle' Instruments

Context: SEBI has unveiled a roadmap for public issuance of 'Zero Coupon Zero Principle' instruments by not-for-profit organisations (NPOs) and listing of such instruments on the Social Stock Exchange (SSE).

Zero Coupon Zero Principal Instruments

  • These are financial instruments using which any non-profit organisation (NPOs) can raise funds which are listed on the social stock exchange.
  • Usually, NPOs raise money through donations or CSR initiatives of individuals and corporates. Thus, those willing to donate money to NPOs, can buy these securities listed on SSEs.
  • ZCZP instruments are structured like a bond. In a regular bond, the entity raising money using a bond, has to make interest payments and principal payments when the bond matures. However, the ZCZP is issued by an entity not raising loans but donations. Thus, the ZCZP issuing entity does not have to pay interest (zero coupon) and does not have to pay the principal (zero principal) either.
  • ZCZP instruments issued by a NPO can be issued only for a specific project or activity to be completed within a duration specified in fund raising document.
  • Central Government (Ministry of Finance) has declared Zero Coupon Zero Principal instruments as securities under the Securities Contracts (Regulation) Act, 1956 in 2022.

Regulations for issuing of Zero Coupon Zero Instruments by SEBI

  • Minimum issue size for ZCZP instruments is Rs 50 lakhs.
  • Minimum application size has been kept at Rs 10,000.
  • Minimum subscription required to be achieved will be 75% of the funds proposed to be raised through the issuance of such instruments. Funds will be refunded in case subscription is less than 75% of the issue size.
  • ZCZP can be issued only in dematerialised form
  • ZCZP are non-transferable.
  • ZCZP instruments will be listed on Social Stock Exchange.

Read also: What is Bond Yield?

Ammonia

Context: A leakage of ammonia gas from a subsea pipeline connected to a fertiliser manufacturing unit in Chennai resulted in locals experiencing medical conditions such as shortness of breath and burning eyes. 

About Ammonia: 

  • Ammonia is a colourless gas with a strong, pungent odour. Naturally occurring sources like soils and vegetation fires release ammonia, but significant contributors to its emission include agricultural practices such as livestock farming and fertiliser use.
    • Nitrogen is a macronutrient required by plants in large quantities for protein synthesis, chlorophyll production, and overall growth. 
    • As agriculture expands to accommodate increasing populations, it is probable that ammonia emissions will also increase.

Ammonia Synthesis:

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  • The Haber-Bosch process is the primary method for industrial-scale ammonia synthesis.
  • It combines hydrogen and nitrogen gases at high temperature and pressure in the presence of a catalyst. This process results in the formation of ammonia gas.

Use of Ammonia: 

  • Ammonia is a primary feedstock for producing nitrogen-based fertilisers, which are essential for plant growth.
  • Fertiliser Production:
    • Ammonium Nitrate: Obtained by reacting ammonia with nitric acid.
    • Urea: Produced by reacting ammonia with carbon dioxide under high pressure and temperature.
    • Ammonium Phosphate: Formed by reacting ammonia with phosphoric acid.
    • Ammonium Sulphate: Resulting from the reaction of ammonia with sulfuric acid.

Global Warming Potential (GWP): 

  • GWP is a measure of how much energy the emissions of 1 ton of a gas will absorb over a given period, relative to the emissions of 1 ton of carbon dioxide (CO2).
    • The larger the GWP, the more that a given gas warms the Earth compared to CO2 over that time-period. 
    • The time-period usually used for GWPs is 100 years. 
  • GWPs enable analysts to aggregate emissions estimates from various gases and help policymakers assess and compare emission reduction opportunities across sectors and gases. 
image 166

Production of Ammonia- A Climate Concern: 

  • The process uses natural gas, which leads to 2.6 metric tons of life cycle greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions per metric ton of ammonia produced.  
  • With ammonia being the second most produced chemical in the world, its production accounts for approximately 2% of worldwide fossil energy use and generates over 420 million tons of CO2 annually.  
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Consequences related to Ammonia Pollution: 

Impact on human health:

  • After reacting with other particles, ammonia emissions can lead to the formation of fine particulate matter (PM2.5), posing serious health risks such as heart and lung diseases. 
  • Exposure to high levels of ammonia can cause respiratory problems, such as asthma, bronchitis, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD).
  • Direct exposure to Ammonia can also irritate the eyes, skin, and throat, leading to discomfort and potential health issues.

Impact on Ecosystem and Biodiversity:

  • Ammonia deposition can cause soil acidification, which can harm plant growth and reduce soil biodiversity leading to reduced crop yield.
  • Excess ammonia in water bodies can lead to eutrophication, a process that results in algal blooms and oxygen depletion, disrupting aquatic ecosystems.

Impact on the Climate:

  • Ammonia emissions contribute to climate change by releasing nitrous oxide (N2O) after oxidation, a potent greenhouse gas with a global warming potential 298 times that of carbon dioxide (CO2).
  • N2O is involved in the depletion of stratospheric ozone, which protects the Earth from harmful ultraviolet radiation.
  • Ammonia emissions also contribute to the formation of aerosols, which can impact cloud properties and potentially influence climate patterns.

Economic Impacts of Ammonia Pollution: These costs include healthcare expenses, reduced agricultural productivity, and the implementation of pollution control measures.

Way Forward

  • The application of anhydrous ammonia (pure ammonia in liquid form), injected into the soil, quickly converts to ammonium ions. This process makes nitrogen available to plants, providing an efficient way to deliver nitrogen to crops.
  • Sustainable production of ammonia by developing more sustainable methods for ammonia synthesis, such as using renewable energy sources and carbon capture technologies, to minimise environmental impacts.
  • The regulation of ammonia production and use to minimise environmental impacts, such as nutrient runoff and water pollution.
  • Farmers should be encouraged to follow best management practices to optimise fertiliser application, reduce nutrient losses, and protect water quality.
  • Proper storage and handling of ammonia-based fertilisers should be followed to prevent accidents and environmental hazards.

Chemical Disaster and their Management

Potential Causes of Chemical Disaster: 

  • Process and Safety Systems Failures: This includes equipment failures, leaks, or other breakdowns in the systems designed to contain and control hazardous substances.
  • Human Errors: These errors may range from simple miscalculations to misinterpretation of procedures, leading to unintended and potentially dangerous outcomes.
  • Technical Errors: These may arise from defects, malfunctions, or shortcomings in the design or implementation of these technologies.
  • Management Errors: This includes issues related to organisational culture, resource allocation, and overall safety management practices.
  • Induced Effects of Natural Calamities: Natural disasters, such as earthquakes, floods, or cyclones, can exacerbate the risks associated with chemical facilities, leading to the release of hazardous substances, and amplifying the impact of the natural calamity.
  • Accidents During Transportation: During the shipping or transit of chemicals, whether by road, rail, air, or sea, accidents can result in spills, leaks, or explosions, with potential far-reaching consequences.
  • Hazardous Waste Processing/Disposal: Inadequate waste management practices can result in the release of toxic substances into the air, soil, or water.
  • Terrorist Attack/Unrest Leading to Sabotage: Intentional attacks may aim to compromise safety measures, damage infrastructure, or release toxic substances, posing risks to both human life and the environment.

Management of Chemical Disaster in India: 

Our country possesses an extensive legal and institutional framework. Various regulations addressing transportation safety, liability, insurance, and compensation have been put in place. The following are the provisions related to chemical disaster management currently in force:

  • Explosives Act, 1884: Governs the regulation of explosives to ensure safety.
  • Petroleum Act, 1934: Regulates the import, transport, storage, production, and use of petroleum.
  • Factories Act, 1948: Focuses on the safety, health, and welfare of workers in factories.
  • Insecticides Act, 1968: Regulates the sale, distribution, and use of insecticides.
  • Environment Protection Act, 1986: Aims to protect and improve the environment.
  • Public Liability Insurance Act, 1991: Deals with the public liability for damages arising from accidents in handling hazardous substances.
  • Disaster Management Act, 2005: Provides a comprehensive framework for disaster management.

To further strengthen chemical safety and manage chemical accidents, the Government of India has enacted additional rules and amendments like Rules addressing the management of hazardous waste etc.

Role of NDMA in Chemical Disaster Management: 

The National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) of India plays a crucial role in Chemical Disaster Management. 

  • The authority has formulated specific guidelines to direct ministries, departments, and state authorities in developing detailed disaster management plans. 
  • These guidelines advocate a proactive, participatory, multi-disciplinary, and multi-sectoral approach at various levels to enhance chemical disaster preparedness and response.

Abu Musa, Greater Tunb and Lesser Tunb: Three disputed islands between Iran and UAE

Context: Russia and China appear to be supporting UAE in its claim over the three small disputed islands located near the Strait of Hormuz in the Persian Gulf. This has been seen well by Iran's government.

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Three Disputed Islands: Abu Musa, Greater Tunb & Lesser Tunb

  • Abu Musa, Greater Tunb and Lesser Tunb are three small islands located near the entrance of Strait of Hormuz in Persian Gulf.
  • Only Abu Musa is inhabited by small population and all three have Iranian naval and airforce presence.
  • Though the size of these islands is very small, the strategic importance of these islands is that due to the greater depth of sea large oil tankers and ships pass between Abu Musa and Greater and Lesser Tunb islands.
  • Currently, these three islands are under the administrative control of Iran.

Iran-UAE dispute over the islands

  • Iran's claim: According to Iran, these islands have historically under its control. In 1971, the then Shah of Iran dispatched Royal Navy to these three islands after the British withdrew its forces from UAE. These three islands fell into British hands in 1921, prior to which they were under Persian control.
  • UAE's claim: UAE maintains that these three islands were part of the territory which later became UAE. Iran illegally annexed these three islands just two days before UAE was born. UAE has even raised this issue in UNSC.

Houthis Attacking Red Sea Ships & Operation Prosperity Guardian

Context: Post the Israeli military offensive against Hamas in Gaza strip region of Palestine the peace and security of the middle east region has again started to appear fragile. Houthi rebels based in Yemen have started conducting a series of attacks using UAVs and ballistic missiles on commercial and merchant shipping vessels in the Southern Red Sea. To counter this threat by Houthi rebels against merchant vessels, US has announced establishment of Operation Prosperity Guardian under the Combined Maritime Forces.

Operation Prosperity Guardian

  • Operation Prosperity Guardian is a multinational security initiative for countering the threat posed by Houthis rebels against merchant vessels and ensuring the foundational principle of freedom of navigation in the Red Sea.
  • Countries like USA, UK, Bahrain, Canada, Netherlands, Norway and Seychelles will come together to jointly address security challenges in Southern Red Sea and Gulf of Aden.
  • The Operation will function under the umbrella of Combined Maritime Forces (CMF). CMF's Task Force 153 is charged with international maritime security and capacity building in the Red Sea, Bab-al-Mandeb and Gulf of Aden.
  • Operation Prosperity Guardian will serve to create a safe passage for commercial and merchant ships in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden.
  • It is a defensive coalition aiming to reassure, assist and respond to global shipping and mariners that will be transitioning the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden Waterway.

About Combined Maritime Forces (CMF)

  • CMF is a multinational maritime partnership, which exists to uphold the rules-based international order (RBIO) by countering illicit non-state actors on the high seas and promoting security, stability and prosperity across approximately 3.2 million square miles of international waters, which encompass some of the world's most important shipping lanes.
  • Established in 2001.
  • Headquarters of CMF is in Manama, Bahrain.
  • Focus areas of CMF: Counter-narcotics, counter-smuggling, suppressing piracy, encouraging regional cooperation and engaging with regional and other partners. Promoting a safe maritime environment free from illicit non-state actors. When requested, CMF assets at sea will also respond to environmental and humanitarian incidents.
  • 39 Members of CMF are: Australia, Bahrain, Belgium, Brazil, Canada, Denmark, Djibouti, Egypt, France, Germany, Greece, India, Iraq, Italy, Japan, Jordan, Kenya, Republic of Korea, Kuwait, Malaysia, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Oman, Pakistan, the Philippines, Portugal, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Seychelles, Singapore, Spain, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Türkiye, UAE, United Kingdom, United States, and Yemen. (India is a member and also Pakistan).
  • Functioning of CMF: CMF is a coalition of the willing and does not proscribe or mandate a specific level of participation from any member nation. CMF members are not bound by a fixed political or military mandate.
  • Combined Task Forces under CMF:
    • CTF 150: Conducts Maritime Security Operations outside the Arabian Gulf to ensure that legitimate commercial shipping can transit the region, free from non-state threats.
    • CTF 151: Aims to suppress piracy outside territorial waters of Coastal States, indirectly curb trafficking of humans and illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing.
    • CTF 152: Focuses on regional maritime security cooperation focusing on illicit non-state actors in the Arabian Gulf, especially between Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) nations.
    • CTF 153: Focuses on Red Sea Maritime Security in the Red Sea, Bab al Mandeb and Gulf of Aden. Established in 2002.
    • CTF 154: Train partner navies and improve operational capabilities to enhance maritime security in Middle East. Established in 2023.
  • CMF's head or commander by vice-admiral of US Navy. CMF's deputy commander is a UK Royal Navy Commodore.
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About Red Sea

  • Red Sea is a narrow sea between Arabian Peninsula and Africa.
  • Towards its north lies the Sinai Peninsula of Egypt and Gulf of Suez and Gulf of Aqaba. Suez Canal connects the Gulf of Suez to the Mediterranean Sea.
  • Towards its south, Bab-al-Mandeb strait connects the Red Sea to the Gulf of Aden. Bab al Mandeb separates Yemen on the Arabian Peninsula to the Djibouti and Eritrea located on the Horn of Africa.
  • Bab al-Mandeb passage (choke point) which connects the Red Sea with the Gulf of Aden is only 29 km wide at its narrowest point.
  • Currently, between 10-15% of global shipping flows through the Red Sea.
  • On account of the recent Houthi attacks, many international shipping companies have had to re-route through the Cape of Good Hope adding weeks to the delivery of goods and materials, including oil and gas.
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About Houthis

  • Houthis are an armed group who as sect among the Shia muslims minority known as Zaidis in Yemen.
  • They rebelled against ex-Yemen President Saleh, who was supported by Saudi Arabia.
  • Houthi rebels have been fighting a civil war against the Saudi backed Yemen Government since 2014.
  • Houthi rebels have modelled themselves on lines of Shia armed group Hezbollah based in Lebanon and are supported by Iran.

Multicentre Growth Reference Study (MGRS)

Context: In this article authors have opined on the debate of the pros and cons of shifting from World Health Organization child growth standards to a nationally compiled standard.

Background on Child Undernutrition in India

Child undernutrition is a significant and persistent issue in India, influenced by multiple determinants such as food intake, dietary diversity, health, sanitation, women’s status, and poverty. The primary anthropometric standards used to measure childhood undernutrition are height-for-age (stunting/chronic undernutrition) and weight-for-height (wasting/acute undernutrition).

Multicentre Growth Reference Study (MGRS)

The MGRS takes a prescriptive approach with the specific aim of setting growth  ‘standards’ i.e. how children ought to grow, provided they have a healthy environment and not growth ‘references’ i.e. how children of the reference group grow. 

World Health Organisation uses following indicators for the study

  1. Length/Height for age
  2. Weight for age
  3. Weight for length/Height
  4. Body Mass Index for Age
  5. Head circumference for Age
  6. Arm circumference for Age
  7. Subscapular skin fold for age
  8. Triceps skinfold for age
  9. Motor development milestones
  10. Weight velocity 
  11. length velocity 
  12. Head circumference velocity

Issues in using Multicentre Growth Reference Study as a base:

Data pool

  • The sample for India in the MGRS was drawn from a set of privileged households living in South Delhi, of children who met all the eligibility criteria for the study, like having a ‘favourable’ growth environment, being breastfed and having non-smoking mothers etc.
  • Indian researchers contest the idea with an argument that such pool set overestimates the undernutrition.
  • However, such comparisons with other large datasets would only be valid if these could provide samples that meet all the criteria of a favourable environment for growth, as defined by the MGRS. For ex. even among children (six­23 months) in households of the highest quintile in National Family Health Survey (NFHS)­5 (2019­21), only 12.7% meet the requirements of a ‘minimum acceptable diet’ as defined by WHO. Secondly, While almost all mothers in the MGRS sample had completed more than 15 years of education (in 2000­01), 54.7% of women in NFHS­5 had completed 12 or more years of schooling.

Genetic Growth Potential and Maternal Height

  • Another issue lies in MGRS missing out to capture the difference in genetic growth potential of Indians vis-a-vis other countries along with lacking in capturing influence of maternal height on child growth.
  • However, researchers contest these narrative by stating that a number of countries with similar or even poorer economic conditions, including those in the South Asian region, have shown higher improvements in stunting prevalence using the same WHO­MGRS standards.

Implications of High Standards

  • There is concern that high standards might lead to overfeeding children misclassified as undernourished, contributing to obesity. However, given dietary gaps and the quality of government nutrition programs, these concerns may be unfounded.

Way Ahead

  • Multi-Sectoral Interventions and Development Goals
    • Improving diets alone is not sufficient; interventions in sanitation, healthcare, childcare, and women’s empowerment are crucial for better nutritional outcomes. These interventions are tied to the country’s overall development and equitable resource distribution.
  • Role of WHO Standards and National Growth Charts
    • While it is understood that children grow uniquely, WHO standards are important for understanding population trends and making international comparisons. The Indian Council of Medical Research has considered revising growth references for India to reflect national trends accurately.

In conclusion, India faces challenges in accurately measuring child undernutrition due to multiple factors. While there is a debate on the suitability of WHO growth standards for India, considering genetic potential and environmental influences, the WHO-MGRS standards are still seen as a useful tool for international and intra-country comparisons. 

Women in MGNREGS

Context: As per the Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS), published by the Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation, Women participation in the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (MGNREGS) was the highest in 10 financial years.

Women participation in MGNREGS:

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  • The rates of participation of women in the MGNREGS, defined as women person-days out of the total in percentage.
  • The proportion of women person-days in the total touching 59.25% in 2023-24, 57.47% in 2022-23 and 54.82% in 2021-22. 
  • The lowest percentage of women participation in the NREGS over the last 10 financial years was recorded in 2020-21 at 53.19%. 
  • The southern states like Kerala (89%), Tamil Nadu (86%), Puducherry (87.16%) and Goa (72%) have recorded women participation rate of over 70%, it has been hovering around 40% or below in northern states like Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh over the years.
  • In 2023-24, 5 states/UTs with the lowest women participation rate under NREGS are: UTs of Jammu and Kashmir (30.47%) and Lakshadweep (38.24%), Uttar Pradesh (42.39%), Madhya Pradesh (42.50%) and Maharashtra (43.76%). 
  • In rural areas, the female Labour Force Participation Rate (LFPR), increased to 30.5% in 2022-23 from 18.2% in 2017-18. 

Impact of MGNREGA on Women Empowerment

  • Economic Independence: It has provided women in rural areas with opportunities for wage employment, that contributed to their economic independence as MGNREGA provides at least 100 days of wage employment.
  • Reduced Gender Wage Gap: It mandates equal wages for men and women for the same work, helped in reducing the gender wage gap and promoting equity in income distribution.
  • Social Empowerment: Women have gained visibility and recognition in their communities, increased social standing can contribute to a positive shift in societal attitudes towards the role and capabilities of women.
  • Health Benefits and Skill Development: Income generated through MGNREGA can be invested in improving the health and education of women and their families.
  • Reduction in Distress Migration: It has helped in mitigating distress migration by providing employment opportunities locally. This is particularly significant for women who may have been left behind in rural areas while male family members migrate in search of work.

Reason for low participation of women in several states: 

  • Absence of safe transportation facilities :The distance between work sites and women's homes can be a deterrent, especially in the absence of reliable and safe transportation facilities.
  • Lack of Childcare Support: The absence of childcare facilities at work sites may pose a challenge for women with young children, making it difficult for them to participate.
  • Lower Wage Rates: MNREGA wage rates (set by centre) of at least 17 of the 21 major states are even lower than the state minimum wage for agriculture, discouraging women from participating in the scheme.
  • Delayed payment of wages: Delayed payment of wages, particularly for women who may face financial constraints.
  • Socio-cultural Norms: Deep-rooted gender norms and stereotypes in certain regions may limit women's mobility. Further,  Women often have significant domestic responsibilities, which can limit their ability to participate in MGNREGA. These may include childcare, eldercare, and household chores that are traditionally ascribed to women​.
  • Safety Concerns: Concerns about safety and harassment at work sites can deter women from participating.
  • Health Issues: Health-related constraints like being Anaemic  can also impact women's ability to engage in labour-intensive work typically offered under MNREGA.

Suggestive measures to ensure high participation of women in MGNREGS: 

  • Recommendations given by Parliamentary Standing Committee on Rural Development and Panchayati Raj: 
    • The long-standing demand for increasing wages must be address through suitable linkage to the inflation index.
    • The committee has suggested that the government must take measures for better promotion of “women-centric works” through creation or linking of existing livelihood projects under the scheme.
    • Ministry of Rural Development needs to bridge the wage disparity among states by notifying a uniform wage rate structure.
    • It recommended increasing the guaranteed days of work under the scheme from 100 to 150 days to deal with exigencies arising from natural calamities.

About Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act: 

Introduced in: 2005.

Nodal ministry: Ministry of Rural Development (MRD).

Aim: For improving the purchasing power of the people living in rural areas. Primarily semi or unskilled work was given to people living below the poverty line in rural India. Also aims to guarantee the 'right to work' (Article 41).

Mandate: To provide at least 100 days of guaranteed employment in a financial year to every rural household whose adult members volunteer to do unskilled manual work at the statutory minimum wage.

Key features of the act: 

  • It is a demand-driven wage employment programme and resource transfer from the Centre to the states is based on the demand for employment in each state.
  • Adult members of rural households submit their name, age and address with a photo to the Gram Panchayat, for job card.
  • The registered person can submit an application for work in writing (for at least fourteen days of continuous work) either to Panchayat or to Programme Officer.
  • If work is not provided within 15 days of applying, applicants are entitled to an unemployment allowance. 
  • The employment will be provided within a radius of 5-km. And if it is beyond 5-km, extra wage will be paid.
  • Women are guaranteed one third of the jobs made available under the MGNREGA.
  • The people in coordination with local administration conduct the social audits, whose objective is to ensure public accountability.

Child Labour

Context: Report of the Parliamentary Standing on Labour, Textiles And Skill Development Committee highlighted the gaps that remain in achieving the objective of elimination of child labour by 2025.

Meaning of child:

  • Child and Adolescent Labour (prohibition and regulation) Act 1986 defined child as, a person who has not completed the age of 14 years.

Meaning of Child labour: 

  • ILO defined child labour, as work that deprives children of their childhood, their potential and their dignity, and that is harmful to physical and mental development.

Child labour in India:

  • According to Census 2011: 1.26 crore working children in the age group of 5-14 as compared to the total child population of 25.2 crore.
image 159

Causes of Child Labour in India

image 11 1

Impact of prevalence of Child Labour:

  • Negative impact on health: Especially children are working in hazardous industries such as lead mining, brassware and beedi making etc. For example, in industries like lead mining, exposure to toxins can result in lead poisoning, affecting the nervous system and causing developmental problems.
  • Impact on education & skills: The time spent working in labour-intensive jobs detracts from opportunities for formal education and skill-building activities, limiting the child's future prospects.
  • Permanent disabilities and premature death: Approximately 250 million children aged 5-14 worldwide are engaged in child labour, facing health issues like dangerous working conditions, malnutrition, fatigue, and anaemia. These conditions heighten the risk of work-related hazards, potentially resulting in permanent disability and premature death (UNICEF).
  • Risk of drug abuse: Due to factors such as vulnerability to exploitation, limited access to education, psychosocial stress, and exposure to peer influences.
  • Undermining adult labour: It can depress wages for adult workers, as employers may prefer to hire cheaper child labour instead, can contribute to unemployment among adults.
  • Perpetuating discrimination and inequality: Children engaged in labour may be seen as inferior or less deserving of opportunities, perpetuating discrimination and inequality.
  • Demographic challenges: It can contribute to demographic challenges by affecting the health and well-being of children, potentially leading to higher mortality rates and lower life expectancy, that can impact population growth and demographic structures.
  • Inter-generational poverty: Families in impoverished conditions may resort to sending their children to work due to economic necessity, this perpetuates the cycle of poverty, as the lack of education and skills hinders the children's ability to escape poverty in the future.

Government initiative for protection of child: 

Constitutional provisions: 

  • Article 15 (3) permits positive discrimination in favour of children 
  • Article 21A which makes education free and compulsory between the ages of 6-14 years; 
  • Article 23 states that children should not be forced to work at cheap wages due to their economical or social disadvantage.
  • Article 24 that prohibits employment of children in factories and mines.
  • Article 39, which requires the State to direct its policies to ensure the tender age of children is not abused. 

Legislative initiatives:

  • National Policy on Child Labour, 1987. To adopt a gradual & sequential approach with a focus on rehabilitation of children working in hazardous occupations.
  • National Child Labour Project (NCLP) Scheme ,1988: For running of special schools for child labour withdrawn from work.
  • Child Labour (Prohibition and Regulation) Amendment Act, (CALPRA ) 2016: Prohibits the employment of children below 14 years.
  • Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of Children) Act 2000: It includes the working child need of care and protection, without any limitation of age or type of occupation.
  • The Bonded Labour System (Abolition) Act 1976: Aimed at eradicating bonded labour, a form of modern-day slavery where individuals are forced to work in deplorable conditions due to economic exploitation.
  • Pencil: To ensure effective enforcement of child labour laws and end child labour.

Judiciary Approach:

  • Unni Krishnan Vs Andhra Pradesh: The SC held that children up to the age of 14 had a fundamental right to free education.
  • Neeraja Chaudhary Vs State of Madhya Pradesh: SC stated that the Child Labourers should be rescued and provision for their rehabilitation should be made.
  • U.P. Bandhua Mukti Morcha Vs Union of India:  SC stated that if no steps are taken under Bonded Labour System Act 1976 by the Government, then it would be a violation of Article 23 of the Constitution.
  • Sheela Barse Vs Secretary, Children Aid Society and Others: SC held, If there be no proper growth of children of today, the future of the country will be dark. It is the obligation of every generation to bring up children who will be citizens of tomorrow in a proper way. 
  • M. C. Mehta Vs State of Tamil Nadu: SC has not allowed children to work in a prohibited occupation.

Challenges to eliminate child labour: 

  • Definitional issue: According to the Child and Adolescent Labour (Prohibition and Regulation) Act, 1986 (CALPRA), the panel noted, ‘child’ is defined as someone between 14-18 years and Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act, 2009, child’ is defined as someone between 6-14 years.
  • Issues with Child Labour (Prohibition and Regulation) Amendment Act, 2016: Allows child to be employed in “family or family enterprises”.
    • Employment of children in the CALPRA Act is a cognizable offence, whereas under the Juvenile Justice Act, 2015, it is a non-cognizable offence, leads to ambiguity as well as delay in justice to the aggrieved children.
  • Age identification of children: Difficult task in India due to the lack of identification documents like school registration certificates and birth certificates, creating loophole in the law to exploit.
  • Informal economy: A significant portion of child labour is found in the informal economy, making it harder to regulate and monitor due to weak regulatory oversight.
  • Acceptance among society: Deep-rooted cultural norms, economic pressures, and historical traditions can contribute to the acceptance of child labour in some communities.
  • Corruption and poor enforcement of law: Widespread corruption can undermine efforts to enforce existing laws against child labour, allowing exploitative practices to persist.
  • Lack of proper rehabilitation of children saved from child labour

Way forward to eliminate child labour: 

  • Ensure uniformity in the definition of child.
  • Institute district-level funds, through collected fines from child labour employers, allocating an appropriate amount for the rehabilitation of child laborers. This initiative should follow the provisions outlined in the Central Sector Plan for the rehabilitation of bonded laborers, ensuring immediate relief and rehabilitation for child laborers.
  • Establish a national-level child tracking mechanism to facilitate coordination among the states/Centre.
  • Similar provisions should be introduced for the CALPRA Act, as mentioned in the Protection of Children from Sexual Offences Act, 2012, for taking action against the police for not registering FIRs.
  • The responsibility of reporting children selling goods or begging at traffic lights should be assigned to the traffic police, and they should also be held accountable for not reporting such instances.
  • The government should make positive list of occupations for non-hazardous industries and processes where adolescent can work.
  • There should be an increase in the amount of the fine to 3-4 times the current value, and stricter punishments should be incorporated, such as the cancellation of licenses and attachment of property.

Problems Associated with Urban Housing

According to Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs data, around 19 million households have a shortage of decent housing in cities leading to a slum population of 65.5 million living in 13.7 million slum households in million-plus cities such as Mumbai, Delhi, Hyderabad, Bangalore, etc.

Reasons for the Urban housing crisis in India

Urban Housing shortage exists due to a big gap between demand and availability of housing in the cities, both in terms of number and quality.

  • High population density- Rural distress has led to huge out-migration towards million-plus cities causing a crunch of housing space.
  • Sub-Optimal Utilization of Urban Land: paradoxically land parcels of high urban densities co-exist with those which are sub-optimally utilized. Because,
    • Fragmented and poorly recorded ownership of urban land
    • Multiple public sector organizations—ports, railways, ULBs, etc.— own land under their jurisdictions
  • Restrictions on Floor Space Index/Floor Area Ratio create an artificial scarcity of land, pushing up prices.
  • Rent control regime: rental laws have lowered returns on rental properties and made eviction of tenants particularly difficult, it has led to the stagnation of new investment in rental housing and thereby creating a shortage of affordable housing in the city.
  • Inadequate housing finance: Inadequate housing credit to Low-Income groups (LIG) because of their weak creditworthiness and low disposable incomes, since urbanisation in India is associated with growing informal employment, which failed to provide social security or formal credit to the growing urban population.

Challenges associated with the Housing Crisis:

The challenges of the housing crisis are far-reaching and impact individuals, communities, and the overall well-being of cities. 

1) Shortage of Affordable Housing: There is a significant gap between the demand and supply of affordable housing. A 2012 report by India’s Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs indicated a housing gap of about 19 million units throughout Indian cities, with low-income groups forming the majority of this deficit​​.

  • The cost of construction has risen, and there is an absence of a viable rental market. The increased cost often gets transferred to the buyer, making housing less affordable​​.
  • Lower-income groups often cannot access cheaper loans or formal lending options, and the benefits of subsidies do not reach them effectively, making it difficult to secure formal shelter​​.

2) Pressure on Urban Resources due to Rapid Urbanization: Urban areas are under pressure from the rapid influx of migrants from rural areas, which contributes to the housing shortage. Urban India’s population is projected to nearly double between 2018 and 2050, further exacerbating the housing crisis​​.

  • Urban services are constrained, and infrastructure is often not in place to support new housing developments. This leads to a lack of basic amenities such as water supply, sewage, and electricity in many housing projects.
  • Homelessness and inadequate housing strain public services such as healthcare, infrastructure. Governments and taxpayers bear the burden of providing support and resources to those affected, further stretching already limited budgets. It also led to Environmental degradation: Due to urban heat islands, rising pollution, inadequate drainage and persistent water crisis. Eg- Chennai floods in 2015 due to encroachment of lakes and riverbeds makes for a prime example in this regard.

3) Slum Proliferation and Informal Settlements: Many migrants end up living in slums and informal settlements due to the lack of affordable formal housing. ​​

  • Now there are population without stable shelter and such Homelessness leads to numerous social, health, and economic challenges, as those affected struggle to find employment, access healthcare, and maintain social connections.( The 2011 Census of India reveals that the urban population of the country stood at 31.16% where there are about 4.5 lakh homeless families and a total population of 17.73 lakh is living without any roof over their heads.

4) Gentrification and Displacement: Gentrification occurs when wealthier residents move into low-income neighbourhoods, leading to increased property values and rent hikes. This process often results in the displacement of long-term residents who can no longer afford to live in their neighbourhoods, eroding community cohesion and cultural diversity.

5) Housing Insecurity and Stress: The lack of affordable and stable housing creates significant stress and uncertainty for individuals and families. Constantly worrying about eviction, rising rents, or inadequate living conditions has a detrimental impact on mental and physical health, as well as overall quality of life.

Also Enhanced sense of relative deprivation: Gives rise to urban crimes such as human trafficking, sexual assault, child labour, Juvenile delinquency, prostitution, drugs and suicides.

6) Growth of unplanned suburbs: Due to degrading environment of urban areas people start to out-migrate towards nearby rural areas. Often this outmigration and settlement is unplanned, which give rise to problematic future expansion plan along with the  changing the rural landscape permanently.

Steps taken by the government

1) Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana (Housing for All – Urban)

  • Objective: The Mission addresses urban housing shortage among the EWS/LIG and MIG categories
  • Beneficiaries: Economically weaker section (EWS), low-income groups (LIGs) and Middle-Income Groups (MIGs). The annual income cap is up to Rs 3 lakh for EWS, Rs 3-6 lakh for LIG and Rs 6 -18 lakhs for MIG.
image 158

2) Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission (JNNURM): This program, which was launched in 2005, aims to provide financial assistance to urban local bodies for the development of infrastructure and services.

3) National Urban Housing and Habitat Policy (2007): This policy aims to provide affordable housing and improve living conditions for urban residents, particularly for low-income groups.

4) Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT): This program, launched in 2015, aims to improve basic services and infrastructure in urban areas, including water supply and sewerage systems.

5) Deendayal Antyodaya Yojana - National Urban Livelihoods Mission (DAY-NULM): Launched in 2013, this program aims to reduce poverty and vulnerability of urban poor households by providing them with opportunities for skill development and self-employment.

Way Forward

To address the problems associated with urban housing in India, a multifaceted approach is required. Here are some suggested steps with examples:

  1. Robust rural development: By improving employment opportunities, amenities, and overall living standards in rural areas, there would be less compulsion for mass migration to cities. This can be achieved by creating multiple growth centers across the country, strategically positioned to distribute economic activities more evenly. Such a decentralized approach would alleviate the intense pressure on megacities like Delhi and Mumbai. In turn, this would reduce urban congestion and demand for housing, allowing for more sustainable urban expansion and better quality of life in both rural and urban settings. Developing rural areas not only mitigates the strain on urban infrastructure but also ensures a more balanced and equitable national development.
  2. Enhance Urban Planning and Governance: Strengthen urban planning to keep pace with the rapid urbanization. This includes updating master plans, investing in urban infrastructure, and enforcing land use regulations like Implement single-window clearance systems for housing projects to reduce bureaucratic delays. This can significantly bring down the time and cost of construction, as seen in the ease of doing business reforms in places like Gujarat.
  3. Promote Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs): Encourage collaboration between the government and private developers to create affordable housing. The government can offer incentives like tax benefits or provide land at subsidized rates to make projects financially viable for private developers.
  4. Revise Rent Control Laws: Modernize rent control legislation to protect both landlords and tenants, encouraging landlords to rent out vacant houses. Maharashtra’s Rental Housing Scheme aimed at creating five lakh rental housing units is an example where amendments to rent control can stimulate the rental market​.
  5. Encourage Use of Innovative Building Technologies: Promote the use of cost-effective and sustainable construction methods, such as prefabricated buildings, to reduce the cost and time of construction. Examples include the use of precast technology in mass housing projects.
  6. Expand the Scope of Affordable Housing Programs: PMAY should be broadened to cover not just the construction of houses but also the development of the surrounding infrastructure to ensure holistic development of the area.
  7. Incorporate Inclusionary Zoning: Mandate a percentage of new developments to be allocated for affordable housing. New York City’s Mandatory Inclusionary Housing program requires developers to include affordable housing in new buildings in rezoned areas.

By taking these steps, the goal of providing affordable, sustainable, and inclusive urban housing in India can be progressively achieved. This aligns with the United Nations' Sustainable Development Goals, particularly Goal 11, which seeks to make cities inclusive, safe, resilient, and sustainable. By addressing housing, India also contributes to eradicating poverty and reducing inequalities, echoing the holistic vision of the SDGs for a better future.

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