Social Justice

Socio Economic and Caste Census 2011

Context: The Socio Economic and Caste Census (SECC) 2011 collected data on a range of parameters, parts of which were published in 2016. But the data on caste populations, other than the total numbers of SCs and STs, was not made public.

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: Key facts about Socio Economic and Caste Census (SECC) 2011; Caste Census

Mains: Need for caste-based census and associated challenges.

Census exercises in independent India have never collected disaggregated caste data. The most recent publicly available data on caste populations at the national level are from the 1931 Census. The 1931 Census will serve as the baseline for the caste data that the government has now decided to collect as part of the upcoming Census (most likely in 2026).

Socio Economic and Caste Census (SECC) 2011

  • The SECC is the most recent data on the populations of individual castes and tribes in India that were collected between 2011 and 2013, an exercise that followed the Census of 2011.
  • The SECC data was published in 2016, but only the socio-economic findings were made public. The data on caste populations, other than the total numbers of SCs and STs, was not made public.
  • The caste data was handed over to the Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment. An expert group led by then-NITI Aayog Vice Chairperson Arvind Panagariya was tasked with its classification — a report which remains unreleased.

Key facts about SECC 2011:

  • SECC 2011 was a study of socio-economic status of rural and urban households, and allowed the ranking of households based on predefined parameters.
  • It was conducted by the Ministry of Rural Development in rural areas, and the Ministry of Housing and Urban Poverty Alleviation in urban areas.
  • The caste census was under the administrative control of the Ministry of Home Affairs, through the Registrar General of India (RGI) and Census Commissioner of India. 
  • All personal information in SECC is open for use by government departments to grant and/ or restrict benefits to households. The data can be used for policy, research, and the implementation of various development programs.

Data collected in SECC 2011

  • Disaggregated details of Caste: SECC asked for the respondents’ “Caste/ Tribe Status”, choosing from SC (Code 1), ST (Code 2), Other (Code 3), and No Caste/ Tribe (Code 4), and for the Name of Caste/ Tribe if the respondent belonged to any of the first three categories. SECC clarified that SC can be only among the Hindus, Sikhs and Buddhists, while ST can be from any religion.
  • Economic Status: The SECC asked for information on housing/ dwelling, such as ownership and the predominant material of wall and roof (grass/ bamboo/ wood/ mud/ brick/ stone, etc). It also collected information on household amenities such as the source of drinking water and lighting (electricity/ kerosene/ solar etc), latrines, waste water outlets, and availability of a separate kitchen, and on assets such as refrigerator, telephone/ mobile phone, computer, motorised vehicles, ACs, and washing machines.
  • In Urban Areas: The SECC sought the names of both father and mother, and main source of income — from begging/ ragpicking to street vending; domestic, construction, shop, transport, etc work; to non-work (pension/ rent/ interest) and no income.
  • In Rural Areas: The SECC sought to know if any member in a household belonged to a primitive tribal group, was a legally released bonded labourer, or a manual scavenger. It collected details of the main source of household income — cultivation, manual casual labourer, foraging, begging, etc — and of land ownership and availability of mechanised agricultural equipment, etc.

Also Read: Is the caste Census a useful exercise?

India’s Immunisation Journey

Context: Vaccines are one of the most effective tools in modern medicine and one of humanity’s greatest achievements. India has earned the title of 'pharmacy of the world', and is the backbone of a stable, resilient and equitable global healthcare system.

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: Key facts related to various immunisation efforts.

Mains: India's role as a global vaccine hub, challenges and solutions.

India’s Immunisation Journey

1. Early beginning of Immunisation: 

  • India’s first smallpox vaccine was administered in Bombay in 1802, laying the foundation for public preventive healthcare.
  • Tuberculosis campaign (1948): Preventive mass immunisation began with the adoption of the International Tuberculosis Campaign, targeting TB which claimed an estimated 500,000 lives per year in India in the 1940s.

2. Institutionalising Immunisation:

  • Expanded Programme on Immunisation (EPI): In 1978, EPI was launched which aimed at providing free vaccines, initially against six diseases. 
  • Universal Immunisation Programme (1985): EPI was renamed as UIP. It provided free vaccines against 12 vaccine-preventable diseases including: TB, polio, measles, and hepatitis B. UIP is among the largest public health programs globally, reaching over 2.67 crore newborns and 2.9 crore pregnant women each year. Significant achievements: successful eradication of polio in 2014. 
  • Mission Indradhanush (2014): Aim: To improve full immunisation coverage for children in India from 65% in 2014 to at least 90% earlier than 2020. MI focuses on vaccinating women and children against a host of diseases, including diphtheria, pertussis, tetanus, polio, TB, meningitis and pneumonia. The initiative has completed twelve phases so far, covering 554 districts across the country.

In 2023-24, India reached full, national immunisation coverage — a milestone made possible through the consistent and extensive efforts of programmes like UIP and MI. 

3. Technological Innovations: 

  • eVIN: India has introduced technology-driven innovations such as the Electronic Vaccine Intelligence Network (eVIN) to strengthen vaccine logistics and transparency. It is an AI-integrated application that modernises healthcare delivery through real-time vaccine stock monitoring.
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India’s role in Global Immunisation Efforts

  • Covering 60% of the global vaccine supply, India is remarkably one of the biggest suppliers of low-cost vaccines in the world.
  • Initiatives like Vaccine Maitri during the COVID-19 pandemic further underscored India's commitment to global health equity.
  • International collaborations with GAVI, COVAX, and WHO underlines India’s commitment to global health.  

India’s immunisation journey illustrates an inspiring story of transformation- from early experiments with smallpox vaccines to achieving full national immunisation coverage and becoming the "pharmacy of the world." 

SC allows UGC to notify rules on Caste Discrimination

Context: The Supreme Court has allowed the University Grants Commission (UGC) to notify its 2025 Regulations aimed at promoting equity in higher education, while keeping the door open for improvements based on expert recommendations from the Task Force. 

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts related to UGC Draft Regulations 2025.

Background:

  • Caste-based discrimination in higher education: Tragic suicides of Rohith Vemula (2016) and Payal Tadvi (2019), both from marginalised communities, highlighted systemic issues of caste-based discrimination in higher education institutions (HEIs). In 2019, a Public Interest Litigation (PIL) sought mechanisms to prevent such discrimination. 
  • Justice S. Ravindra Bhat Task Force (2025): In response, the Supreme Court constituted a National Task Force chaired by former Justice S. Ravindra Bhat to examine student suicides and mental health concerns in higher education institutions.
  • The petitioners requested the Court to hold off notifying the new University Grants Commission Regulations of 2025, until the National Task Force gave its full report on mental health, student suicides, and discrimination in colleges and universities.
  • However, the SC has allowed the regulations to be notified while ensuring that the Task Force’s work would continue and its recommendations could still be incorporated into the regulations later.

Caste-based discrimination in India’s Educational institutions: 

  • Centre for Study of Developing Societies (CSDS) Youth Survey found that 1 in 4 Dalit students in colleges reported being discriminated against by teachers.
  • Indian Institute of Dalit Studies (IIDS) Findings reported that over 65% of Dalit students experience caste-based discrimination in classrooms.

According to India Survey on Higher Education (AISHE) 2021-22:

  • Low enrollment rates: SC and ST students still have lower enrolment rates in higher education: (SC - 14.2% of total enrolment and ST - 5.8%).
  • Higher dropout rates: Dropout rates are higher among SC/ST students, often attributed to hostile campus environments and caste-based microaggressions.

University Grants Commission Regulations of 2025

The draft regulations deal with ragging, sexual harassment and discrimination on the basis of caste, gender, disability, among other biases in institutions of higher learning.

Key Provisions: 

  • Enhanced authority of UGC: The regulations give the UGC the authority to derecognise (disqualify) any institution that does not follow the anti-discrimination rules or is found guilty of mistreatment.
  • Clear responsibility: Institutions must take responsibility for protecting students from any form of discrimination, including on the basis of caste, religion, or mental health issues.
  • Preventive measures: Colleges and universities are expected to set up mechanisms (like anti-discrimination cells or support groups) to handle complaints and provide a safe environment.
  • Equal Opportunity Centres: Mandatory establishment of EOCs in all higher education institutions to oversee equity initiatives and address grievances.
  • Monitoring and Accountability: Institutions will be required to report cases and submit regular updates to the UGC about the actions taken against discrimination.
  • False complaints: The regulations also address false complaints, potentially leading to fines or disciplinary action for those found to have made such complaints.
  • Counseling: Provision of mental health support and counseling services to students to address psychological well-being.

Nomination of Persons with Disabilities to Local Bodies

Context: The state government of Tamil Nadu has introduced two Bills in the Legislative Assembly to increase representation of persons with disabilities (PwDs) in all local government bodies across the state. This is seen as an affirmative action and effective way to increase their representation. 

Relevance of the Topic: Mains: Increased Political Representation of PwDs as one aspect of larger Disability Rights and Affirmative action. 

Affirmative Action as a Tool for Justice: Affirmative action is an effective means to address historical injustices and systemic deprivation, especially for marginalised communities.

Scope of the Bills

  • First Bill amends the Tamil Nadu Urban Local Bodies Act to nominate PwDs to all town panchayats, municipal councils, and municipal corporations.
  • Second Bill amends the Tamil Nadu Panchayats Act to ensure at least one PwD is nominated to every village panchayat, panchayat union council, and district panchayat.
  • If enacted, these laws will guarantee posts for PwDs in urban local bodies, village panchayats, panchayat unions, and district panchayats. Currently, only 35 PwDs serve in urban local bodies, indicating a significant gap in representation.

Tenure and Entitlements:

  • Nominated members will serve for the same term as elected members (generally 5 years).
  • They will receive honoraria, allowances, and other benefits at par with elected councilors.
  • However, they will not have voting rights in council decisions. Their role is advisory and representative.

Potential Impacts of the Legislation

  • Empowerment and Social Change: The move aims to ensure dignity, reduce stigma, and empower the disabled community by involving them directly in grassroots decision-making, leadership roles, and increase their social acceptance. 
  • Inclusive Representation: For PwDs, the barriers to contest elections are immense be it due to financial constraints, lack of accessibility, or stigma. The bills breaks those barriers and brings their voices to the forefront. Tamil Nadu’s initiative is described as the first in India to bring PwDs into mainstream leadership roles in local governance.
  • Catalyst for Inclusive Growth: PwDs would be able to highlight issues like inaccessible public buildings, lack of ramps, poorly maintained roads, job quotas, healthcare access, or school facilities—right in the forums that make decisions about them. It would have a ripple effect:
    • Awareness increases among other members.
    • May increase Budget allocations for disability-specific needs.
    • Policies would become more empathetic and grounded in real-world challenges.

The reforms are intended not just to integrate PwDs into society, but to enable them to act as agents of change and leaders, benefiting both the community and society at large.

However, we need to be cautioned against tokenism, taking reference from past experiences where women leaders were replaced in practice by male relatives, and ensure that the intended beneficiaries—PwDs—truly receive the benefits of the reform.

Reservation in Private Educational Institutions

Context: The issue of extending reservations to Private Higher Educational Institutions (PHEIs) has gained renewed political attention, particularly with the opposition party reiterating its demand in recent times.

Relevance of the Topic:Mains: Debate: Reservation in Private Educational Institutions. 

Legal Framework supporting Reservation in Private Institutions

(a) Constitutional Provisions: Article 15(5) inserted via 93rd Constitutional Amendment Act (2005): Enables the State to make special provisions for the advancement of SCs, STs, and SEBCs (i.e., OBCs) for admissions to educational institutions, including private, aided and unaided, except minority institutions. This provision explicitly allows reservation in private educational institutions.

(b) Judicial Pronouncements:

  • Ashok Kumar Thakur vs Union of India (2008): It upheld 27% OBC reservation in Central Educational Institutions. However, it did not rule on unaided private institutions but recognised the broader legitimacy of affirmative action.
  • Indian Medical Association vs Union of India (2011): It upheld reservation in private unaided professional colleges.
  • Pramati Educational & Cultural Trust vs Union of India (2014): Upheld the validity of Article 15(5) and extended the legality of reservation to unaided private institutions.

These rulings make it clear that there is no legal bar to implementing reservation in private colleges and universities, provided minority institutions are excluded.

Need for Reservation in Private Higher Education Institutions

  • Quantitative Expansion:
    • Rise of Private Universities: In 2024, there are over 500 private universities in India. Over 75% of the HEIs in India are privately managed. 
    • Share of Enrollment: Private universities account for 26% of total higher education enrolment (2021-22). Private unaided colleges account for 45% of total college enrolment. 
  • Quality divide: Public universities are increasingly under-funded, overcrowded, short on faculty with limited learning or job prospects. In contrast, PHEIs offer better infrastructure, classroom sizes, and faculty remuneration, attracting the best and becoming elite enclaves.Skewed representation in Private Institutions: All India Survey of Higher Education (AISHE) 2021–22 shows that the representation of various marginalised communities in private institutions: 
    • SCs: 6.8% (vs ~17% population share)
    • STs: 3.6% (vs ~9%)
    • OBCs: 24.9% (vs ~45–50%)
    • Muslims: 3.8% (vs ~15%)

This indicates a clear under-representation of marginalised communities in private universities and quota-based affirmative action significantly improves social diversity in educational spaces.

Social and Economic Arguments in Favour of Reservation:

  • Breaking the Cycle of ‘Effectively Maintained Inequality’: Sociologist Satish Deshpande argues that elite social groups adapt to maintain their advantage even when the access widens. Privatisation becomes a tool to escape reservation, enabling the elite to recreate exclusivity in high-end institutions.
  • Correcting Structural Discrimination: Marginalised groups face intergenerational exclusion in education. Private institutions often offer sought-after courses (law, management, STEM), and lack of reservation excludes Dalits, Adivasis and OBCs from these tracks. If public jobs and public universities follow reservation policies, leaving private education outside the purview, weakens the overall impact of affirmative action. 
  • Recommendation of Parliament’s Standing Committee: In its 364th Report on the Demand for Grants for the Department of Higher Education, the Parliamentary Standing Committee on Education, Women, Children, Youth, and Sports also recommended a new legislation to implement Article 15(5) as well. 

Way Forward

  • Strengthen Public Education: Increase public funding, fill faculty vacancies, and improve student-teacher ratios and campus infrastructure.
  • Mandate Social Inclusion in Private Sector: Legally mandate private institutions (excluding minority-run ones) to implement quotas for SCs, STs, and OBCs. 
  • Incentivise private-sector universities: Link recognition, accreditation, and tax exemptions to reservation compliance. Robust monitoring mechanism for compliance. 

However, mandating private institutions to implement reservations may interfere with their institutional autonomy. The utmost importance should be given to improve the quality of HEIs and capacity building.  

Rising Non-Communicable Disease burden

Context: Non-Communicable Diseases (NCDs) are rapidly rising in India, particularly in the urban areas. Studies have shown increased risks of NCDs for women post-menopause, with a significant rise in diabetes, obesity, fatty liver, and hypertension.

Relevance of the topic: Mains- Role of Urbanisation in increasing the Burden of NCDs; Government Initiatives. 

What are Non-Communicable Diseases?

  • NCDs: Group of chronic diseases that are not caused by infectious agents and typically have a long development period.
  • Diseases: They include a range of conditions such as cardiovascular diseases, cancer, diabetes, chronic respiratory diseases , and mental health disorders.
  • Risk factors for NCDs: Unhealthy diets, physical inactivity, tobacco use, harmful use of alcohol, pollution and environmental factors.
  • According to the World Health Organisation, NCDs account for 71% of all deaths globally, with cardiovascular diseases being the leading cause.
    • As per the WHO’s latest report (2022), 66% of total deaths in India in 2019 were due to NCDs.
    • Older adults (60 and above) have reported the highest infectious, NCDs, disability and injuries.
What are Non-Communicable Diseases?
Non-Communicable Diseases - risk factors

Role of Urbanisation in Increasing the Burden of NCDs:

  • Economic Structure: Urban economies are primarily service-oriented, which reduces the need for manual labor compared to agrarian rural economies. This contributes to the sedentary lifestyle and associated risk of NCDs. 
  • Changing Dietary Patterns: Urban areas often see increased consumption of processed foods, unhealthy fats, and sugars, leading to poor nutrition which are directly related to rising incidence of NCDs. 
  • Environmental Factors: Pollution and the Urban Heat Island effect exacerbate health risks associated with NCDs.
  • Lifestyle Choices: Higher prevalence of alcohol consumption and smoking in urban settings increases the risk of developing NCDs.
  • Family Structure Changes: The shift towards nuclear families in urban areas can lead to mental health issues due to a lack of emotional support from extended family members. 

Initiatives taken by the Government:

  • National Programme for Prevention and Control of Cancer, Diabetes, Cardiovascular Diseases and Stroke (NP-CDCS): Implemented since 2010 intends to prevent and control major NCDs (Hypertension, Diabetes, Cardiovascular disease, Cancer, Stroke, Chronic kidney disease, COPD/ Asthma, Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease, etc).
  • National Action Plan: India has adopted the National Action Plan with specific national targets and indicators aimed at reducing the number of global premature deaths from NCDs by 25% by 2025.
    • The plan was based on the WHO's Global Action Plan for the Prevention and Control of NCDs (2013-2020). UN SDG (Target 3.4) aims to reduce premature mortality from NCDs by one-third by 2030 in the world.
  • Ayushman Bharat Pradhan Mantri Jan Arogya Yojana includes coverage for treatment of NCDs, to over 10 crore families, including cancer.
  • Fit India Movement and promotion of Yoga to encourage people to remain healthy and fit by including physical activities and sports in their lifestyle.
  • National Mental Health Programme and National Tele Mental Health Programme to improve access to quality mental health counselling and care services in the country.

India’s Educational Transformation 

Context: India’s education system in the past had been characterised by outdated policies, corruption, and a disconnect from India's civilisational ethos. The National Education Policy (NEP) 2020 marks a decisive shift towards accessibility, equity, and modernisation. 

Relevance of the Topic:Mains: Education transformation in India: Key Initiatives. 

National Education Policy (NEP) 2020

  • The NEP 2020 outlines the vision of the new education system of India. It replaces the previous National Policy on Education of 1986. 
  • The NEP 2020 is based on five key pillars: Access, Equity, Quality, Affordability, and Accountability.

Read More: National Education Policy 2020 

India’s Educational Landscape: Key Initiatives 

In the recent decade, the government has undertaken significant reforms in the educational landscape. This has resulted in improved educational enrollment and reduction of structural inequities. 

1. Promoting Inclusivity: 

  • Since 2014-15, the enrolment of Scheduled Castes (SC) in higher education has increased by 50%, Scheduled Tribes (ST) by 75%, and Other Backward Classes (OBCs) by 54% since 2014-15.
  • Female enrolment across all categories has grown by an impressive 38.8%, crossing 2.18 crore in 2022-23. Among Muslim minority students, the female enrolment rose by 57.5%.

This is in line with NEP 2020 which aims to decentralise education and promote inclusivity.

2. Women’s Empowerment in Education:

  • In higher education, PhD enrolment among women has increased by 135%. 
  • Women in the field of higher education STEMM (science, technology, engineering, mathematics, and medicine) constitute 43%. 
  • Female teachers constitute 44% of the teaching workforce, up from 38% in 2014.

3. Increased Government Investment in Education:

  • Per-child government expenditure has risen by 130%, from ₹10,780 (2013-14) to ₹25,043 (2021-22).
  • Through NEP 2020, enhanced focus on early childhood education, foundational learning, and numeracy for holistic development.
  • Focus on modernisation of government schools with improved infrastructure and pedagogy. E.g., 
    • Introduction of coding from middle school.
    • Establishment of Atal Tinkering Labs (ATL): Over 10,000 ATLs are operational in 2024.

4. Higher Education Reforms and Global Recognition:

  • In higher education, sustainable revenue models have freed universities from resource dependency. 
  • India now has 11 universities in the QS World Rankings top 500, a remarkable improvement from the past. 
  • Research publications have increased by 88% since 2015, propelling India to 39 in the Global Innovation Index, up from 76 in 2014. 
  • Anusandhan-National Research Foundation has been established to boost research and innovation in collaboration with industry and academia.

5. Restoring Indian Knowledge Traditions and Language Primacy:

  • NEP 2020 has restored primacy to all Indian languages and knowledge traditions, overcoming the decades of ‘English-first’ policies.
  • Through the Indian Knowledge Systems (IKS) initiative, over 8,000 higher education institutions have adopted the IKS curriculum.
  • Through the Bharatiya Bhasha Pustak Yojana, 15,000 original and translated textbooks in 22 Indian languages will be published.

The government envisions an educational renaissance aligning with India’s rich intellectual heritage. The educational initiatives along with NEP 2020 aim to propel India into the ranks of developed nations. 

Abortion and Foetal Viability: Legal Framework in India 

Context: Abortion rights remain a contentious issue globally, often caught between ethical concerns and legal frameworks. India has a progressive abortion law compared to some nations but still presents challenges beyond 24 weeks of pregnancy.

Relevance of the Topic: Mains: Abortion rights in India- Issues, Case Study, etc.

Abortion Laws in India

  • The law on abortion in India is primarily governed by Sections 312-316 of the Indian Penal Code and the provisions of the Medical Termination of Pregnancy Act, 1971.
  • The MTP (Amendment) Act, 2021 has expanded the access to safe and legal abortion services on therapeutic, eugenic, humanitarian and social grounds to ensure universal access to comprehensive care.
Abortion Laws in India

Major Provisions of the MTP (Amendment) Act, 2021: 

  • Increase in Gestation Periods:
    • The Amendment Act increases the maximum gestational limit for pregnancies that may be aborted on the advice of one 'registered medical practitioner' from 12 weeks to 20 weeks.
    • For pregnancies that may be aborted on the advice of two medical practitioners, the limit has been raised to 24 weeks.
    • Earlier, if the length of the pregnancy was over 20 weeks and a woman wished to undergo a termination, she would have to file a writ petition before the High Court concerned or the Supreme Court.
  • Recognition of Pregnancies outside of Traditional Marriages:
    • The Amendment reflects the change in definition from "pregnant married woman" to "pregnant woman" and from "her husband" to "her partner".
  • Termination due to Failure of Contraceptive Method/Device:
    • Another laudable amendment is the inclusion of unwanted pregnancies due to the failure of contraceptives, as a ground for abortion.
    • Under the original MTP Act, abortions could take place only by proving that there was grave risk to the pregnant woman or grave risk of serious physical or mental abnormality.
  • Setting up of Medical Boards:
    • All state and union territory governments will constitute a Medical Board. The Board will decide if a pregnancy may be terminated after 24 weeks due to substantial foetal abnormalities.
    • Earlier, the medical boards were created by various High Courts and Supreme Court after entertaining writs filed by women, and were not in any way statutorily mandated.
  • Privacy: A registered medical practitioner may only reveal the details of a woman whose pregnancy has been terminated to a person authorised by law.

Also Read: Medical Termination of Pregnancy (Amendment) Act, 2021 

Important Judgement(s) by the Supreme Court w.r.t. Abortion

  • 2023 Supreme Court Judgment on Late-Term Abortions:
    • The Supreme Court ruled that a woman's bodily autonomy must be respected, even in late-term pregnancies.
    • However, it also emphasised the role of medical boards in determining whether abortion can be granted beyond 24 weeks.
    • This judgment highlighted the conflict between individual reproductive rights and state-mandated medical scrutiny.
    • This case has shown that women can be compelled to carry pregnancies, even if they vouch that the pregnancy is unwanted and dangerous to their well-being.
  • X v/s NCT of Delhi (2022):
    • In this judgement, the Supreme Court held that termination of pregnancies between 20 and 24 weeks is available to all women who are undergoing any change in their material circumstances.
    • The Court said that ‘it is the woman alone who has the right over her body’ and is the ‘ultimate decision-maker’ in deciding if she wants an abortion.

Key Considerations on ‘Abortion Rights’ in evolving Medico-legal landscape: 

1. Rights of a Foetus Under Indian Law: The rights of a foetus under the Indian Constitution are unclear as there has been no upfront articulation of it. A 2016 Bombay High Court decision relied on international human rights law to hold that the foetus does not have rights till birth. Hence, there is an urgent need to articulate the rights of a foetus under the Indian Laws.

2. Challenges in Accessing Late-Term Abortions (Medico-legal Barriers): Medical boards follow strict guidelines, allowing abortion only in extreme cases. Even severe congenital conditions may not guarantee approval for termination. Women seeking abortions post-24 weeks face lengthy legal battles, delaying decisions. E.g., A woman with postpartum depression was denied abortion at 26 weeks despite medical complications.

3. Implications of Advancements in Neonatal Medicine: With medical advancements, premature babies as early as 24-26 weeks can survive with intensive care. This raises concerns that should abortion rights be reduced as neonatal care improves? However, there is a risk of legal precedence restricting abortion rights based on medical developments rather than reproductive autonomy.

4. Privacy Concerns (Case study: Haryana’s Pregnancy registration mandate): Haryana state government aims at curbing female foeticide by ensuring early pregnancy registration. It mandates ultrasound centers to register pregnant women. Critics argue it violates privacy rights and deters women from seeking legal abortions. Could push women towards unsafe abortions outside formal healthcare systems. The mandate is in conflict with the MTP Act, which ensures confidentiality in abortion cases.

India’s Social Security Coverage Doubles

Context: According to the International Labour Organisation’s (ILO) World Social Protection Report 2024-26, India’s social protection coverage has doubled to 48.8% in 2024. 

Relevance of the topic: Prelims: World Social Protection Report; Key Government Initiatives. 

Major Highlights:

  • India’s social protection coverage has doubled from 24.4% in 2021 to 48.8% in 2024 as per ILO’s World Social Protection Report (WSPR) 2024-26.
  • A comprehensive data pooling exercise by the Union Ministry of Labour in collaboration with ILO shows:
    • Nearly 92 crore people, or 65% of India’s population is covered by at least one form of social protection, whether in cash or in-kind, through central government schemes.
  • More than 200 crore records were processed to identify unique beneficiaries by utilising encrypted Aadhaar across 34 major Central schemes such as the MGNREGA, Employees Provident Fund and Employees State Insurance.

Criticism

  • ILO’s assessment of 48.8% is considered an underestimation as it does not include:
    • In-kind benefits like food security (E.g., PM Garib Kalyan Anna Yojana), housing, and health benefits.
    • State-administered social welfare schemes. 

World Social Protection Report

  • Comprehensive assessment published periodically by the International Labour Organisation (ILO). ILO is a specialised agency of the United Nations dedicated to labour rights and social justice. 
  • The report evaluates social protection systems globally, examining their coverage, effectiveness, and progress in ensuring social security for diverse populations.
  • Utility: key resource for governments and policymakers to work towards stronger and more inclusive welfare systems.

Expanding Social Security: Key Government Initiatives

  • Ayushman Bharat- Pradhan Mantri Jan Arogya Yojana: As of March 2025, over 39 crore Ayushman Cards have been issued, offering free health coverage of up to ₹5 lakh per family. The scheme is accessible at 24,810 empanelled hospitals nationwide.
  • Pradhan Mantri Garib Kalyan Anna Yojana: Provides free food grains to vulnerable populations. As of December 2024, over 80.6 crore people are receiving free food grains, close to the intended coverage of 81.35 crore beneficiaries.
  • eShram Portal (2021): To create a National Database of Unorganised Workers. A Universal Account Number (UAN) is given to workers for enhanced social security. As of March, 2025, over 30 crore unorganised workers have registered (53% of them being women).
  • Atal Pension Yojana (2015): Provides universal social security to underprivileged and unorganised sector workers. Along with Pradhan Mantri Jeevan Jyoti Bima Yojana and Pradhan Mantri Suraksha Bima Yojana, it strengthens the social security system.

Over the past decade, India’s social security measures have helped lift 24.8 crore people out of multidimensional poverty.  

Report flags underutilisation of funds by District Mineral Foundation

Context: A recent report prepared by iForest, an independent research group, flags underutilisation of development and welfare funds collected by the District Mineral Foundations. 

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: District Mineral Foundation; Pradhan Mantri Khanij Kshetra Kalyan Yojana

Performance of District Mineral Foundation

  • Underutilisation of funds: Despite collecting about ₹1 lakh crore in the past decade by the DMF, more than half the funds is unspent. 
  • Diversion of funds: The funds are often diverted to activities that are not directly linked to the welfare of mining districts — a contravention of the Centre’s guidelines.

Achievements of District Mineral Foundation:

  • Decentralised community-centric development works have been carried out in mining affected districts.
  • DMF has been instrumental in:
    • setting up of women led SHGs in different states for example Odisha.
    • skill development and livelihood generation in mining affected districts.
  •  DMFs have adopted measures, such as, establishing a dedicated engineering department and deputing personnel from the State Public Works Department to ensure the efficient implementation of projects.
  • Note: Odisha accounts for the highest share of DMF funds, about 29% (₹30,126 crore) of the country’s total, followed by Chhattisgarh and Jharkhand. 

District Mineral Foundation (DMF):

  • Non-profit trusts established under the Mines & Minerals (Development & Regulation) (MMDR) Amendment Act, 2015 in all the districts affected by mining.
  • Objective: To work for the interest and benefit of persons, and areas affected by mining related operations.
  • The composition and functions of the DMF shall be prescribed by the State Government.
  • DMFs ensure that a portion of the revenues generated from mining is spent on the development of the districts. DMFs have been set up in 645 districts in 23 States in the country which have framed DMF rules. 
  • The holder of a mining lease or a prospecting licence-cum-mining lease granted on or after the date of commencement of the MMDR Amendment Act, 2015, shall share some amount of royalty with DMF.  

Pradhan Mantri Khanij Kshetra Kalyan Yojana:

  • Launched in: 2015
  • Initiative of: Ministry of Mines
  • Implemented by: District Mineral Foundations of the respective districts. 
  • Aim: To provide for the welfare of areas and people affected by mining related operations, using the funds generated by DMF.
  • Objectives:
    • implement various developmental and welfare projects in mining affected areas.
    • to mitigate the adverse impacts (during and after mining) on the environment, health and socio-economics of people in mining districts.
    • ensure long-term sustainable livelihoods for the affected people in mining areas.
  • PMKKKY provides for utilisation of at least 70% of the funds for high priority areas like: (i) drinking water supply (ii) environment preservation and pollution control measures (iii) health care (iv) education (v) welfare of women and children (vi) welfare of aged and disabled people (vii) skill development (viii) sanitation ix) housing (x) agriculture and (xi) animal husbandry. 
  • While, up to 30% of the funds shall be utilised for other priority areas (i) physical infrastructure (ii) irrigation (iii) energy and watershed development and (iv) any other measures for enhancing environmental quality in mining districts.

The prime focus of DMF and PMKKKY is to alleviate poverty and deprivation, which requires a balanced investment in human resources and infrastructure. However, this balance has not been achieved in any district.

Guidelines to tackle MGNREGS Job Card Deletions

Context: The Ministry of Rural Development has issued guidelines to tackle the challenge of high rate of deletions of job cards issued to workers under the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (MGNREGS).

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key Facts about MGNREGA.

Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme

  • Launched: under the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act 2005. 
  • Objective: Provides at least 100 days of guaranteed wage employment per financial year to rural households whose adult members volunteer for unskilled manual work.
  • Implementing Authority: Ministry of Rural Development (MoRD)
  • Type of Work Covered: Water conservation, rural connectivity, irrigation, land development, etc. 

Recent Central Govt. guidelines on Job Card Deletions:

  • Gram Sabha Approval: Job cards or workers' deletions should take place only after due verification in the gram sabha, or in the social audit gram sabha, or in a special gram sabha called for the purpose. 
  • Permitted reasons for Job Card Deletion:
    • Permanent migration of the household to urban areas or another Panchayat.
    • Gram Panchayat declared as an urban settlement.
    • Duplicate job card or forged registration.
    • Death of the worker.
    • Household/workers formally requesting deletion in writing.
  • Publication of Deleted Names: Names of deleted workers/job cards must be in the public domain for 30 days to allow objections. The cause of deletion of each job card has to be revealed. Each cause of deletion must be confirmed by the gram sabha.
  • Right to Appeal: Households can appeal against job card cancellations. Gram Sabhas to discuss flagged deletions twice a year.
  • Payment of Dues: No deletion to be carried out before clearing pending wages of workers.

Reason for Issuance of Guidelines

  • High rate of deletions of job cards issued under MGNREGS. Over 10.43 crore workers were deleted in the last four years. The deletions have increased after the Aadhaar-Based Payment System (ABPS) became mandatory in January 2023.

Mass deletions of job cards without proper scrutiny can undermine MGNREGS’s purpose. A balance must be maintained between policy enforcement and ensuring social security for the rural workforce.

Habitual Offender Laws in India

Context: Recently, the Government of India has revealed in Parliament that laws which declare a section of criminals as “habitual offenders” continue to operate in as many as 14 States and Union Territories.

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: Habitual offender laws- committees/reports

Mains: Habitual offender laws- Background, Issues, Way Forward

Habitual Offender Laws

  • Habitual offender laws in India allow state authorities to identify and monitor individuals convicted of certain crimes repeatedly. 
  • These laws were intended to control repeat offenders, but have come under heavy criticism for institutionalising discrimination- especially against denotified, nomadic, and semi-nomadic tribes (DNT, NT, SNT) communities (historically labelled as criminal tribes during British rule).

Evolution of Habitual Offender Laws: 

  • Colonial Era Policies:
  • Post-Independence developments:
    • Repeal of Criminal Tribes Act (1952): Replaced with Habitual Offenders Acts by several states.
    • State enactments (1950s-1970s): 
      • Madras Restriction of Habitual Offenders Act, 1948
      • Rajasthan Habitual Offenders Act, 1953
      • Similar laws in AP, Karnataka, UP, West Bengal, etc.

Observations of Important Committees & Reports:

Committee/ReportsObservations
CTA Enquiry Committee (1949-50)Repeal of CTA and shift towards individual-based classification
Lokur Committee (1965)Still viewed DNTs as having “anti-social heritage”
National Commission on DNT (2008, B.S. Renke Report)Highlighted the continuing misuse of habitual offenders laws
Virginius Xaxa Committee (2014)Linked habitual offender laws to systemic caste-based discrimination
United Nations (2007)Recommended repeal due to racial and caste discrimination

Crimes under the Habitual Offender Tag: 

  • State laws define habitual offenders based on prior convictions for specific offences, including:
    • Being a thug 
    • Belonging to a gang of dacoits 
    • Living on the earnings of prostitution 
    • Various forms of lurking.  
  • These laws typically involve maintaining registers of such offenders, which continue to echo the registration practices under the CTA. E.g., In states like Rajasthan, prison manuals even explicitly link habitual offender status to denotified communities. 

Supreme Court’s stand on Habitual Offenders Classification (October 2024 Judgment): 

  • The Supreme Court termed the classification “constitutionally suspect.” It observed that such laws unfairly target members of Denotified Tribes. The SC urged the state governments to review the necessity of these laws.

NCRB Data on Habitual Offenders (2022): 

  • 1.9% of India’s 1.29 lakh convicts are classified as habitual offenders. Delhi has the highest proportion (21.5%) of convicts categorised as habitual offenders.

Impact on Denotified Tribes: 

  • Social consequences:
    • Continuous police harassment and wrongful arrests.
    • Discrimination in employment and social welfare schemes.
    • Stigmatisation of entire communities as "born criminals."
  • Legal and Human Rights concerns:
    • 1998 Budhan Sabar Case: Death in police custody led to nationwide outrage.
    • DNT-RAG (Rights Action Group) Advocacy: Formed by Mahasweta Devi & G.N. Devy to fight for DNT rights.
    • NHRC (2000): Recommended repeal of habitual offenders laws.
    • United Nations (2007): Called for abolition citing human rights violations.

Arguments in favour of retaining the Laws: 

  • Provides a framework for monitoring repeat criminals.
  • States argue that the law is intended for prevention, not harassment.
  • Some States (Gujarat, Goa) claim there is no misuse of the law.

Arguments supporting repealing the Laws: 

  • Originates from colonial-era discriminatory laws. The Supreme Court and NHRC have flagged constitutional concerns.
  • Data shows disproportionate targeting of marginalised communities.
  • Many states have discontinued use, showing the law is redundant.

Way Forward

  • Judicial & Legislative review: States should conduct an objective analysis of the relevance of habitual offender laws. Ensure that legal frameworks do not stigmatise entire communities.
  • Alternative crime-prevention methods: Shift focus to rehabilitation and social reintegration programs.
  • Sensitisation: Train police forces to prevent discrimination against Denotified Tribes.

The debate over Habitual Offender Laws highlights the tension between crime control and human rights. With Supreme Court directives and international recommendations pushing for reform, the onus is now on State governments to ensure justice and equity in the legal system.