Basics of Ecology & Environment

E20 Blend Fuel: Benefits and Concerns

Context: India has mandated E20 petrol (20% ethanol, 80% petrol) and aims for E27 in the future, achieving the E20 milestone five years ahead of the original 2030 target.

However, concerns are emerging over mileage loss, engine damage, and lack of consumer choice, especially for vehicles manufactured before 2023.

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: About E20, Flex fuel vehicles.

Mains: E20 Fuel in India: Challenges, Concerns & Lessons from Brazil

Ethanol Blending

Ethanol Blending refers to the process of mixing ethanol, a biofuel derived from plant-based sources, with petrol to create a more sustainable and cleaner fuel.
Ethanol is often produced from renewable sources such as corn, sugarcane, or other biomass.

India's Ethanol Blending Programme

The Government of India launched the Ethanol Blended Petrol Programme in 2003 to promote ethanol use in transportation fuel.

2003: EBP launched in 9 States & 4 UTs with 5% ethanol blend (E5).
2013: National Policy on Biofuels notified.
2018: National Policy on Biofuels revised — target of 20% blending by 2030.
2021: The target of 20% blending advanced to 2025-26.
2023: E20 fuel introduced in select cities.
2025-26: Pan-India rollout of E20 planned.

Objectives:

Reduce Crude Oil Import Bill: India imports >85% of crude oil needs. Blending ethanol with petrol helps reduce dependence on non-renewable fossil fuels.
Enhance Energy Security: Diversify fuel sources.
Lower Carbon Emissions: Ethanol contains oxygen which can improve the combustion of fuel. This aids the complete burning of fuel and lowers emissions of certain pollutants like Carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide.
Waste Utilisation: Use damaged grains, surplus rice and stubble will reduce waste.
Boost Farmer Income: Assured procurement of surplus crops and farm residue will boost farmers' income.

What is E20 Fuel?

E20 is a fuel blend that comprises 20% ethanol produced from plant products such as sugarcane, rice, and maize, and 80 % gasoline.

Challenges and Concerns with E20 in India:

Engine Compatibility Issues:
- The majority of vehicles manufactured before 2023 are designed for E10 fuel only.
- Ethanol’s higher water content can corrode metals and damage non-ethanol-rated rubber seals, valves, and pistons.
- Cold-start problems in winter due to ethanol’s higher ignition temperature.

Performance and Mileage Loss: Ethanol has a lower energy density (around 33% lower calorific value) than petrol and may cause a marginal decrease in mileage (fuel economy).
Lack of Consumer Choice: Petrol pumps rarely disclose the blending percentage. No option for customers to buy pure petrol or lower blends like E10.
No Price Incentive: Unlike Brazil, where ethanol is 25-35% cheaper, E20 in India is priced at parity with petrol, reducing consumer motivation.
Warranty and Liability Risks: Car manuals of popular models (Hyundai i20, Mahindra Thar, etc.) explicitly warn against using >10% ethanol; damage may void warranties.
Rapid Policy Transition: Moving from E10 to E20 in a short time frame has created adjustment challenges for both manufacturers and consumers.
Infrastructure and Awareness Gaps: Limited roll-out of flex-fuel compatible vehicles and inadequate readiness of service and repair networks to address ethanol-related issues.
Feedstock and Environmental Concerns: High dependence on water-intensive crops like sugarcane for ethanol production may exacerbate water scarcity and raise food-versus-fuel debates.

Case Study: Brazil’s Ethanol Blending Success

Brazil is a global leader in ethanol fuel adoption, offering a valuable model for India’s E20 programme. It launched its Ethanol blending scheme (EBS) in 1975 in response to the global oil crisis.

The scheme leveraged Brazil’s abundant sugarcane resources to create a sustainable alternative to petroleum fuels. Key points of Brazil’s EBS:

Phased Rollout: Gradual progression from E10 to E27, alongside introduction of E100 (pure ethanol), avoiding sudden stress on existing vehicle stock.
Flex-Fuel Technology: Cars capable of running on any blend of petrol and ethanol; by the late 1980s 90% of new cars were ethanol-compatible.
Transparent Consumer Choice: Fuel pumps display ethanol content; consumers select blends based on price and preference.
Economic Incentives: Ethanol priced 25-35% lower than petrol at the pump.
Public Engagement: Strong awareness campaigns highlighting both environmental and performance benefits.

Way Forward

Phased Rollout: Introduce E15 as an intermediate step for older fleets before full E20 coverage.
Mandate Flex-Fuel Engines: All new vehicles should be compatible with higher ethanol blends.
Transparent Labelling: Display blending levels at every pump.
Introduce Price Incentives: Ensure ethanol blends are cheaper to encourage voluntary adoption.

Consumer Awareness Campaigns: Address myths, highlight benefits, and explain precautions.
Independent long-term studies on E20’s impact on older engines.

India’s ethanol push is a strategic step towards energy self-reliance and climate goals, but its success will depend on harmonising policy ambition with market readiness.

Also Read: Impact of Ethanol Production on Environment

World likely to breach 1.5°C limit in next five years: WMO

Context: A recent report by the World Meteorological Organisation (WMO) has sounded an alarm on climate change, warning that there is a 70% chance of global temperatures exceeding the 1.5°Celsius threshold above pre-industrial levels between 2025 and 2029.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key trends related to climate change; Paris Climate deal; India’s climate commitments.

Major Highlights of forecasts by WMO

Global mean near-surface temperature for each year between 2025 and 2029 will be between 1.2°C and 1.9°C above the pre-industrial average. There is a 70% chance that average warming will exceed 1.5°C, if the current warming trend continues.
- In 2024, WMO estimated that the average global temperature was between 1.34°C and 1.41°C higher than pre-industrial levels (1850-1900).
- WMO now projects the 20-year average warming for 2015-2034 to reach around 1.44°C above pre-industrial levels.
Average Arctic temperature over the next five winters (2025-2029) is expected to be 2.4°C warmer than the 1991-2020 average. Sea ice is expected to keep shrinking, particularly in the Barents, Bering, and Okhotsk Sea. This will contribute to rising sea levels and disrupted weather patterns worldwide.

About Paris Climate Agreement

Adopted in 2015 by 196 Parties during the 21st Conference of Parties (COP21) to the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) at Paris, France.
Aim: To limit global warming to well below 2°C, preferably 1.5°C, above pre-industrial levels.
Key Features of the Climate deal:
- Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs): Each country sets its own emission reduction targets, with updates every five years to enhance ambition.
- Global Stocktake: A periodic review of the progress on climate action at global level (not the national level) and identify overall gaps, conducted every five years.
- Climate Finance: Developed countries pledged to mobilise $100 billion annually by 2020 to support climate action in developing nations, with plans for scaling this amount post-2025.
- Adaptation and Resilience: Focuses on helping countries adapt to climate impacts and build resilience against future challenges.
Significance: First universal, legally binding, global climate deal. It emphasises global cooperation, fairness, and a commitment to sustainable development while recognising the individual capacities of nations.

India’s Panchamrit (nectar elements) of climate action:

The Government of India at the COP26 to the UNFCCC held in Glasgow, United Kingdom 2021 made the following commitments. The five elements of India’s climate action:

i. Reach 500 GW Non-fossil energy capacity by 2030.

ii. Meet 50% of the total energy requirement from renewable energy by 2030.

iii. Reduction of total projected carbon emissions by one billion tons from now to 2030.

iv. Reduction of the carbon intensity of the economy by 45% by 2030, compared to 2005 levels.

v. Achieve the target of net zero emissions by 2070.

Concerns: 180 of the 195 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) countries are yet to submit their next round of nationally determined contributions (NDCs) or climate plans for 2031-35 before the 30th Conference of the Parties (COP30). Climate plans are crucial to limit global temperature rise to 1.5°C.

A growing number of climate scientists now hold the 1.5-degree target to be impossible to achieve due to the increasing levels of CO2 emissions.

India’s E-Waste Rules trigger backlash

Context: India’s new e-waste recycling regulations, aimed at formalising the sector and enhancing environmental sustainability, have triggered strong opposition from several global electronics manufacturers including Daikin, Hitachi, and Samsung.

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: Key facts related to e-waste in India.

Mains: Issues related to e-waste recycling in India.

Current Status of E-Waste in India:

India is the third-largest e-waste generator globally, after China and the US. In FY24, the country generated 1.7 million tonnes of e-waste, more than double the amount from six years ago.
Despite rapid growth in consumer electronics (estimated at $62 billion in 2025), only 43% of the country's e-waste is officially recycled. Comparatively, the US and China have significantly higher recycling rates.
At least 80% of the sector comprises informal scrap dealers, whose methods can pose environmental and health risks.

What is E- Waste?

As per the E-Waste (Management) Rules, 2022, e-waste is defined as: electrical and electronic equipment, including solar photovoltaic modules or panels or cells, whole or in part, discarded or rejected from manufacturing, refurbishment and repair processes.
Examples: Large household appliances like Refrigerators, air conditioners, washing machines ; Consumer electronics like Televisions, computers, laptops, smartphones etc.
E-waste can contain material of economic benefit such as plastics, iron, glass, aluminum, copper, silver, gold, platinum, palladium and indium etc. and rare earth elements.
E-Waste contains hazardous substances such as Lead, Cadmium, Mercury, Hexavalent Chromium, Polychlorinated Bi-phenyls (PCBs), Brominated Flame Retardants (BFR), etc.
Management of E-Waste in India is regulated under E-Waste (Management) Rules, 2022 under the Environment Protection Act, 1986.

India’s E-Waste Regulations

Concerned about poor waste processing practices, the Indian government has introduced a minimum floor price for recycling electronic goods to incentivise formal recycling.
The rules mandate: Rs 22/kg for consumer electronics and Rs34/kg for smartphones.
The Policy aims to:
- Discourage environmentally harmful practices in the informal sector, which handles over 80% of India’s e-waste using dangerous techniques like acid leaching and open burning.
- Incentivise formal recycles by ensuring a guaranteed revenues for processing e-waste.
- Strengthen Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) and promote circular economy.

Firms’ Response

The firms are urging environment officials to abandon the approach, with four companies suing the Central government over the measures they say will heighten compliance woes and increased costs will cascade into higher consumer prices unsettling businesses
For example, Hitachi stated that its recycling cost has risen nearly fourfold, from Rs 6/kg to Rs22/kg, translating into millions of dollars in additional expenses.

Government’s Response:

The government has maintained that it was ‘reasonable’ and within its powers to fix prices. Allowing companies and recyclers to set their own prices could lead to cost-cutting and unsafe practices.
There are currently 322 authorised recyclers in India. The government believes the floor price will help develop scientific recycling infrastructure and attract more investments in the sector.

The stand-off marks the latest chapter in foreign companies’ battles with India over what some perceive as protectionist policies and shifting regulatory goal posts.

United Nations World Water Development Report 2025

Context: The ‘United Nations World Water Development Report 2025 – Mountains and glaciers: Water towers’ was released to mark the first-ever World Day for Glaciers on March 21.

Relevance of the Topic: Mains: Impact of global warming on mountain ecosystems and its consequences.

United Nations World Water Development Report (WWDR)

WWDR is a global report that provides a comprehensive assessment of the world’s freshwater resources.
It is produced annually by the UNESCO World Water Assessment Programme, and published by UNESCO.

Major Highlights of the UNESCO’s Report

1. Glacial Melting:

Glaciers are disappearing faster than ever. Since 1975, glaciers (which do not include the Greenland and Antarctica ice sheets) have lost >9,000 billion tonnes of mass. 450 gigatons of mass was lost in 2024 alone.
Reasons for accelerating glacier melting:
- Warmer temperatures
- More frequent and intense wildfires
- Dust storms lead to more deposition of black carbon and other particulate matter on glacier surfaces, leading to greater absorption of solar radiation (decreased Albedo).

2. Accelerating Permafrost Thaw: In high-altitude regions, permafrost is any ground that stays frozen — 0 degrees Celsius or lower — for at least two years straight. Rising temperatures are melting permafrost in these regions rapidly.

3. Decline in Snow Cover: Reduction in snow cover in nearly all mountain regions, especially in spring and summer. Snow cover is the total of all the snow and ice on the ground. It includes new snow and previous snow and ice that have not melted. Earlier, a 2024 study found a 7.79% decline in global snow cover between 1979-2022.

4. Erratic Snowfall Patterns: Due to atmospheric warming, the rain-snow transition zone is shifting upwards, i.e., mountain ranges are receiving a greater fraction of precipitation falling as rain rather than snow. Snow duration has reduced, snow-melt is taking place earlier than usual.

Implications of the Changing Climatic Patterns:

Consequences of permafrost thawing:
- Release of organic carbon into the atmosphere, exacerbating climate change. Permafrost contains a vast amount of organic carbon (4.5% of the global soil organic carbon) and other nutrients.
- Mountain slopes become more vulnerable to erosion, increasing the risk of landslides and other hazards.
Consequences of increased glacial melting:
- Increased glacial lake formation and higher risk of glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs).
- Rise in the sea level: Melted glacier ice contributes 25-30% of global sea-level rise. Between 2006 and 2016, the global mass loss of glacier ice amounted to 335 billion tonnes of lost ice per year, which corresponded to an increase in sea levels of almost 1 mm per year.
Shorter snow duration: affects ecosystems, water supply, and agriculture. Earlier snowmelt means water is available too early in the season, causing shortages later.

Biodiversity Conservation Efforts in Thazhakara Grama Panchayat

About Biodiversity Conversation

Historical Decline of Species:
- Indian black turtle and other species such as Indian garden lizards and barn owls facing dwindling numbers due to poaching and habitat changes.
- Contrastingly, populations of rock pigeons and rufous treepies have increased.
Rich Biodiversity Assets:
- Thazhakara boasts 38 sacred groves, 10 paddy polders, and 35 ponds.
- These areas support diverse flora and fauna, contributing significantly to local biodiversity.
People's Biodiversity Register (PBR) Initiative:
- Thazhakara leads in Alappuzha and Kerala with the second volume of PBR.
- The 261-page document details comprehensive biodiversity information, traditional knowledge, and climate change impacts.
- Community involvement and trained volunteers conducted a thorough three-month survey.
Role in Conservation and Sustainable Development:
- PBR serves as a critical tool for conservation, sustainable resource management, and protection of traditional knowledge.
- Local projects in agriculture, drinking water, and waste management are being planned based on PBR insights.
Statewide Impact:
- Kerala was the first state in India to publish PBR across all local bodies.
- KSBB aims to update PBR in 50% of local bodies by 2024, emphasizing ongoing biodiversity monitoring and documentation.

PEOPLE’S BIODIVERSITY REGISTERS (PBR)

The PBRs focus on participatory documentation of local biodiversity, traditional knowledge and practices.
- The register shall contain comprehensive information on the availability and knowledge of local biological resources, their medicinal or any other use or any other traditional knowledge associated with them.
They are seen as key legal documents in ascertaining the rights of local people over biological resources and associated traditional knowledge.

BIODIVERSITY MANAGEMENT COMMITTEES (BMCS)

According to Section 41 of the Act, every local body shall constitute the BMC within its area to promote conservation, sustainable use and documentation of biological diversity including:
- Preservation of habitats
- Conservation of Landraces ο Folk varieties and cultivars
- Domesticated stocks and breeds of animals.
- Microorganisms And Chronicling of Knowledge Relating to Biological Diversity

STRUCTURE

It shall consist of a chairperson and not more than six persons nominated by the local body.
- Out of total members of a BMC, not less than one-third should be women and not less than 18% should belong to the Scheduled Castes/ Scheduled Tribes.
The Chairperson of the Biodiversity Management Committee shall be elected from amongst the members of the committee in a meeting to be chaired by the Chairperson of the local body.
The chairperson of the local body shall have the casting votes in case of a tie.

FUNCTIONS

The main function of the BMC is to prepare People’s Biodiversity Register in consultation with the local people.
The register shall contain comprehensive information on availability and knowledge of local biological resources, their medicinal or any other use or any other.

The Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure (CDRI)

Context: Rising Temperatures and Electricity Demand in Delhi

In the past month, Delhi has experienced relentlessly high temperatures, causing electricity demand to repeatedly break records.
This surge in demand led to frequent power cuts in Delhi and neighbouring areas. Central and eastern India faced similar or worse situations.
The combination of high temperatures and lack of electricity made life miserable and possibly contributed to several heat-related deaths.

About CDRI

Stress on Critical Infrastructure

The unprecedented surge in electricity demand highlights the stress that critical infrastructure faces from extreme weather events and disasters.
Vulnerable systems include not only power systems but also telecommunications, transportation, health services, and cyber systems.
Disruptions in these services during disasters complicate crisis situations, hinder relief, rescue, and recovery efforts, and amplify risks, sometimes adding to the devastation.

Importance of Infrastructure Resilience

Making critical infrastructure resilient to extreme events and disasters is crucial for climate change adaptation.

Mounting Economic Losses

Although early warnings and quick responses have reduced human casualties in disasters, economic and other losses from extreme weather events and disasters are rising due to increased frequency and intensity.
Government data shows that between 2018 and 2023, states spent more than Rs 1.5 lakh crore on disaster aftermaths.
These expenditures do not account for long-term costs such as livelihood losses or reduced agricultural land fertility.
A 2022 World Bank report projected that heat-related productivity declines could result in the loss of 34 million jobs in India by 2030. Food wastage due to non-air-conditioned transport was already worth about $9 billion annually.

Uncounted Damages to Critical Infrastructure

Damages to critical infrastructure like transportation, telecommunications, and power supply are often not included in government figures, especially when privately owned.
However, such damages cause massive disruptions and exacerbate disasters.

Steps Toward Resilience

Infrastructure sectors now have disaster management plans in place.
Hospitals in disaster-prone areas are equipping themselves with backup power supplies, airports and railways are improving water drainage, and telecommunication lines are being taken underground.
Despite this, much of India's infrastructure remains vulnerable.

CDRI's Role in Building Resilience

The Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure (CDRI), an international organization established on India’s initiative, conducted a study on Odisha’s electricity infrastructure.
It found the infrastructure extremely fragile, with significant portions susceptible to cyclonic winds. This situation is likely similar in other coastal states.
CDRI aims to make critical infrastructure resilient to natural disasters and is developing into a knowledge hub for implementing these transitions.
Over 30 countries are part of this coalition, working to strengthen their infrastructure. However, few Indian states have sought CDRI's expertise.

Future Infrastructure Development

India is still developing its infrastructure, with much of the proposed infrastructure for 2030 yet to be built.
It is more cost-effective to incorporate disaster resilience during construction than to retrofit later.

Upcoming projects need to be climate-smart, sustainable, energy-efficient, and disaster-resilient.

Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure

CDRI is a global partnership that aims to promote resilience of infrastructure systems to climate & disaster risks, thereby ensuring sustainable development.
Prime Minister of India launched CDRI during his speech at the UN Climate Action Summit on 23 September 2019.
Objectives of CDRI: CDRI seeks to rapidly expand the development & retrofit of resilient infrastructure towards expanding universal access to basic services, enabling prosperity and decent work.

Functions of CDRI

Raising awareness of the benefits of resilient infrastructure and building linkages with other relevant initiatives to achieve this.
Serving as a platform for knowledge generation and exchange on disaster & climate resilient infrastructure.
Enhancing national and regional standards, codes and guidelines for planning, design, operation & maintenance of infrastructure systems
Enhancing practices and capacities to reduce infrastructure damages and losses from disasters and climate change.
Enabling technological and institutional innovation for resilient infrastructure systems
Making available technical expertise to assist countries to develop resilient infrastructure
Advocating for financial arrangements, including risk transfer, supporting development of resilient infrastructure
Assisting countries to adopt appropriate risk governance arrangements & strategies for resilient infrastructure.

Governance of CDRI: Secretariat of CDRI is located in New Delhi and has three principal bodies: (i) Governing Council (ii) Executive Council (iii) Secretariat.
- Governing Council: Governing Council is the highest policy-making body of CDRI and will have representation from all members of CDRI such that at least two-thirds of the members of the Governing Council represent national governments. Members of. Governing Council shall be co-chaired by representatives of two national governments with India being the permanent co-chair of Governing Council. The other co-chair shall be nominated by rotation by the members of Governing Council, every two years.
- Executive Committee: Managerial body of CDRI that oversees implementation of decisions of Governing Council. It is a 10-member body with Director General being one of the members.
- Secretariat: Secretariat of the CDRI shall be headed by a Director-General appointed by the Governing Council.
Membership: Membership of CDRI is open to national governments, UN Agencies & multilateral banks, private sector, academic & knowledge institutions.
Funding: A large share of the estimated fund requirements to cover the core costs over the first five years has been invested by India. There are no obligations on the part of members to make financial contributions to CDRI.

Initiatives under CDRI

Infrastructure Resilience Accelerator Fund (IRAF):
- A US $50 million multi-donor trust fund created by CDRI to support global action on disaster resilience of infrastructure systems, especially in developing countries and small island developing countries.
- IRAF will play a critical role in equipping the Coalition to deliver on improved infrastructure governance, inclusive infrastructure services and diversified knowledge and financing for resilient infrastructure globally.
- IRAF has been established with the support of UNDP & UNDRR and will be managed by UN Multi-Partner Trust Fund Office. IRAF was launched COP 27 of UNFCCC at Sharm El Sheikh, Egypt.
- One of the first initiatives to be supported by IRAF is the Infrastructure for Resilient Island States (IRIS).
Infrastructure for Resilient Island States (IRIS):
- A dedicated initiative co-curated by Small Developing Island States (SIDS) and Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure (CDRI) partners to promote resilient, sustainable, and inclusive infrastructure development in SIDS. IRIS will cater to all SIDS.
- IRIS will design and implement projects considering the demands and absorptive capacities of SIDS and strive to foster SIDS ownership and leadership in the development of resilient, sustainable and inclusive infrastructure.
- In the initial phase, IRIS will prioritize the needs of the most vulnerable SIDS.It was launched during COP 26 of UNFCCC at Glasgow.
- Focus areas of IRIS are:
  - Improved resilience of SIDS infrastructure to climate change & disaster risks.
  - Strengthened knowledge & partnerships for integrating resilience in SIDS infrastructure.
  - Gender equality and disability inclusion promoted through SIDS infrastructure.
Biennial Report on Global Infrastructure Resilience: Flagship report of CDRI focusing on critical challenges faced by infrastructure due to disaster and climate risks. The report will develop a Global Infrastructure Risk Model & Global Infrastructure Resilience Index (GIRI) and advocate pathways for nature-based solutions for disaster resilient infrastructure, conduct review of global goals and targets for resilient infrastructure and finance for disaster & climate resilient infrastructure.
International Conference on Disaster Resilient Infrastructure (ICDRI): Annual conference of CDRI bring together experts and participants from member countries, institutions and organisations to discuss challenges and identify good practices on disaster & climate resilient infrastructure.
DRI Connect: An online platform to connect, learn and collaborate towards improved practices, processes and policies for resilient infrastructure systems.

How the Gandhi Sagar Wildlife Sanctuary is being developed as India’s second home for cheetahs

Context - The Gandhi Sagar Wildlife Sanctuary will be the second home for cheetahs in India, after the Kuno National Park. The Madhya Pradesh government has announced that it has completed its preparations for the ambitious project.

Key facts related to Gandhi Sagar Wildlife Sanctuary

The sanctuary is spread across an area of 368.62 sq km, in the districts of Mandsaur (187.12 sq km) and Neemuch (181.5 sq km) in western MP.
It sits atop a flat rocky plateau, with the Chambal River cutting the sanctuary into two almost equal halves.
It has Savanna ecosystem (comprising open grasslands interspersed with dry deciduous trees and shrubs.) due to shallow topsoil.
It has trees like Salai, Kardhai, Dhawda, Tendu, Palash etc.
It is part of World famous Chaturbhuj Nala rock shelters.
It is knowns for some rare wildlife species like Wild Dogs (Dholes), Chinkara, Leopard, Otter, Mugger crocodile.

Study on behaviours of Elephants

Context: Recent research has unveiled fascinating insights into the communication patterns of wild African savannah elephants in Kenya. By examining 469 calls, referred to as ‘rumbles,’ researchers focused on interactions where both the caller and receiver elephants were identified. This discovery, published in the journal Nature Ecology and Evolution, adds a new dimension to our understanding of elephant communication.

Behaviour Explained

Name like sounds known as Rumbles in Elephants:

Given the complexity of these rumbles, which often escape human auditory detection, artificial intelligence played a crucial role in the analysis.
The AI-assisted study revealed that these rumbles contain a distinctive ‘name-like’ component, enabling elephants to recognize and respond to individual calls.
The researchers analysed vocalisations, mostly rumbles generated by elephants using their vocal cords, similar to how people speak, made by elephants in Amboseli National Park (Southern Kenya) and Samburu National Reserve (Northern Kenya).
While dolphins and parrots have been observed addressing each other by mimicking the sound of others from their species, elephants are the first non-human animals known to use names that do not involve imitation.
Social and cognitive sophistication:
- Elephants learn to associate specific sounds with individual elephants.
- This capability allows them to address each other directly, capturing the attention of particular individuals through unique vocalizations.
- This underscores the importance of social bonds among elephants and their ability to maintain numerous relationships within their groups.
- Elephants are renowned for their intelligence, which includes remarkable memory, problem-solving skills, and intricate communication methods.
- They employ a variety of behaviours, including visual, acoustic (to do with sound), and tactile gestures (connected with sense of touch), to interact with each other.
- Previous research has documented these complex interactions, especially during greetings.

About Elephants:

Keystone species: Important role in maintaining forest ecosystem balance and health.
They have the largest brain size among land animals.
As important grazers and browsers, elephants consume large quantities of vegetation daily and disperse seeds, aiding in plant reproduction and growth.
They shape the dense vegetation of the Asian landscape by creating clearings in forests, allowing sunlight to reach seedlings and promoting natural forest regeneration.
Elephants also dig for water during dry periods, providing access to water for other wildlife as well as themselves.
India:
- India is home to the largest population of wild Asian elephants, with an estimated 29,964 individuals according to the 2017 census by Project Elephant.
- This constitutes approximately 60% of the global population of the species.
- Karnataka has the highest number of elephants in India, followed by Assam and Kerala.
Conservation Status:
- International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List of threatened species:
  - African Forest Elephant: Critically Endangered.
  - African Savanna: Endangered.
  - Asian Elephant: Endangered.
- In India, the Wildlife (Protection) Act of 1972 includes elephants in Schedule I.

Offerings of Oleander flowers banned in Kerala Temples

Context: Two Kerala government-controlled temple boards, which together manage 2,500-odd temples in the state, have banned use of oleander flowers (locally known as arali) in temple offerings after a 24-year old woman died after accidentally chewing some oleander leaves.

Oleander Plant

It is an ornamental evergreen shrubs of the genus Nerium
The best known is the common oleander (N. oleander), often called rosebay.
It is a native of the Mediterranean region. However, it is cultivated worldwide in tropical, subtropical, and temperate regions.
Known for its drought tolerance, the shrub is often used for ornamental and landscaping purposes.
It is grown along highways and beaches as a natural, green fencing.
There are different varieties of oleander, each with a flower of a different colour.

Significance in traditional medicine:

According to the Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India (API), an oil prepared from the root bark can be used to treat skin diseases.
- Charak Samhita prescribed the leaves of white flowered variety externally in chronic and obstinate skin diseases of serious nature including leprosy.
- Bhavaprakasha has described the plant as a visha (poison) and indicated it in treatment of vrana (infected wounds), kustha (skin diseases including leprosy), krimi (microbes and parasites), kandu (itching), etc.

Toxicity:

Oleander contains multiple poisonous compounds and all parts of the plant are highly toxic to humans and pets. Ingesting even a small amount of the plant can result in serious injury or death.
The clear sticky sap can cause skin irritation or a rash on contact.
Inhalation of smoke from burning oleander can also be intoxicating.

TOXICITY OF OLEANDER

This is due to the properties of cardiac glycosides (a type of chemical) including oleandrin, folinerin, and digitoxigenin, which are present in all parts of the plant.
Cardiac glycosides are steroidal compounds capable of exerting pharmacological effects on cardiac muscle.
Effects of oleander toxicity include nausea, diarrhoea, vomiting, rashes, confusion, dizziness, irregular heartbeat, slow heartbeat, and, in extreme cases, death.

Marine Cloud Brightening (MCB)

Context: Scientists are experimenting with an idea to fight global warming — brightening up marine clouds by aerosol sprays so that they reflect more sunlight back into the atmosphere.

About Marine Cloud Brightening

Marine Cloud Brightening Program involves atmospheric scientists and experts collaborating to study how aerosols affect clouds.
It is a programme of the Department of Atmospheric Sciences, University of Washington, USA

Objective: To understand these interactions and explore the feasibility of reducing climate warming by enhancing sunlight reflection from marine clouds.

Technique: In clean oceanic air, clouds mostly form from sulfates and sea salt crystals, which are not abundant. This results in larger droplets that reflect less light.

Marine cloud brightening (MCB) aims to increase the brightness of marine clouds by enhancing their reflectivity. It achieves this by releasing tiny sea water droplets into the atmosphere using water cannons or special ships.
When these droplets evaporate, they leave behind salt particles. These particles act as nuclei for cloud formation, leading to denser and brighter clouds.

Significance of Aerosol-Cloud Interactions:

Clouds reflect sunlight, cooling temperatures locally and globally.
Aerosol particles, from natural and human sources, can brighten clouds, enhancing sunlight reflection and cooling the Earth's climate.
Changes in cloud cover or sunlight reflection can influence climate dynamics significantly.

Role of Aerosol

Aerosols from both natural sources (like biological emissions and sea spray) and human activities (such as burning fossil fuels) mix with low clouds, especially over the ocean, brightening them and thereby increase albedo. This in turn leads to cooling of climate.
Uncertainty remains about the overall cooling effect of aerosols on the climate.
Aerosol air pollution has made the planet about 0.7° F (0.4 °C) cooler than it otherwise would be, according to the 2021 report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). For comparison, greenhouse gas emissions have added 2.7°F (1.5°C) of warming.

Aerosol and Precipitation

Aerosols serve as cloud condensation nuclei (CCN), providing surfaces on which water vapor can condense to form cloud droplets.
The presence of aerosols affects cloud properties such as droplet size, number, and distribution, which in turn influence precipitation formation.
Effects on Cloud Dynamics:
- Increased aerosol concentrations can lead to the formation of a larger number of smaller cloud droplets, altering cloud dynamics.
- Smaller droplets may reduce the efficiency of raindrop formation and growth, potentially delaying or suppressing precipitation.
Precipitation Enhancement or Suppression:
- In some cases, aerosols can enhance precipitation by increasing the number of cloud droplets and promoting coalescence and raindrop formation.
- However, in polluted conditions with high aerosol concentrations, clouds may exhibit reduced precipitation efficiency, leading to suppressed rainfall.

Potential Acceleration of Climate Warming:

Reductions in atmospheric aerosols since 2010 may have accelerated global warming.
Recent declines in particulate pollution emissions from ships, coinciding with rising ocean surface and global temperatures, emphasize the need to understand these effects.

Understanding Marine Cloud Brightening (MCB):

MCB proposes using sea salt particles to brighten clouds over the ocean, reducing climate warming.
Scientific studies suggest that specific aerosols can significantly increase cloud reflectivity.
Sea salt particles would be sprayed from ships into low-lying clouds, remaining in the atmosphere for a few days within localized areas.

Uncertainties and Considerations:

Specific regions of the ocean may be more suitable for MCB, but the extent of brightening and its effectiveness in different regions are uncertain.
Implementation decisions, such as which areas to brighten and to what extent, will determine the climate cooling achieved and its broader impacts.
Changes in clouds induced by MCB and pollution aerosols can affect atmospheric circulation, weather patterns, and precipitation in both local and distant regions.

Critical Aspects and Research Needs:

Improving understanding of MCB and aerosol effects is crucial for projecting long-distance effects and associated risks.
Further research is needed to assess the feasibility, potential consequences, and optimal implementation strategies of MCB in addressing climate change.

Black softshell turtles

Context: The Baneshwar Village in the Cooch Behar region of West Bengal has a Shiva Temple built during the reign of Koch Dynasty in the 17th Century.

The temple pond is home to the critically endangered black softshell turtels, which the locals lovingly call ‘Mohan’. Recognising the close bond between the local population and with these turtles, Election Commission of India has adopted ‘Mohan Babu’ as its mascot to get people out to polling booths on April 19.

About Black Softshell Turtle

The black softshell turtle, also referred to as the Bostami turtle, holds a unique place in the realm of freshwater turtles.
Once considered a variant of other species such as the Indian softshell turtle or the Indian peacock softshell turtle, it has now been recognized as a distinct species.
Indigenous to the regions of India, specifically Assam and Tripura, as well as Bangladesh, notably Chittagong and Sylhet, this species has a rich history intertwined with cultural significance.
IUCN STATUS: Critically Endangered
CITES: Appendix I
Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972: No legal protection

Origins and Cultural Heritage

Legend has it that in the 1800s, Hazrat Bayezid Bostami brought these turtles from Iran to the Chittagong shrine pond.
These turtles, revered as sacred beings, garnered respect and reverence from the local populace.

Conservation Efforts and Discoveries

Declared extinct by the International Union for Conservation of Nature in 2002, the black softshell turtle surprised researchers when populations were found in the Hayagriva Madhava Temple Pond in Assam and the Kalyan Sagar Lake in the Tripura Sundari Temple in Udaipur, Tripura, India.
Through concerted conservation measures and habitat protection, these turtles have managed to survive in the wild.

Scientific Insights and Continued Research

Their mitochondrial genome reveals connections to 19 other turtle species.
In phylogenetic trees, Nilssonia nigricans emerges as a sister species to Nilssonia formosa, shedding light on their evolutionary relationships.

Behavior

Hibernation takes place during the late autumn season until the spring for softshell turtles.
They bury themselves at the bottom of a river/lake in the mud.
Food is not as essential as oxygen during this period.
Oxygen is needed at a reduced rate than normal, and the turtles practice a technique called “pharyngeal breathing”.
This means that they pump water in and out of their throat (pharynx) that contain microvillus projections of small blood vessels.
This structure provides them with greater surface area to absorb more oxygen.

Gape Limitation

Context: In the study of predator-prey dynamics within ecosystems, understanding the physical constraints that influence feeding behaviours is crucial. One such constraint is the gape limitation. It is significant because it determines the size of prey the predator can consume, influencing their diet preferences and the structure of food webs.

About Gape Limitation:

In ecology, it stands for the idea that a predator can only eat things that fit in its mouth. Like a snake trying to eat a rabbit. If the rabbit is too big to fit in the snake’s mouth, the gape limitation says the snake won’t be able to eat it.
For example, small predators can only eat small prey, while bigger predators can eat bigger prey. From the prey’s point of view, if a predator's mouth can't open wide enough to eat them, they might be safe from that predator.
- This barrier can in turn lead to evolutionary pressure that selects the predator’s ability to eat smaller prey or, conversely, adaptations in the predator’s behaviour to overcome gape limitation.
It also influences how animals evolve over time. Prey animals might get faster or grow bigger to avoid being eaten by predators with smaller mouths.
- On the other hand, predators may evolve larger mouths to eat larger prey.
Understanding gape limitations is essential to predicting how changes in predator or prey populations, changes in habitats, and/or environmental disturbances could affect the structure and function of ecosystems.
The study of gape limitations also helps researchers understand the intricate dynamics of animal interactions and the cascading effects they have on biodiversity.