The Hindu

Veerashaiva-Lingayats to seek separate Religion Code in upcoming Census

Context: Veerashaiva-Lingayats are demanding a separate religion code for the community in the upcoming National Census that will likely commence in 2026.

Relevance of the Topic:Prelims: Key facts about Veerashaiva-Lingayats.

Basava & Lingayats

Basava, a 12th century philosopher and social reformer, was the founder of the Shaivite sect called Lingayats. He was the Prime Minister during the reign of Kalachuri dynasty King Bijjala (I) of the Kalachuri dynasty in the 12th century Karnataka.
Veerashaivas are a sub-sect of Lingayats and ardent followers of Lord Shiva. They preceded Basavanna, the founder of Lingayatism. Veerashaivism has its roots in the Vedas and Agamas, and they only worship Lord Shiva.
Basava advocated equality of all human beings, irrespective of caste and that all forms of manual labour are equally important.
He rejected temple worship and rituals led by Brahmins and replaced it with personalised direct worship of Shiva through practices such as individually worn icons and symbols like a small linga (known as Ishtalinga).
His poetry was known as Vachanaas and primarily focused on socio-cultural reforms. He rejected gender or social discrimination, superstitions, and rituals.

Key concepts in Lingayatism

Anubhav Mantapa: Considered to be the first parliament in the history of mankind. Proceedings of Anubhav Mantapa are recorded in the form of Vachana Literature.
Kaayaka (Manual labour): Working for survival with a divine mindset which is mandatory to every individual. Without Kaayaka nobody has the right to live.
Daasooha (Charity): Part of the earnings from Kaayaka must be spent on the welfare of the poor called Dasooha. It is a voluntary contribution from one’s own earned wealth.
Sharanas: Sharanas are common followers of Lingayat beliefs.

Political and Social Background: Veerashaiva-Lingayats

The Veerashaiva Mahasabha in 1940 had passed a resolution seeking a separate religion tag for Veerashaiva-Lingayats and petitioned the then British government.
Ahead of the 2011 census too, the Veerashaiva Mahasabha had petitioned the Centre seeking the religion code. But after being denied the same, the community members, through a “jana jagruthi jatha” were asked to write “Veerashaiva-Lingayat” in the column meant for “others” instead of identifying as Hindus.
- In 2011, separate codes were assigned to Hinduism, Islam, Christianity, Sikhism, Jainism, and Buddhism. There was a separate column for “other religions and persuasions”.
Veerashaiva-Lingayats are the dominant land-owning community in north and central Karnataka, and seen as politically powerful too. They are a part of backward classes Category in the current OBC classification in the state.
Their population in Karnataka is about 66.3 lakh or about 11% of the State population. Veerashaiva-Lingayat community is also spread across in neighbouring Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, and Telangana.

Is Natural Hydrogen the fuel of the future?

Context: For India, an economy in growth mode with aspirations to reach net-zero emissions by 2070, the exploitation and use of Natural Hydrogen offers a potentially game-changing opportunity.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims & Mains: Hydrogen as a fuel: advantages; resource distribution; technologies for extraction and harvesting Hydrogen.

Hydrogen Fuel

Hydrogen is the lightest and the most abundant element in the universe.
- On Earth, it is found in compounds like water or hydrocarbons. It must be created and stored before it tends to be utilised.
- Natural hydrogen also occurs as a free gas in geology, produced by processes such as serpentinisation (the interaction of water and iron-containing rocks), radiolysis of water by radioactive rocks, and from organic matter at depth.
Hydrogen Fuel: Presently, Hydrogen fuel is produced by splitting water (H₂O) into its components: hydrogen (H₂) and oxygen (O₂). The hydrogen gas can be used to power fuel cells, which generate electricity through a chemical reaction between hydrogen and oxygen, releasing only water vapour as a byproduct.
If harvested in a sustainable manner, natural Hydrogen may provide a clean and potentially low-cost fuel to satisfy the world’s increasing energy needs with a considerable reduction in carbon emissions as well.

How is Hydrogen Extracted?

Currently, the majority of hydrogen is manufactured from natural gas through an energy-intensive and polluting process.
Green hydrogen can be made using renewable electricity, however, is still prohibitively expensive and would require vast amounts of wind and solar power to work out at scale.

Hydrogen Reserves:

The presence of Hydrogen in coal mines points towards generation from underlying organic matter.
Active mountain ranges with tectonic activity, such as the Pyrenees, Alps, and Himalayas, are being considered as areas for geological hydrogen production.
The fact that Helium co-exists with Hydrogen in a few reserves points towards some geological processes, such as radiolysis, playing a role in its generation.

Hydrogen Reserves in the World:

Hundreds of hydrogen seeps have been catalogued globally in various countries, including Australia (Eyre Peninsula and Kangaroo Island), the US (Kansas, Nebraska), Spain, France, Albania, Colombia, South Korea, and Canada.
An estimated tens of trillions metric tonnes of Hydrogen may be available in geologic stores. If even just 2% of these reserves are commercially exploitable, they would provide about twice as much energy as all the earth’s provable natural gas reserves —enough to meet projected hydrogen demand (500 million tonnes per year) for around two hundred years.

Hydrogen Reserves in India

India’s Hydrogen demand is projected to grow from six million tonnes per year (Mt/year) in 2020 to over 50 Mt/year by 2070 to support its net-zero target. The natural hydrogen reserves are likely present in favourable geological structures like:

Hard rock formations of diverse ultramafic/mafic and basaltic assemblages
Andaman and Himalayan ophiolite complexes
Greenstone volcanic-sedimentary sequences in cratons (Dharwar, Singhbhum)
Sedimentary basis (for example, in Vindhyan, Cuddapah, Gondwana and Chhattisgarh), basement rocks with fractures
Areas where active hydrothermal systems as represented by hot springs exist.

Challenges in Exploration and Excavation of Natural Hydrogen:

Natural Hydrogen exploitation and exploration is not easy. It has technical, logistical, economical, and safety-related challenges.

Accurately locating and quantifying underground hydrogen reserves is the primary challenge. Unlike oil and gas, for which well-established exploration techniques exist, natural hydrogen exploration is still evolving.
Development of efficient and cost-effective extraction technology for natural hydrogen. While modifying current gas industry practices associated with well drilling and extraction facilities, one must consider hydrogen’s specific properties, including its small molecular size and high diffusivity.
Hydrogen extraction also involves specific safety issues as opposed to hydrocarbons because of its high diffusivity and reactivity.

Approaches under-development for Hydrogen Excavation:

Production of hydrogen by drilling and flowing water into rock and then transporting the hydrogen to the surface for collection.
Injecting water with dissolved carbon dioxide into iron-containing rocks that could potentially lead to carbon sequestration as limestone, while simultaneously producing hydrogen.

Also Read: Hydrogen as an alternative fuel: Explained

A comprehensive geological study is essential in India, considering critical factors such as the quality, extent, thickness, accessibility, and hydrocarbon generation potential of the source rock; size and viability of hydrocarbon accumulations; potential losses during migration; and the accessibility of the area for exploration and development.

What is the Private Member Bill?

Context: The Private members’ face challenges in advancing legislation in the Parliament, including limited parliamentary time allocated for such bills and prioritisation of public bills.

As per the latest data, during the five-year term of the 17th Lok Sabha (that ended in 2024), mere 9.08 hours were spent on Private Members’ Bills, while the Rajya Sabha spent just 27 hours on them during the period.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about private bills; Difference between private bill and public bill.

About Private Member Bill

Bills introduced in the Parliament are of two kinds: Public bills and Private bills.
- Public Bill is the bill that is introduced by a Minister.
- Private Bill is a legislative proposal that is initiated by an individual Member of the Parliament, who is not a Minister.
Though both bills are governed by the same general procedure and pass through the same stages in the House, they differ in various respects.

Public Bill	Private Bill
It is introduced in the Parliament by a minister.	It is introduced by any member of Parliament other than a minister.
It reflects the policies of the government (ruling party).	It reflects the stand of the opposition party on public matters.
It has a greater chance of being approved by the Parliament.	It has a lesser chance to be approved by the Parliament. E.g., As of 2024, only 14 Private bills have been successfully enacted into law, since independence.
Its rejection by the House amounts to the expression of want of parliamentary confidence in the government and may lead to its resignation.	Its rejection by the House has no implication on the parliamentary confidence in the government or its resignation.
Its introduction in the House requires seven days’ notice.	Its introduction in the House requires one month’s notice.
It is drafted by the concerned department in consultation with the law department.	Its drafting is the responsibility of the member concerned.

Significance of Private Member Bills:

They enable legislators to:
- draw attention to issues not represented in Government Bills.
- highlight gaps in the existing legal framework requiring legislative intervention.
The bills are the only instruments available for MPs’ individual expression without being bound by their party’s diktat.

Key Facts:

A private member can bring bills on Constitutional Amendments. A private member cannot initiate a Money Bill.
Muslim Wakf Bill, 1952 was the first private member bill to be passed in Parliament.
No Private Members’ Bill has been passed by Parliament since 1970.

Way Forward

Dedicated hours for PMBs to enable meaningful debate and potential adoption of the PMB. Amendments can be made to the Rules of Procedure and Conduct of Business to explicitly protect this time from being overridden, except in cases of a national emergency.
Institution of Review Committee specifically for PMBs which is responsible for screening Bills for quality, relevance, and constitutionality.
Fast-track mechanism can be introduced for high-impact or broadly supported Bills to reach the floor in a time-bound manner.
Adopting global practices on PMBs: Ten-Minute Rule of the U.K. Parliament — any MP can make a short speech of up to 10 minutes in support of a PMB along with its introduction, after which another MP may oppose it for an equal length of time. This allows Bills to be introduced, heard, and recorded without long time slots.

Private member bills can create a channel for a greater number of legislative ideas to enter the public domain. Hence, emphasis should be laid on the role of private members' business in deepening democracy.

US-Ukraine Minerals Deal

Context: The US and Ukraine have signed an agreement to grant the US some access to Ukraine's vast mineral resources.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about the United States-Ukraine Reinvestment Fund.

United States-Ukraine Reinvestment Fund

The agreement is officially called the United States-Ukraine Reinvestment Fund. The agreement must be ratified by the Ukrainian Parliament.
It ensures the US access to Ukraine’s vast reserves of critical minerals and rare earth minerals. It also includes provisions for oil, natural gas and other hydrocarbons. The text of the deal lists 55 minerals but more can be agreed to.
The full ownership of the resources would remain with Ukraine, and the Ukraine will determine what minerals can be extracted and where. The US will get joint access.
The agreement establishes a reconstruction investment fund, and both the U.S. and Ukraine will have an equal say in its management.
- Ukraine is expected to contribute 50% of all future profits from government-owned natural resources into the fund.
- The US will also contribute in the form of direct funds and equipment, including air defence systems and other military aid.
Contributions to the fund will be reinvested in projects related to mining, oil and gas as well as building infrastructure in Ukraine. No profits will be taken from the fund for the first 10 years by the US.

Gains for the US & Ukraine

The US gets access to Ukraine’s valuable rare earth minerals and other critical minerals, such as titanium, lithium and uranium.
It will provide Ukraine assurance about continued American support in its ongoing war with Russia.

Also Read: China imposes export restrictions on Rare Earth Elements

However, the agreement does not mention any explicit security guarantees to deter future Russian aggression that Ukraine has long insisted on.

Right to Digital Access part of Article 21: SC

Context: In a recent judgement, the Supreme Court has held that inclusive and meaningful digital access to e-governance and welfare delivery systems is a part of the fundamental right to life and liberty.

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: Right to Digital Access.

Mains: Inclusive Development: Challenges and Government Initiatives.

Background: A two-judge SC bench was hearing a petition on how people with disability find it nearly impossible to successfully complete the digital Know Your Customer (KYC) processes, which include visual tasks.

Right to Digital Access

The Supreme Court held that:

Right to Digital Access emerges as an instinctive component of the Right to life and personal liberty under Article 21 of the Indian Constitution.
Invoking the ‘principle of substantive equality’, the SC held that digital transformation must be both inclusive and equitable.
Since many welfare schemes and government services are provided through online platforms, bridging the digital divide has become a necessity to ensure a dignified life.
The state has an obligation to provide an inclusive digital ecosystem to the marginalised, underprivileged, vulnerable, disabled, and historically excluded sections of society.

The SC issued directions to the government to improve the KYC processes, to make them more accessible.

Bridging the Digital Divide

The Supreme Court held that:

Digital divide, characterised by unequal access to digital infrastructure, skills and content, continues to perpetuate systematic exclusion not only of persons with disabilities but also of large sections of rural populations, senior citizens, economically weaker communities and linguistic minorities.
Hence, the state should proactively design and implement inclusive digital ecosystems to serve not only the privileged, but also the marginalised.

The ruling emphasises the need for alternative identification methods in KYC processes for persons with disabilities. It highlights systemic exclusion faced by marginalised groups due to the digital divide. Hence, the right to life under Article 21 of the Constitution must be re-interpreted in light of changing technological realities.

Changes in Monsoon affect Marine Productivity

Context: A recent study has found that both strong and weak monsoons can influence (disrupt) marine productivity in the Bay of Bengal. This can pose serious ecological and livelihood challenges.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Impacts of Climate Change.

Major Highlights of the Study

The researchers reconstructed the past 22,000 years of monsoon history by comparing ancient patterns (chemical signatures and fossil records) with modern ocean data and climate model projections.

Extreme monsoon conditions (abnormally strong or weak monsoons) cause major disruptions in ocean mixing. They interfere with the vertical movement of nutrient-rich waters from the deep ocean to the surface.
Consequences: This can lead to a 50% reduction in food for marine life (like planktons) in the surface waters. This will directly result in decline in the growth of plankton, and thus, impact the entire aquatic food chain.

Significance and Impacts on the Bay of Bengal:

Significance: Despite covering less than 1% of the world’s ocean area, the Bay of Bengal accounts for 8% of global fishery production. Its nutrient-rich coastal waters are vital to the densely populated communities along its shores, many of whom rely heavily on fisheries for food and income.
Impacts: If ocean productivity declines, it will powerfully affect the ecosystem, ultimately reducing fish stocks. This in turn will threaten food security for coastal communities and risk their livelihoods.

The study is significant given that several climate models warn of significant disruption to the monsoon, under the impact of human-caused global warming.

Urban Spider creates webs to block Noise

Context: Researchers have discovered that spiders can alter how they receive vibratory information in loud environments. Spiders in urban environments can build webs that filter out loud ambient vibrations.

Relevance of the Topic:Prelims: Key facts about Spiders.

Spiders and vibratory information

Spiders in urban environments can build webs that filter out loud ambient vibrations.
Conversely, spiders from quieter rural spaces build webs that amplify biologically relevant vibrations they need to pick up in their noisy environment.

Key Facts about Spiders

Spiders are not insects, but belong to a group called the arachnids. Spiders differ from insects as they have eight legs not six and six or eight eyes (two in insects).
Spiders are known for making silk webs to catch insects. They spin silk from a liquid made by special glands. They are found everywhere in the world, except for Antarctica.
Most spider species are carnivorous that capture and eat other insects. However, one species in Central America has been found to be mostly herbivorous.
Spiders digest their food outside their bodies. After capturing its prey, a spider covers it with digestive juices. The juices break down prey’s body into liquid form that the spider sucks up.
Spiders are important pest controllers for a habitat, and they are food for other species too.
Spider webs are the extensions of the spider’s sensory system. Vibratory information from the web is crucial for spiders because they do not have ears.
Spider silk is an amazing natural material with unique properties. It has inspired researchers to develop materials derived from spider silk with applications in tissue engineering and regenerative medicine.
Spiders shed their outer covering, multiple times before becoming adults.

Sandy Cay Reef

Context: China and the Philippines defended their claims to a disputed Sandy Cay reef in the South China Sea.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Location of Sandy Cay Reef; Disputed islands in South China Sea.

About Sandy Cay Reef

Sandy Cay Reef is a small coral reef in the South China Sea. It lies near Thitu Island, where the Philippines stations troops and maintains a coast guard monitoring base.
It consists of multiple shallow reef platforms with dynamic sandbanks.
The reef is claimed by China, the Philippines, Taiwan, and Vietnam.
Note: Reef is a raised area on the ocean floor that is made of rock, coral, or sand.

Post of Deputy Speaker is not Symbolic or Optional

Context: Prolonged vacancy of the Deputy Speaker’s office during the 17th and 18th Lok Sabha represents a serious constitutional anomaly. It poses a threat to the resilience and procedural integrity of India's legislative democracy.

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: Key facts related to the office of Deputy Speaker.

Mains: Relevance of Deputy Speaker in parliamentary democracy.

Office of the Deputy Speaker

Article 93 of Indian Constitution provides for the office of Speaker & Deputy Speaker in the Lok Sabha.
The Deputy Speaker’s role is not optional. The Constitution places this office on an equal footing with the Speaker in terms of its necessity to the parliamentary structure.
The Office of Deputy Speaker is not merely a ceremonial seat. It is a constitutional imperative designed to ensure the continuity, stability, and procedural integrity of the Lok Sabha.
However, the prolonged vacancy of this office during the 17th Lok Sabha (2019–2024) and continuing into the 18th Lok Sabha represents a serious constitutional anomaly, undermining the spirit of parliamentary democracy.

Historical Evolution of the Office of Deputy Speaker:

The institutions of Speaker and Deputy Speaker originated in India in 1921 under the provisions of the Government of India Act of 1919 (Montague-Chelmsford Reforms).
At that time, the Speaker and the Deputy Speaker were called the President and Deputy President respectively. Sachidanand Sinha was appointed as the first Deputy President in 1921.
By the time India achieved independence in 1947, the Deputy Speaker had already become an institutional fixture in legislative governance. During the sessions of the Constituent Assembly (Legislative), a conscious decision was made to continue the office, recognising its importance even before the formal adoption of the Constitution.
M.A. Ayyangar became the first elected Deputy Speaker of the First Lok Sabha post-independence. Following the death of Speaker G.V. Mavalankar in 1956, M.A. Ayyangar served as the Acting Speaker, demonstrating the Deputy Speaker’s critical role as a constitutional safeguard for leadership continuity.

Relevance of Deputy Speaker in Parliament

Ensuring Procedural Continuity: As articulated by constitutional expert S.C. Kashyap, the Speaker cannot preside over all sittings continuously. The Deputy Speaker, therefore, acts as a vital constitutional functionary, stepping in to ensure the uninterrupted conduct of parliamentary proceedings.
Beyond Procedural Backup: The Deputy Speaker’s role is not limited to substituting the Speaker; they are empowered to chair significant sessions, preside over select parliamentary committees, and oversee sensitive debates requiring procedural neutrality.
Symbol of Bipartisan Norms: A well-established parliamentary convention — though non-binding — is to offer the Deputy Speakership to the Opposition, reinforcing institutional balance and cross-party cooperation.
Strengthening Non-partisan Ethos: The tradition of an Opposition Deputy Speaker reinforces the non-partisan character of the Speaker's office. This promotes consensus-based functioning and upholds the neutral character of the presiding authority.
Institutional Safeguard Against Centralisation of Power: A functional Deputy Speaker acts as a procedural counterweight within the House, ensuring that presiding authority does not get overly centralised in the Speaker alone, thereby maintaining democratic checks within the legislature.

Growing Constitutional Vacuum:

Despite its clear constitutional basis and historic continuity, the vacancy of Deputy Speaker’s post marks a clear constitutional lapse, not just a procedural delay. Never before in India’s parliamentary history has the office remained vacant for such extended periods of time.
Article 93 clearly states: “The House of the People shall, as soon as may be, choose two members of the House to be respectively Speaker and Deputy Speaker....” The phrasing “as soon as may be” implies urgency, and not discretion.
The delay raises fundamental questions about adherence to constitutional mandates and respect for parliamentary norms.

Impact of Vacant Deputy Speaker's Post

Erosion of institutional safeguards: Article 94 provides that the Deputy Speaker holds office until resignation, removal, or disqualification as a Member of Parliament, underscoring the constitutional mandate for an uninterrupted second-in-command to uphold continuity, stability, and institutional balance in Lok Sabha. The delay undermines institutional safeguards established by the Constitution.
Centralise procedural powers: It centralises procedural power solely within the Speaker and the ruling party, eliminating a vital counterbalance.
Risk of leadership vacuum in Emergencies: In cases like the Speaker’s resignation, death, or removal, the lack of a Deputy Speaker could lead to confusion or a temporary leadership vacuum in the House.
Disregard for Parliamentary Conventions: The ongoing delay also signals a broader disregard for parliamentary conventions, particularly the unwritten rule of offering the post to the Opposition, which historically promoted inclusivity and moderation.
Sidelining consensus politics: The vacancy reflects an active sidelining of consensus politics, limiting the role of the Opposition and undermining deliberative democracy.
Contradiction of democratic ethos: The argument that there is “no urgency” to appoint a Deputy Speaker runs counter to the entire ethos of constitutional democracy.
Restoring balance: Reviving the practice of appointing a Deputy Speaker from the Opposition is essential to rebuild institutional credibility and inject balance into legislative proceedings in an era of increasing political polarisation.

Need for Legislative Reforms:

Time-Bound Election: Set a mandatory time frame for electing the Deputy Speaker. A specific deadline, for instance, within 60 days of the first sitting of the new Lok Sabha could close this loophole of delay and warrant compliance
Statutory Empowerment for Executive Action: Introduce legislation enabling the President to initiate the election process upon the advice of the Prime Minister or the Speaker, ensuring institutional accountability for delays.

It is time for Parliament to reaffirm its respect for constitutional norms and institutional integrity. Electing a Deputy Speaker is not just a formality, it is a test of the House’s commitment to rule-based governance. India’s Parliament must not fail this test any longer.

Also Read: Deputy Speaker Lok Sabha

India-Saudi Arabia Relations

Context: Recently, the Indian Prime Minister was on a two-day state visit to Saudi Arabia. India’s Prime Minister and Saudi Crown Prince co-chaired the 2nd India–Saudi Arabia Strategic Partnership Council (SPC) at the Royal Palace in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia.

Relevance of the Topic:Mains: Bilateral Relations: India and Saudi Arabia.

Major Highlights of the Visit

The visit helped deepen the India-Saudi Arabia partnership that has been on a remarkable growth trajectory since 2016. The countries:

Reinforced their traditional energy partnership by sealing an agreement on setting up two oil refineries in India. India is the world’s third-largest importer and consumer of oil, relying on imports for >85% of its crude oil requirements.
Added two new ministerial committees – one on defence and another on tourism – under the Strategic Partnership Council (SPC).
Vowed to conclude bilateral investment treaty as early as possible. The two countries agreed to start talks to conclude the India-Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) Free Trade Agreement.
Concluded a preliminary pact on cooperation in space activities for peaceful purposes.
Pledged to work together in new and emerging technology domains like artificial intelligence, cybersecurity, and semiconductors.
Pledged deeper cooperation in maritime border security, combating transnational crime, narcotics, and drug trafficking.

India-Saudi Arabia Relations

Economic Relations: India is the 2nd largest trade partner of Saudi Arabia whereas Saudi Arabia is the 5th largest trading partner of India. In FY24, bilateral trade stood at USD ~43 billion.
Energy Partnership: Saudi Arabia was India’s 3rd largest crude and petroleum products sourcing destination for FY24. Beyond joint projects in the refining and petrochemical sector, the countries are exploring innovative uses of hydrocarbons; grid automation, connectivity, and security; energy storage; green hydrogen transport.
Strategic Partnership Council: SPC was set up in 2019 with two ministerial committees, one focusing on political and security issues and the second looking at the economy and investment. It serves to steer the bilateral relationship to include newer areas of cooperation like green energy, health, technology, and agriculture.
Defence Cooperation: The countries recently concluded their first land forces exercises (SADA TANSEEQ) and two rounds of naval exercises (AL MOHED AL HINDI). In 2024, an agreement was signed for defence export from India to Saudi Arabia worth USD 225 million.
Strategic and security cooperation: Riyadh Declaration (2010) has raised the level of partnership to strategic partnership which will help to tackle terrorism and radicalization. Both cooperate on ensuring the security and safety of waterways in the Indian Ocean region and the Gulf region.
People-to-People ties: Around 2.7 million Indian nationals reside in Saudi Arabia, reflecting the strong people- to-people bonds. The annual Hajj pilgrimage is another important component of India-Saudi Arabia bilateral relations.

Significance of Saudi Arabia:

Look West Strategy: Improving relations with Saudi Arabia is an integral part of India’s “Look West Strategy,” which seeks to bind India closer to the countries of this region.
Security Cooperation: Saudi Arabia has been sending back Indian fugitives wanted for criminal and terrorist activities in India. Saudi Arabia can use its political and financial clout to get Pakistan to halt anti-India terrorism.
Investment Potential: India is looking at attracting Saudi Arabia’s Public Investment Fund to invest in its National Investment and Infrastructure Fund (NIIF). Saudi Arabia has pledged an investment of up to $100 billion in India.
Stakeholder in IMEEC: India-Middle East-Europe Economic Corridor was unveiled in 2023. Saudi Arabia is a key member of this ambitious and cost-effective ship-to-rail transit network.

India presents itself as a solid strategic and economic partner to Saudi Arabia, as Riyadh seeks strategic autonomy and establishes itself as a global middle power.

Indian Cyber Crime Coordination Centre empowered under PMLA

Context: Government has authorised Indian Cybercrime Coordination Centre (I4C) to receive and share information from Enforcement Directorate and other law enforcement agencies to combat money laundering linked to cybercrime.

Relevance of the Topic:Prelims: Key facts about Indian Cyber Crime Coordination Centre.

Indian Cyber Crime Coordination Centre

I4C is a nodal agency established by the Ministry of Home Affairs to address cybercrime in a coordinated and comprehensive manner.
I4C works towards improving coordination among the Law Enforcement Agencies and the stakeholders and enhancing the nation’s collective capability to tackle cybercrimes.
I4C has partnered with Google and Facebook for sharing intelligence and signals for proactive identification and action on cyber criminals.
- Cyber fraudsters have been using digital platforms (like Google services platforms) for initiating organised investment crimes and the I4C has partnered with the Internet search giant to flag such content.
I4C has been added to the list of entities under the Section 66 of the Prevention of Money-Laundering Act (PMLA). The move is aimed at detecting money trails and combat money laundering linked to cybercrime.

Objectives of I4C

Facilitate easy filing cybercrime related complaints and identifying cybercrime trends and patterns.
Act as an early warning system for Law Enforcement Agencies for proactive cybercrime prevention and detection.
Strengthen the fight against cybercrime committed against women and children.
Awareness creation among the public about preventing cybercrime.
Assist States/UTs in capacity building of Police Officers, Public Prosecutors and Judicial Officers in the area of cyber forensic, investigation, cyber hygiene, cyber-criminology, etc.

India extends continental-shelf claim in Arabian Sea

Context: India has strategically advanced its maritime interests by submitting a revised claim to the United Nations Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf (CLCS), seeking recognition for an additional 10,000 square kilometers of seabed in the Central Arabian Sea.

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: Extended Continental Shelf; Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf; Location of Sir Creek.

Mains: India-Pakistan Bilateral Relations: Maritime disputes.

Continental Shelf and Extended Continental Shelf:

Continental shelf is a natural seaward extension of a land boundary. Coastal countries have an EEZ (exclusive economic zone) which gives exclusive mining and fishing rights, up to 200 nautical miles from their coastlines.
Extended Continental Shelf:
- States can make claims for more area in the ocean in the UN body Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf (CLCS), if they can scientifically establish that this claimed area extends unbroken from their landmass all the way till the sea bed.
- If proved, all of this oceanic area is considered part of a country’s extended continental shelf. This gives them rights to commercially mine for valuable minerals, polymetallic nodules and oil reserves.

India’s extended Maritime Claims

India has increased its claim in the Central Arabian Sea, as part of its ‘extended continental shelf’ by nearly 10,000 square km.
India has also modified an earlier claim to avoid a long-standing dispute with Pakistan over the maritime boundary between the two countries.
With the anticipated addition of approximately 1.2 million square km of extended continental shelf from the two submissions to the ~2 million sq. km of EEZ, India’s seabed and sub-seabed area would become almost equal to its land area of 3.274 million sq. km.

India’s Maritime Disputes

1. With Pakistan:

Sir Creek dispute: Sir Creek area is a 96-kilometer tidal estuary in the Indus River Delta. It serves as a boundary between India's Gujarat state and Pakistan's Sindh province. It is located near the marshy regions adjoining the Rann of Kutch.
2021: Pakistan objected to portions of India’s claimed territory in the Western offshore regions on the grounds that nearly 100 nautical miles overlapped with a maritime border that was under the Sir Creek dispute.
2023: CLCS rejected the entirety of India’s claim in the Arabian Sea region. However, the Commission gives leeway to countries to submit ‘modified claims.’
2025: India has split its original claim (in the Western Arabian Sea) into two ‘partial ones.’ This was done to ensure that India’s claim in the Central Arabian Sea region is not affected.

2. With Oman:

Some parts of India’s continental shelf claims in the Arabian Sea overlap with that of Oman.
However, the two countries have an agreement in place since 2010 that while the continental shelf between them is yet to be delimited, it is ‘not under dispute.’

3. On the Eastern and Southern coast:

India has claimed about 300,000 square km in the Bay of Bengal and the Indian Ocean though these have faced contests by Myanmar and Sri Lanka.
The CLCS is expected to begin a new session of consultations later this year.