Context: The ICAR-Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute (CMFRI) has documented a nearly tenfold rise in whale strandings along India’s south-west coast over the past decade.
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Species in news (Bryde’s whale, Blue whale); Whale strandings.
Whale Stranding or beaching is the phenomenon where whales or other mammals (E.g., dolphins), either dead or alive, often come onto the shore because they are old, sick, injured and/or disorientated.
Key Findings of the Study
The annual proportion of whale strandings along the south-west coast of India increased nearly tenfold to around 3% per year during 2014-2023.
Primary Hotspots: Kerala, Karnataka, and Goa emerged as the primary hotspots together accounting for the majority of reported whale strandings.
Stranded species:
Bryde’s Whale (IUCN: Least Concern) was identified as the most commonly stranded species
Blue Whale (IUCN: Endangered) strandings were recorded only occasionally.
Causes behind rise in Whale Strandings :
High vessel traffic, intense fishing activity, noise pollution, and shallow coastal shelves significantly contributed to the increased stranding risk.
Elevated Chlorophyll-A levels during the South-West monsoon, indicating higher ocean productivity, were linked to whales moving closer to the coast to feed.
Rising sea surface temperatures (SSTs) and climate change.
Way Forward
Real-time alerts and marine megafauna conservation networks, training for fishers and officials and improvement of citizen science platforms for data collection.
Expedited building robust marine mammal conservation infrastructure, especially in biodiversity hotspots like the southwest coast.
Context: Ahead of the upcoming financial cycle (FY 2026-27 to FY 2030-31), the Union government is considering revising the parental income limit for eligibility in availing post and pre-matric scholarships administered to students from marginalised castes and tribes.
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Welfare schemes by the government.
Marginalised Students’ Scholarships
The post and pre-matric scholarships for Scheduled Castes (SCs), Scheduled Tribes (STs), and Other Backward Castes (OBCs) run as centrally sponsored schemes by the government. They are funded by both the Union and State governments on a 60:40 ratio (Union: States), except for in northeast States where the ratio is 90:10.
Post-matric scholarships for SCs, STs, and OBCs, require the student to be an Indian national studying at the post-matric stage (after 10th grade).
Pre-matric scholarships are mostly available to students of grades IX and X. For SCs pre-matric scholarships are available from grades 1 to X, if their parent or guardian is involved in an unclean or hazardous occupation.
Both post and pre-matric scholarships require students’ annual parental income to be below ₹2.5 lakh to become eligible.
The Ministry of Tribal Affairs is looking to raise parental income limit to ₹4.5 lakh for post and pre-matric ST scholarships, and the Social Justice Ministry is discussing revising the limits for post and pre-matric scholarships for SCs), Other Backward Castes (OBCs), and Denotified Tribes (DNTs).
In addition, discussions are also on to raise the parental income limit of college and school scholarships for OBCs, and DNTs.
Reasons for Revising the Parental Income Limit
Falling Number of Beneficiaries: Government data shows significant drops in beneficiaries for both pre-matric and post-matric scholarships across SCs, STs, OBCs, EBCs, and DNTs.
Too Low Existing Limit: The Parliamentary Committee on the Welfare of OBCs and the Parliamentary Committee overseeing the Ministries of Tribal Affairs & Social Justice observed that the current ₹2.5 lakh limit is too low, excluding many families even when they face financial stress.
Parliamentary Panel Recommendations: OBC Welfare Committee recommended doubling the income limit for OBC scholarships and expanding pre-matric coverage from Class IX-X to Class V onwards. The Joint Committee on Tribal Affairs & Social Justice recommended revising the parental income limits for ST scholarships and similar schemes for other marginalised groups.
Panels stressed that revising the limit would allow the scholarships to reach more beneficiaries who genuinely require them.
Context: Recently, the Bombay High Court ruled that owning an Aadhaar card, PAN card, voter ID, or even a passport are not proof of Indian Citizenship, which is determined solely under the Citizenship Act, 1955.
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Indian Citizenship & Citizenship Act, 1955.
The Bombay High Court ruled that:
Documents like Aadhaar, PAN, Voter ID and Passport are not conclusive proof of citizenship. These documents are meant for identification or availing services, but they do not override the basic legal requirements of citizenship as prescribed in the Citizenship Act, 1955.
Indian Citizenship is determined by the Citizenship Act, 1955
Citizenship can be acquired only via the five modes under the Citizenship Act, 1955.
By birth: If a person is born in the territory of India, he shall be a citizen of India.
By descent: A person born outside India to Indian citizen parents can acquire citizenship by descent.
By registration: Certain individuals (like those married to Indian citizens or persons of Indian origin residing in India) can apply for citizenship through registration.
By naturalisation: Citizenship is acquired by making an application to the central government.
By incorporation of territory: If any territory or state becomes part of India, then the central government shall declare it as part of the Union of India.
Electoral processes (E.g., Bihar’s Special Intensive Revision of rolls) may accept documents like birth certificates for voter registration, but this does not automatically confer citizenship.
Burden of Proof Is on the Individual
Under the Foreigners Act 1946, if the state presents credible evidence that raises doubt about a person’s citizenship, it is the individual’s responsibility to prove they are Indian.
The Laws Involved:
Citizenship Act, 1955: Defines how citizenship is acquired and the documents needed to prove it.
Foreigners Act, 1946: Places the burden of proof on the person suspected of being a foreign national.
Representation of the People Act: Governs voter ID issuance, which is not linked to a citizenship verification process as rigorous as the Citizenship Act.
Why is Aadhaar and Voter ID not Enough?
Aadhaar is only proof of identity and residence, but not nationality.
PAN cards are for tax purposes, even foreign nationals can obtain one.
Voter ID is linked to electoral rolls; errors or fraudulent enrolment can occur.
Passport requires some citizenship verification but can be obtained fraudulently.
Hence, these documents are valid for day-to-day identification but are not decisive proof of nationality in a court of law.
Context: The Supreme Court has decided to examine a petition to introduce a “system”, similar to the creamy layer concept for the Other Backward Classes (OBC). This seeks to achieve equitable distribution of reservation benefits among the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes.
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Provisions for Reservation in India, Concept of creamy layer. Mains: Creamy layer in SC/ST reservations: Pros & Cons.
The petition contends that the present system of reservation disproportionately benefits economically better-off members within SC/ST groups, while the poorest and most marginalised sections remain excluded from real upliftment.
Reservation in India
Reservation in India is primarily caste-based, intended to address historical discrimination and social exclusion.
Articles 15(4): Allows the State (Union or State governments) to make special provisions, including reservations in education and other affirmative measures for:
Socially and Educationally Backward Classes (SEBCs)
Scheduled Castes (SCs)
Scheduled Tribes (STs)
Article 16(4): Permits the State to make laws or policies for reserving appointments or posts in public employment in favour of any backward class of citizens which, in the State’s opinion, is not adequately represented in its services.
Article 46: Directive Principle (DPSP) urging the State to promote educational and economic interests of SC/STs.
Creamy layer concept in Reservation:
The creamy layer concept was introduced in Indra Sawhney v. Union of India (1992) for OBCs, excluding the economically advanced among them from availing reservation benefits.
SC/ST reservations have so far been exempted from the creamy layer concept on the grounds that social discrimination against them operates regardless of income or education.
Over the years, concerns have been raised that within SC/ST communities, relatively affluent sections are cornering a disproportionate share of the opportunities.
Petition’s Key Proposals:
The petition sought the introduction of a two-tier reservation system to be implemented within SC/ST categories, prioritising individuals from economically weaker sections before extending benefits to those who are relatively well-off.
The proposal for restructuring does not involve any reduction in the current percentage of reservation for SC/ST or other minority communities but refine it by introducing income-based prioritisation.
Arguments in Favour of Applying Creamy Layer to SC/STs:
Ensures equitable distribution of benefits within the community.
Prevents the perpetuation of inequality within SC/ST groups.
Direct reservation benefits to those in greatest need of upliftment.
Aligns with economic justice principles in the Preamble.
Arguments Against:
Caste-based discrimination can persist despite economic advancement.
Risk of diluting the original purpose of SC/ST reservations which is to counter historical social exclusion, not just economic deprivation.
Practical difficulty in defining and implementing economic criteria fairly.
Potential to trigger social and political unrest within SC/ST communities.
Way Forward
Commission an empirical study to assess intra-community disparities in SC/ST groups.
Develop transparent and uniform income criteria if creamy layer is to be applied.
Maintain affirmative action for socially disadvantaged while ensuring economic prioritisation.
Consider phased implementation with extensive stakeholder consultation to avoid social backlash.
The proposal to apply the creamy layer principle to SC/ST reservations is a significant policy shift that attempts to reconcile social justice with economic fairness.
However, it must be approached with constitutional sensitivity, robust data, and political consensus to ensure that the most marginalised within these communities are not left behind.
Mains Practice Question:
Q. The introduction of a creamy layer within SC/ST reservations may improve the equitable distribution of benefits but risks undermining the core objective of affirmative action. Critically analyse.
