July 23, 2025

Current Affairs

Ambrosia Beetle and Fungus threat to Kerala’s Rubber Plantation

Context: Kerala Forest Research Institute has identified a serious threat to rubber plantations in Kerala from an invasive species- the Ambrosia Beetle, in mutual association with two fungi: Fusarium ambrosia and Fusarium solani.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: About Invasive Alien species, Ambrosia beetles, Rubber Plantations in India.

As per the official data of 2024, India is the world’s fourth-largest producer of rubber in the world. Kerala alone accounts for 90% of India's total production and 72% of its rubber cultivation area. Threat to rubber plantations in Kerala from an invasive species- Ambrosia Beetle, is a serious concern.

Ambrosia Beetles

Ambrosia Beetles is an Invasive Alien species.
Native to Central and South America.
First reported in India in the cashew trees in Goa in 2012.
The name Ambrosia is not taxonomic but ecological. They get their name from the ambrosia fungi that call the beetle their home.
Have a mutual association with 2 fungal species - Fusarium ambrosia and Fusarium solani.

Mutual Association of Fungi with Ambrosia Beetle

Ambrosia beetles dig tunnels (called galleries) in tree bark and carry fungal spores with them.

These fungi grow inside the tunnels. The beetles and their larvae do not eat wood; instead, they feed on the nutrient-rich fungal mycelia growing inside the tunnels.
The fungi weaken the wood by secreting enzymes, allowing the beetles to go deeper.

How is it a threat to Rubber Plants?

The fungi travel deep inside the plant, especially through the xylem (the water-carrying tubes of plants), this blocks water flow making the tree dry out and die.
The infection also affects total latex production from rubber trees causing economic and agricultural losses.
Controlling the fungal infection is difficult as the Fungi reside in deeper parts of the infected plant, where insecticides or fungicides often do not reach. Once infected, the tree takes a long time to recover or may not survive at all.

A few species of ambrosia beetles, including Euplatypus parallelus, are invasive and threaten horticulture and silviculture worldwide. The infection also makes other economically significant plants such as coffee, cashew, mango, and coconut vulnerable to infections.

Being flying insects, the beetles can access a variety of trees. It can infest more than 80 species of broadleaf trees including cashew, teak, coconut, and coffee. Additionally, it may associate with other pathogenic fungi posing a bigger threat to plantations.

Way Forward

To combat the infection the experts suggest to:

Sustainable treatments such as using antagonistic fungi to outcompete pathogenic Fusarium species.
Apply microbial consortia with a diversity of bacterial species that can live inside plants, colonise plant tissues and enhance resistance to fungal infections.
Remove infected parts of the trees- burn or chip away any part that displays holes.
Rubber farmers have called for the use of genetically modified (GM) rubber plants.

Also Read: Govt raises funding for development of natural rubber sector

Apache AH-64E Helicopters

Context: In a significant fillip to modernisation of military aviation capabilities, the Indian Army received the first batch of three Apache AH-64E helicopters from the US at the Hindon airbase.

Relevance of the Topic:Prelims: Key facts about Apache AH-64E Helicopters.

Apache AH-64E Helicopters

The AH-64E Apache is one of the world's most advanced multi-role combat helicopters.
Manufactured by: Boeing, the US.

Key Features:

Warhead: The choppers are fitted with:
- Hellfire air-to-surface anti tank missile
- Stinger air-to-air missiles
- 70 mm Hydra rockets
- 30 mm automatic cannons
Advanced Technology: AH-64E incorporates 26 new technologies to enhance battlefield performance. These include:
- Advanced Digital Connectivity
- Joint Tactical Information Distribution System
- Powerful T700-GE-701D engines with enhanced transmissions
- Improved rotor blades made of composite materials
- Ability to control unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) mid-flight (allowing manned-unmanned teaming in real time).
Sensors & Radar: Equipped with Longbow Fire Control Radar:
- capable of simultaneously tracking up to 128 targets and engaging up to 16 at once
- Fire-and-forget capability when combined with Hellfire missiles
- All weather operation capability.

Significance: The induction of Apache combat helicopters strengthen India’s operational capabilities against Pakistan along the Western Border and high-altitude areas.

Can approach enemy troops covertly with relative stealth and launch as close range attack
Capability to operate in hostile airspace with threats from ground.
Capability to destroy enemy tanks, armoured personnel carriers and fortified positions in mountainous terrain.
Provides cover to army tanks and infantry during battle.

Armed Forces and Apache Helicopters

The Indian Air Force (IAF) has 22 Apache Helicopters which are used for air defence and deep-strike roles targeting enemy radar installations and command posts.
The Indian Army intends to use its fleet for close air support, tank-busting missions and battlefield dominance during armoured engagements. India signed a Rs 5691 crore deal in 2020 for 6 Apaches, specifically for the Indian Army.

Key Facts:

In early 2025, the Ministry of Defence signed a Rs 62,700 crore (approximately $7.3 billion) contract with Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL) for 156 ‘Prachand’ Light Combat Helicopters, underscoring the increasing role of rotorcraft in India’s war-fighting doctrine.
These helicopters- 66 for the IAF and 90 for the Indian Army- will be delivered over the next five years. This would be a significant development unfolding on the Eastern front.

MiG-21 Fighter Jets to Retire

Context: After protecting the skies for more than six decades, the MiG-21 Bison fighter jets of the Indian Air Force are set to retire in September 2025. The plans are to replace them with indigenously developed Tejas Mk1A fighter aircraft.

Relevance of the Topic:Prelims: Key facts about MiG-21 Fighter Jets.

MiG-21 Fighter Jets: India’s First Supersonic Fighter

MiG-21 is a single-engine supersonic jet fighter and interceptor aircraft.
Developed by: Mikoyan-Gurevich Design Bureau in the former Soviet Union.
Induction: First procured in 1963 into the Indian Air Force (IAF). They formed the backbone of the Air Force till the mid-2000s, when the Su-30MKIs were inducted.
Initially developed as an interceptor, the supersonic jet was eventually upgraded to perform as a multi-role combat aircraft, including ground attacks.
With a maximum speed of 2230 kilometres per hour, the jet carries one 23mm twin-barrel cannon with four R-60 close combat missiles.
Key Role: They have played key roles in the wars with Pakistan (1965 and 1971), Kargil War (1999), Balakot air strikes (2019), and the most-recent Operation Sindoor (2025).

Variants of MiG-21 Fighter Jets:

Over the years, India procured more than 700 MiG-21 aircraft of different variants. Many were domestically built by Hindustan Aeronautics Ltd. They include- Type 74 or MiG 21F; Type 76 or MiG 21PF; Type 77 or MiG 21FL; Type 96 or MiG 21M; Type 75 or MiG 21 Bis (upgraded Type 96); and MiG-21 Bison.

MiG-21 Fighter Jets to Retire

The Air Force currently has two MiG-21 squadrons, or 36 aircrafts, that are operated by the squadrons stationed at the Nal airbase in Rajasthan.
- Indian Air Force (IAF) has 31 fighter squadrons as against the sanctioned strength of 42 squadrons. It is significantly below the optimal readiness requirements.
- The phase out of two MIG-21 squadrons has been long extended due to the delayed deliveries of LCA-Mk1A (Tejas fighter aircraft). After the phased out, the combat strength of the Air Force will drop to 29 squadrons.

Controversy:

The MiG-21 aircrafts have been involved in several accidents, leading to the deaths of 170 pilots and 40 civilians. They were once termed “Flying Coffin”.

Also Read: Race for Fighters: the IAF’s dilemma

What is the Legal Status of Polyandry in India?

Context: A tribal woman from the Hatti community in Himachal Pradesh married two brothers under a traditional system of Polyandry.

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: About Hatti tribe and the concept of polyandry in India.

Mains: Legal status of polyandry in India and key SC Judgements.

What is Polyandry?

Polyandry refers to a marriage system where one woman has more than one husband.
It has been practiced historically in Tibet, Nepal, and some tribal communities of India like the Toda in Tamil Nadu, Kinnaura in Himachal, and Jaunsaris in Uttarakhand.
In the Hatti tribe, polyandry is practiced primarily for preserving undivided family property, especially agricultural land, and reinforcing brotherly ties.

The Hindu Marriage Act, 1955:

The Act governs marriage applicable to Hindus, Buddhists, Jains and Sikhs.
Section 2(2) of the Act states that its provisions do not apply to STs, unless directed by the Central Government via a notification in the Official Gazette.
In the absence of such a notification, the Hattis continue to be governed by laws laid down under their customs, which are undocumented and uncodified.
The Act defines “custom” under Section 3 as a rule that has been observed for a long time, and has obtained the force of law.

Legal Status of Polyandry in India

Polyandry and Polygamy are outlawed by the Special Marriages Act 1954, the Hindu Marriage Act 1955, and criminalised under the Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita.
While marriage is governed by personal laws, customary practices of Scheduled Tribes (STs) are recognised by the Constitution under Article 342. STs enjoy distinct legal status and cultural autonomy under constitutional provisions like Part XXI and the Fifth Schedule.
But for a customary law to be valid, it must be certain, reasonable, and consistent with public policy.
When a customary law is challenged, it does not automatically gain legal recognition; courts have to be provided with proper evidence that such customary laws prevail.

Note:

The Uttarakhand UCC mandates the registration of marriage, establishes equal rights of spouses across religions and communities and prohibits polygamy. However, in line with the constitutional provisions of respecting tribal autonomy, it does not apply to Scheduled Tribes.
As per Section 2 of the Uttarakhand UCC Rules, 2025, the Code exempts members of Scheduled Tribes (as defined under Article 366(25) read with Article 342), and those whose customary rights are protected under Part XXI of the Constitution.

Key Supreme Court Judgments

Courts have held that customs must align with fundamental rights such as equality, dignity, and liberty; any custom violating these is deemed unconstitutional.

Triple Talaq Case (Shayara Bano v. Union of India, 2017): The Supreme Court declared the practice of triple talaq as unconstitutional as it was deemed arbitrary, unreasonable and violative of Article 14 and 21 of the Constitution.
Sabarimala Case 2018: The ban on entry of women of menstruating age into the Sabarimala temple was held discriminatory and unconstitutional, violating Articles 14, 15, and 21. The Court ruled that religious customs cannot override gender equality.
Ram Charan Vs Sukhram case 2025: In a case related to succession rights for tribal women, the court affirmed that excluding female heirs solely based on customary male preferences violates Article 14 of the Constitution.

In various judgments, the SC has observed that customs too, like the law, cannot remain stuck in time and others cannot be allowed to take refuge in customs or hide behind them to deprive others of their rights.

Keeladi Archaeological Site

Context: Findings from excavation at Keeladi village in Tamil Nadu's Sivaganga district provide compelling evidence of urban civilisation that existed in Tamil Nadu during the Sangam age.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Keeladi.

About Keeladi

Keeladi is a small village in the Sivaganga district in Tamil Nadu.
It is about 12 km south-east to the temple city of Madurai and is located along the Vaigai river.

Keeladi Findings:

The excavations here from 2015 prove that an urban civilisation existed in Tamil Nadu in the Sangam Age on the banks of the Vaigai river.
Carbon dating of charcoal discovered at the site in February 2017 established that the settlement dates back to 6th century BCE.
Houses built with burnt bricks, well-laid drainage systems, water tanks, and deep wells reflect urban planning and engineering skills.
Evidence of industries such as pottery, weaving, dyeing, and bead-making.
Square-shaped trenches reveal remnants of furnaces containing soot and ash, confirming that Keeladi was a centre for manufacturing beads made from quartz, carnelian, glass, agate, and other materials.
Discovery of spindle whorls, terracotta beads, and tools points to organised economic activity.
The findings also indicate trade and cultural exchange with the Indus Valley Civilisation.
Over 120 potsherds containing Tamil Brahmi inscriptions have been found. There are Tamil words engraved on the potteries that mention the names of individuals like 'Aathan', 'Uthiran' and 'Thiesan'.

How is Keeladi linked to the Sangam Age?

The Sangam age is a period of history in ancient Tamil Nadu which was believed to be from the third century BCE to the third century CE. The name is derived from the renowned Sangam poets of Madurai from that time.
Excavations by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) and Tamil Nadu State Archaeology Department (TNSDA) have pushed the Sangam age further back.
- In 2019, a TNSDA report dated the unearthed artefacts from Keeladi to a period between sixth century BCE and first century BCE.
- One of the six samples collected at a depth of 353 cm, sent for carbon dating in the US, dated back to 580 BCE.
Keeladi could provide crucial evidence for understanding the missing links of the Iron Age (12th century BCE to sixth century BCE) to the Early Historic Period (sixth century BCE to fourth century BCE) and subsequent cultural developments.

What is the controversy surrounding Keeladi?

After reports of possible links with the Indus Valley Civilisation, the third round (2017) of diggings by the ASI saw a delayed start.
Superintending Archaeologist Amarnath Ramakrishna was transferred to Assam, allegedly in a perceived attempt to play down the excavation findings.
Keeladi almost faded from public memory as there was no “significant finding” in the third round. This led to criticism that the excavation had been deliberately restricted to 400 metres.

Are there Links to Indus Valley?

The unearthed Keeladi artefacts have led academics to describe the site as part of the Vaigai Valley Civilisation.
The findings have also invited comparisons with the Indus Valley Civilisation while acknowledging the cultural gap of 1000 years between the two places.
- Till now, the gap is filled with Iron Age material in south India, which serve as residual links.
- However, some of the symbols found in pot sherds of Keeladi bear a close resemblance to Indus Valley signs.
TNSDA affirms that Keeladi has all the characteristics of an urban civilisation, with brick structures, luxury items and proof of internal and external trade. Keeladi has also added to the credibility of Sangam Literature.

Syria’s Continuing Turmoil: Al-Sharaa, Druze & Israel

Context: Jihadist-turned-President Ahmed al-Sharaa wants to unify Syria after the 14-year civil war. But domestic and external pressures pose a significant challenge.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: About Syrian Civil War.Mains: Global and Regional implications of Syrian Civil War.

Syrian Civil War

The Syrian Civil War began in 2011 during the Arab Spring, with protests against the authoritarian rule of President Bashar al-Assad. The protests were fueled by grievances over corruption, lack of political freedom, and economic hardship.
A brutal crackdown by the government led to full-scale armed conflict quickly escalating into a civil war.
A multi-side conflict involving the Syrian government, various rebel groups (including Free Syrian Army and Islamist factions), Kurdish forces (Syrian Democratic Forces) and ISIS.
Various international actors like Russia and Iran (supported the Syrian government), the US and its allies (backed rebel groups) also got involved.

The Present Situation

Despite the fall of the Assad regime in 2024, localised fighting and insurgencies continue.
In July 2025, clashes between Druze and Sunni Bedouin militias in southern Syria’s Suweida Governorate has left more than 1000 people dead.
The new President Ahmed al-Sharaa has focused on uniting Syria’s diverse communities to enable reconstruction and economic recovery, however he faces challenges from ethnic militias and regional instability.

About President Ahmed al-Sharaa

He is serving as the President of Syria since January 2025. He is a former al-Qaeda leader and a designated US terrorist.
He has been implicated in violence against Syrian minorities during the civil war- and inability/lack of intent to prevent sectarian violence has complicated this effort.
He has faced scrutiny on three fronts: the Alawites, the Kurds, and the Druze.

Ethnic and Sectarian Challenges to National Unity:

1. Alawites:

Country’s largest ethnic minority. Residing primarily along Syria’s Mediterranean coast.
Served as the former President Bashar al-Assad’s principal support base.
Clashes with Syrian security forces in March 2025 led to the death of more than 1500, mostly Alawite civilians and unarmed fighters.

2. Kurds:

The Assad regime in 2012 gave them a semi-autonomous civil administration (Rojava) with an armed wing (Syrian Democratic Forces; SDF) in oil-rich northeastern Syria.
President Sharaa demanded SDF's full integration into the Syrian Army, and bring the region into Syria’s direct control. This led to daily clashes between SDF and Syrian Army, until a conditional agreement in March 2025, in which the Kurds largely agreed to Sharaa’s demands in exchange for specific protections.
However, the Kurds feel betrayed as the new Syrian interim Constitution does not guarantee Kurdish rights. The Kurds now seek additional time to implement the March Agreement, and oversight from the US and France.

3. Druze:

Around 500,000 Druze live in Syria, mainly in Suweida, and have rejected the interim constitution that seeks to disarm their militias.
Israel, home to 150,000 Druze, opposes Sharaa’s control over Suweida. Israel uses Druze protection as justification for expanding its hold over southern Syria, especially the Golan Heights.
Clashes between Druze and Bedouin militias, allegedly backed by Syria, led to intensified Israeli airstrikes in Syria, until a US-brokered ceasefire on July 19, 2025.

Regional and Global Stakes

Syria’s Arab neighbours and Turkey have supported Sharaa’s attempts at rebuilding Syria.
Gulf states have repaid Syria’s $15.5 million debt to the World Bank, convinced the Trump administration to lift American sanctions on Syria, and have committed vast sums of money for Syria’s reconstruction.

This is fuelled both by their common interests in preventing an Iranian resurgence in the region, another factor that has driven Sharaa to negotiate with Israel and hope for a more stable neighbourhood. However, Israel’s independent interests in Syria hinder this regional effort.

Hence, strong ethnic and sectarian tensions continue to tug at Syria’s peripheries while its political core in the country struggles with enforcing National Unity.