June 12, 2025

Current Affairs

Hydrology of Brahmaputra

Context: The Chief Minister of Assam addressed concerns surrounding the Brahmaputra River, emphasising that 65-70% of the Brahmaputra’s flow is generated within India, reassuring the public about India’s water sovereignty.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Brahmaputra River System; Key Hydropower Projects.

Hydrology of Brahmaputra River

Brahmaputra originates as Yarlung Tsangpo in Kailash range near Mansarovar lake in Tibet. It traverses more than 1,000 km eastward, before forming a horseshoe bend around the Namcha Barwa peak, and enters near Gelling in Arunachal Pradesh as the Siang (or Dihang).
Brahmaputra is primarily a rain-fed river system, with only approximately 30-35% of its flow coming from China, mostly through glacial melt and scanty rainfall that happens in the Tibetan region.
The majority of the river’s water (about 65-70%) arises within India itself due to the monsoon rains that pour over the Northeast’s hilly terrains and the numerous tributaries feeding the river.
The river is called Siang in Arunachal, is joined by many tributaries in Assam as it flows down the plains before entering Bangladesh, where it is called Jamuna.

Left/ South bank Tributaries of Brahmaputra	Right/ North bank Tributaries of Brahmaputra
Dihang	Kameng
Dibang	Manas
Lohit	Subansari
Noa Dehing	Dhansiri (North)
Burhi Dehing	Sankosh
Kopilli	Ronganadi
Dhansiri (South)
Kolong

Hydro-statistics and Regional data

Brahmaputra’s flow at key points exemplifies India’s water independence. At the Indo-China border, near the Tuting region in Arunachal Pradesh, the flow rate is around 2,000-3,000 cubic metres per second.
During the monsoon season, as the river enters Assam’s plains, the flow swells to an impressive 15,000-20,000 cubic metres per second.
These figures underscore that the river’s strength and volume are predominantly sustained within India’s climatic and geographical domain. Thus, India does not depend on upstream water flow from China to sustain its water needs.

As the region faces severe flooding due to monsoons, India must emphasise resilience and infrastructure over fears of upstream interference.

Impact of Hypothetical reduction of water by China

Even a hypothetical reduction in Chinese water contribution would have a minimal impact on India’s water security or be potentially beneficial. Reduced flow could mitigate the devastating floods that annually ravage Assam and the northeastern region.

This point also highlights that India’s water system is resilient and primarily driven by monsoon rains and local tributaries.

China’s planned interventions on Brahmaputra

Most of the Chinese infrastructure interventions are hydropower projects with minimal storage, and are located far upstream of Arunachal Pradesh, with no significant impact in Arunachal or Assam.

Medog (or Motuo) Hydropower Project: A major concern is the planned massive dam in Medog County near the ‘Great Bend’ where the river makes a U-turn and plunges into a canyon before entering Arunachal Pradesh. The planned 60,000-MW Medog project will be the world’s largest hydropower facility, with a generation capacity three times that of the Three Gorges Dam on the Yangtze, currently the world’s largest hydropower station.
South-North Water Diversion (SNWD) project: Concerns have also been raised over China’s massive, multi-decade South-North Water Diversion (SNWD) project, the Western Route of which apparently involves diverting water from the Yarlung Tsangpo (and other rivers) to the country’s dry northern regions.

As a mitigation strategy, India could plan storage on rivers of the Brahmaputra system to absorb the variations in flows (periods of flooding and reduced flows). E.g., The Upper Siang Project will not only generate power, its storage can also serve as a buffer against variations in flows.

India’s interventions to utilise water potential of Brahmaputra:

Brahmaputra and its tributaries carry more than 30% of India’s total water resources potential, and 41% of the total hydropower potential, as per estimates in the CWC-ISRO Brahmaputra Basin Atlas.

The National Water Development Authorityhas proposed two links to connect the Brahmaputra and its tributaries to the Ganga basin with the aim of transferring surplus water to water-scarce regions. These are:
- Manas-Sankosh-Teesta-Ganga Link, joining the Manas, a tributary of the Brahmaputra, to the Ganga via the Sankosh and Teesta
- Jogighopa-Teesta-Farakka Link, joining the Brahmaputra at the planned Jogighopa Barrage to the Ganga at the Farakka Barrage.
However, utilisation of hydropower in Arunachal Pradesh has been slow due to difficulties of land acquisition and concern over the submergence of forest lands, etc.

Environmental Risks:

Risks of flooding may arise from intentional or unintentional operation of reservoirs in Tibet, as well as unforeseen events such as dam failure, landslides, or earthquakes.
Upstream interventions have the potential to affect the river morphology, with consequences for riverine flora and fauna.

Key Facts:

Tibetan Plateau is a region of scant rainfall of the order of 300 mm annually.
The southern part of the Brahmaputra river basin in India receives 2,371 mm of rain on average every year, and very few places receive less than 1,200 mm.

India should work to actively seek detailed hydrological and project-related data to continuously assess the downstream impact of Chinese infrastructure interventions and develop comprehensive data sharing protocols with China for advance warning and disaster preparedness.

Why is the health of Tiger dependent on its prey?

Context: The population of species like spotted deer, sambar, and gaur, which are the prey base for Tigers, are declining in certain states like Odisha, Jharkhand, and Chhattisgarh. This decline in their population is a matter of concern for tigers and for wildlife conservation as a whole.

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: Key facts about Tiger.

Mains: Conservation of keystone species: Significance and challenges.

Recent assessment report by NTCA: Key Issues:

The National Tiger Conservation Authority and the Wildlife Institute of India has recently prepared the assessment report, which shows:

Declining prey base: For the first time, a detailed assessment of the status of ungulates (hoofed mammals), including deer, pigs, antelopes, and bison, has estimated their abundance across India. However, their populations are declining in east-central India in Odisha, Jharkhand, and Chhattisgarh.
Uneven distribution of prey-base: The core tiger prey species are abundant, especially within tiger reserves and national parks, but not so much in sanctuaries that receive a comparatively lower level of protection, and even less in forest divisions.
Habitat fragmentation & inbreeding: Small and isolated populations of species such as barasingha, wild buffalo, pygmy hog, and hog deer, specially in Himalayan states, poses bottlenecks in their genetic diversity as habitat fragmentation prevents the intermixing of different animals.
Decline in species due to habitat destruction: Species with narrow ecological preferences like, populations of hog deer which live in grasslands and floodplains, have significantly declined due to the destruction and fragmentation of their preferred wetlands and swamp habitats. Their current distribution is confined to isolated patches in Terai grasslands and floodplains of Ganga and Brahmaputra.

The signs of prey decline and low density of ungulates are due to severe habitat degradation, infrastructure development projects and mining that fragments forests, left-wing extremism (central India), and subsistence hunting by residents.

Consequences of the fall in population of Ungulates:

Impacts health of Tigers: Ungulates form the core prey base of tigers and other large predators. The lack of prey base is a double whammy for tigers, impacting the existing tiger occupancy and forcing them to kill livestock and smaller species.
Disrupts ecological balance: The animals help regulate forests and soil health with their feeding habits. A fall in their numbers affects the ecological balance of forests both inside and outside tiger reserves.
Increase in Man-Wildlife conflict: Due to the fallout of the prey base, tigers move beyond the reserves to hunt livestock, putting them in closer contact with humans, who kill tigers in retaliation for livestock depredation.

The report prescribes augmenting prey populations through on-site breeding in enclosures to protect them from predators.

Also Read: Translocation of African Cheetahs: Neither Ecologically Sustainable nor Ethical

Key Facts about Tiger

Tiger is an umbrella species. Its conservation automatically ensures the conversation of a large number of flora and fauna and entire ecosystems.
India is home to 75% of the global tiger population.
- The National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA) conducts a tiger census across India every 4 years.
- As per the latest Tiger Census Report (2022), India has 3682 tigers. (2967 in 2018)
- Madhya Pradesh has the highest number of tigers (785) in India, followed by Karnataka (563) and Uttarakhand (560).
Conservation status:
- IUCN Red List: Endangered
- Wildlife Protection Act: Schedule 1
- CITES: Appendix 1

Read More: List of Tiger Reserves in India

What Manipur Needs?

Context: Kuki-Zo insurgent groups and the Central government are holding talks after a gap of two years. Manipur has been riven by an ethnic conflict between Meiteis and the Kuki-Zo tribals since May 2023.

Kuki-Zo insurgent groups have iterated their demand for a separate Union Territory to be carved out of Manipur with its own legislature and a revision of the ground rules of the suspension of operations (SoO) pact.

So far, a total of 258 people are reported to have lost their lives in the internecine conflicts and more than 60,000 people have been displaced. In this context, let us understand the factors behind riots in Manipur, the way forward to deal with the situation and the broader issue of insurgency in Northeast.

Relevance of the Topic:Mains: Linkages between development and spread of extremism.

Factors Behind the Riots in Manipur

Neglect of community rights: The primary trigger for the riots in Manipur was the inability of the state government to acknowledge and respect the territorial rights and distinct identities of the various tribal communities residing in the state.
Integrationist policies: The government’s push for aggressive integration, particularly by attempting to dilute tribal land rights in Imphal valley regions, created friction between the Meitei and tribal communities.
High Court decision: The situation escalated in April 2023 when the Manipur High Court directed a swift recommendation for granting Scheduled Tribe (ST) status to the Meiteis. This decision heightened tribal anxieties, culminating in widespread protests in May 2023.
Meitis political domination: Regardless of which party comes to power, the Manipur government has always been dominated by plainsmen Meiteis, who account for about 53 per cent of the state's population and live mostly in irregular oval-shaped Imphal Valley.
- This domination has often been viewed through the prism of suspicion by tribals -- mostly Nagas and Kukis, who make up 40 per cent of Manipur's population and live for the most part in the hills surrounding the valley.

Outcomes of the Riots in Manipur:

Widespread displacement: Thousands of people, including both Meitei and tribal communities, were forced to flee their homes, leading to internal displacement and the establishment of relief camps.
Loss of lives and property: The violence resulted in numerous casualties (285 people have lost lives) and widespread destruction of homes, businesses, and public infrastructure.
Deepened ethnic divides: The riots intensified long-standing ethnic tensions, further polarizing communities and straining inter-group relations.
Political repercussions: The riots have prompted reviewing policies related to tribal rights and state governance.
Economy of State: The violence disrupted economic activities, trade, and the overall development of the region.
Erosion of trust in governance: Public confidence in the state’s ability to manage communal issues and maintain law and order has been significantly undermined.

Way forward to deal with the present Manipur Situation:

Declare President rule: President’s Rule should be declared in the state and select a governor, a dynamic police or army officer of integrity, who has experience in counter-insurgency, preferably someone who has served in the northeast.
Revamp Administration: The administration would need to be completely revamped. There are senior officers who are more concerned about saving their skin rather than dealing fearlessly with situations which present formidable hazards. They will have to be replaced.
Integrity of state should be upheld: It should be made clear to all and sundry that there would be no compromise on the integrity of Manipur.
Strict approach towards violent groups: Those indulging in or inciting violence; those trying to give a religious colour to the conflict and have been responsible for vandalizing temples or churches; and those involved in drug trafficking.
Disarming and peace building: There should be a well-organised attempt to disarm people of the unlicensed and prohibited bore weapons they may have acquired from any source. A time limit should be given and those found holding such weapons after the expiry of that time limit should be booked under the National Security Act.
Peace committees should be formed in every district comprising representatives of every section/group/tribe. There should be a peace committee at the state level also comprising senior leaders of different sections/groups/tribes.
- Building Trust and Reconciliation: Addressing historical grievances, fostering social harmony, and promoting reconciliation among communities are crucial for long-term stability.

Conclusion: The primary concern should no doubt be to put down violence, quickly followed or accompanied by an effort to address the grievances. Find a middle ground, reconcile the differences, form peace committees at different levels, and take such political initiatives which convince the people of the government’s sincerity and inspire confidence. There should be a WHAM approach — winning hearts and minds.

Assam to follow 1950 Law to Expel Illegal Immigrants without Trial

Context: The Chief Minister of Assam has said that the state was actively considering using the Immigrants (Expulsion from Assam) Act, 1950 to directly expel illegal migrants without going through the courts.

The Act empowers even a district commissioner to issue an order for the immediate removal of a person identified as an illegal immigrant.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Immigrants (Expulsion from Assam) Act 1950.

Immigrants (Expulsion from Assam) Act 1950

Following the Partition in 1947, Assam witnessed a massive influx of immigrants from East Bengal, which later became East Pakistan and then Bangladesh. The migration was largely driven by communal violence, displacement and the open border.

The Parliament enacted the Immigrants (Expulsion from Assam) Act in 1950 to address the pressing crisis of illegal immigration in Assam.
It gave the Central Government the power to remove any person or group from Assam if their presence harmed public interest or affected the rights of Scheduled Tribes.
It allowed the government to give these powers to local officers, such as district commissioners, so they could issue expulsion orders directly, without going through the courts.
The Act predates several key legislations that are currently used to deal with immigration issues in India, such as:
- Foreigners Act 1946
- Section 6A of the Citizenship Act
- Foreigners (Tribunals) Order 1964
- Passport (Entry into India) Act 1920
- Passport Act 1967
The law was applicable across India but tailored to Assam. Over time, the law was mostly ignored.

Is the Act still valid?

In 2024, the Supreme Court of India upheld Section 6A of the Citizenship Act and clearly said that the 1950 Act was still valid.
A Constitution Bench of five judges pointed out that the law allowed even a district commissioner to order the removal of illegal immigrants.
The court said this Act can work alongside the Citizenship Act and the Foreigners Act to detect and deport illegal migrants.

When the Assam Movement started in 1979, led by the All Assam Students' Union (AASU), people again raised strong concerns about illegal migration. This led to the Assam Accord in 1985, which decided that anyone who came into Assam after March 24, 1971, would be treated as a foreigner.

The process of identifying foreigners which had slowed down due to complications around the National Register of Citizens (NRC) will now be sped up by using the legal powers available under the 1950 Act.

Also Read: Foreigners Tribunals: Detaining Non-Citizens and Rule of Law

Preventive Detention laws in India: How preventive detention works?

Context: The Supreme Court recently held that the provision for preventive detention is an extraordinary power in the hands of the state that must be used sparingly. It curtails the liberty of an individual in anticipation of the commission of further offence(s), and therefore, must not be used in the ordinary course of nature.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Preventive Detention.

About Preventive Detention

Preventive detention is detention of person by State without trial and conviction by the court and merely on the suspicion. No law providing for preventive detention shall authorize the detention of a person for a longer period than three months except for the recommendations of advisory board.

Constitutional provisions

Article 22: It provides for protection against arbitrary arrest and detention.
Article 22(3)(b): It provides for the exception to Article 22; it states that none of the safeguards provided in Article 22 are applicable “to any person who is arrested or detained under any law providing for preventive detention.”
Article 22(4) to Article 22(7): Provide for procedure of operation of preventive detention.

Procedure of operationalization of Preventive detention laws

The District Magistrate issues an order to detain the person when it is necessary to maintain “public order.”
If the detention order is of more than 3 months, Article 22(3) states that such order requires approval of an Advisory Board.
Advisory boards are boards set up by respective states which consist of persons who are or have been or are qualified to be appointed as judges of High Courts.
The detainee is generally not allowed representation before the board; however, the detainee can move to court against the detention order.
Article 22(5): States that the authorities making order of arrest under preventive detention law shall communicate to the person the grounds of order for arrest at the earliest. This affords the detainee an opportunity of making representation against the order.
Article 22(6): It provides exception to Article 25, it states that the State need not provide the grounds of arrest in case the authorities consider that disclosure of such facts is against public interest. This exception is generally used for denying the grounds for arrest in case of preventive detention.

Difference between Punitive and Preventive detention

Criteria	Punitive detention	Preventive detention
Objective	To provide punishment to a person who is found guilty of an offense.	To stop a person from inflicting any harm to the society.
Nature of offense	It is given after trial and conviction in court of law.	It means detention of a person without trial and conviction by court.
Duration	Its duration is determined by the sentencing guidelines for the specific crime committed. It is determined at the time of sentencing and can range from a few months to life imprisonment or even the death penalty.	Preventive detention is usually imposed for a fixed period, as specified in the relevant preventive detention laws. It is meant to be temporary and can be extended in certain cases, subject to legal requirements and periodic reviews by Advisory board.
Right to Bail	Individuals have the opportunity to seek bail while awaiting trial or during the appeals process in most cases, depending on the nature of the offense and other factors.	It is typically non-bailable, it means individuals detained preventively do not have the automatic right to seek bail during their detention period.
Judicial review	Individuals have the right to appeal their conviction.	There is very narrow ground of judicial review in case of preventive detention.
Examples	Various provisions of IPC and CrPC: IPC 302 provides punishment for murder.IPC 498A provides punishment for cruelty against wife.	Central legislations: National Security Act, Unlawful Activities Prevention Act. State Legislations: Telangana Preventive Detention Act. Bihar Control of Crimes Act.

Judicial review of preventive detention

There is very narrow ground of judicial review in preventive detention because constitution has emphasized on State’s subjective satisfaction when ordering detention.
This means that the test on which order is examined is subjective opinion of state rather than Fundamental rights enshrined in the constitution.
Judicial review is limited to whether the Advisory board applied its mind and whether the state showed mala fide in ordering detention.

Heaviest Proton emitter Astatine-188 detected

Context: Researchers have detected proton emission from 188At (astatine) isotope and measured its half-life. The isotope is currently recognised as the heaviest known proton emitter found till date.

Relevance of the Topic:Prelims: Key concepts- basics of an atom; half life; Applications of radioisotopes.

Key Concepts

Basics of an Atom

An atom contains a nucleus (with protons and neutrons) and electrons revolving around the nucleus.
Almost all of the mass of the atom is concentrated in the nucleus.
- The number of protons (Z) in an atom determines the atomic number of an element.
- The total number of protons and neutrons, called Nucleons, is called the Atomic Mass Number (A).
Atoms can be unstable (radioactive) due to imbalance in the number of protons and neutrons (proton-neutron ratio) inside the nucleus.
All elements with atomic numbers greater than 83 are considered radioactive, including Astatine (85), Uranium (92), Plutonium (94), and Thorium (90) etc.
These elements have unstable atomic nuclei, and over time, the unstable nuclei decay by releasing energy and radiation to reach a more stable configuration. They release energy in the form of three types of radiations: alpha, beta, and gamma.

Radioactive Half-life:

For a given radioisotope, the radioactive half-life is the time for half the radioactive nuclei in any sample to undergo radioactive decay.
After two half-lives, there will be one fourth the original sample, after three half-lives one eighth the original sample, and so forth.

188Astatine isotope

For the first time that an Astatine isotope decaying by proton emission was detected and its half-time was measured in a lab.
188Astatine (At-188) isotope decayed by emitting a proton. While isotopes often undergo radioactive decay by emitting alpha, beta, and gamma particles, rarely do they emit a proton. The measured half-life for the 188At is 190 microseconds.
At-188 isotope emits a proton and becomes 187-polonium isotope, which in turn decays via alpha decay into 183-lead and so on, until it reaches a stable nucleus.

Targeted Alpha Therapy (TAT):

TAT is an emerging and highly promising form of radiopharmaceutical therapy that involves the use of alpha-emitting isotopes to target and destroy cancer cells in the human body. In the therapy alpha particle-emitting radionuclides are injected into the tumor tissue.
One isotope of Astantine (Astatine-211) is one of the most promising alpha emitters for TAT of cancers.

Using Bacteriophages to combat Antimicrobial Resistance

Context: Scientists are considering the therapeutic use of bacteriophages to kill bacteria, as an alternative to Antibiotics. Pharmaceutical companies are losing interest in developing new antibiotics due to increasing Antimicrobial Resistance.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR); Bacteriophages.

What is Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR)?

Resistance acquired by any microorganism (bacteria, viruses, fungi, parasite, etc.) against antimicrobial drugs (such as antibiotics, antifungals, antivirals, antimalarials) that are used to treat infections.
Microorganisms that develop AMR are referred to as superbugs. Due to AMR, standard treatments become ineffective, infections persist and may spread to others.
WHO has identified AMR as one of the top threats to public health. Estimated 5 million deaths globally are related to AMR every year. This is expected to double by 2050.

Largely, pharmaceutical companies have lost interest in developing new antibiotics. Scientists are considering the use of Bacteriophages as an alternative (or complementary) to Antibiotics.

About Bacteriophages

Bacteriophages are ‘good viruses’ that naturally prey on bacteria.
They are ubiquitous, i.e., present in the water, in the soil, in our gut, on skin, etc.
There are believed to be 10-times as many phages as bacteria on the earth.

Therapeutic uses of Bacteriophages:

Phages have been used for burns, foot ulcers, gut infections, respiratory infections, urinary tract infections, etc. There are two main strategies that have been used.

Natural Phage Therapy: Bacteria are isolated from the infected tissue. Labs identify which phage works against the particular bacteria. The selected phage (from phage bank) is cultured and administered into the patient.
Genetically engineered phages: Modified in the lab to target a broader range of bacterial strains.

Challenges in therapeutic uses of Bacteriophages:

Narrow Range: Unlike an antibiotic, which may be able to kill many species of bacteria, phages may only kill a few strains of a particular bacterium. This is because phages are very specific to bacteria. So, it is challenging to conduct randomised controlled trials when the drug needed for each patient may be different.
Regulatory Issues: Bacteria can evolve to be resistant to a phage. However, the phages can also evolve to avoid the bacterial resistance. The drug is not a constant but an evolving entity. This poses problems in regulatory clearance.

Researchers are currently working to create a device in which all of the following steps can be conducted: isolate the bacteria from an infection, sequence its genome, use AI to determine which phage genome is the most likely to work, create the phage from scratch in the device, and administer it to the patient on the spot.

India-Mongolia Joint Military Exercise: Nomadic Elephant

Context: The 17th edition of the joint military exercise 'Nomadic Elephant 2025' between India and Mongolia was undertaken at the Special Forces Training Centre in Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia in June 2025.

Relevance of the Topic:Prelims: Key facts: Nomadic Elephant 2025

Nomadic Elephant 2025

This annual exercise is conducted alternately in India and Mongolia.
Objective: To enhance the operational readiness of both armies and contribute to deepening the enduring defence relationship between the two nations.
The training focuses on conducting non-conventional operations in semi-urban and mountainous terrain under a United Nations mandate.
The joint drills included counter-terrorism operations in semi-mountainous terrain, endurance training, reflex shooting, small team tactics, rock craft training, and cyber warfare aspects.
Participating contingents actively exchange best practices in counter-terrorism operations and precision sniping, thereby improving interoperability.

Through these joint drills, Indian and Mongolian forces aim to strengthen their ability to respond effectively to contemporary security challenges.