Daily Current Affairs

April 2, 2025

Current Affairs

Mahabodhi Temple 

Context: All India Buddhist Forum (AIBF) has led large scale demonstrations across India advocating for Buddhist control over the Mahabodhi Temple in Bodh Gaya, Bihar. Buddhists want the repeal of the Bodh Gaya Temple Act, 1949 (BGTA), under which the temple is currently governed.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts related to Mahabodhi Temple.

Historical Background

  • According to popular legend, a wandering Shaivite monk named Mahant Ghamandi Giri arrived in Gaya around 1590, and established the temple as the Bodh Gaya Math, a Hindu monastery. Giri’s descendants continue to control the Mahabodhi temple as a Hindu site, considering Lord Buddha as the ninth reincarnation of Lord Vishnu.
  • Calls to transfer the Mahabodhi Temple to Buddhist control began in the late 19th century, led by Sri Lankan monk Anagarika Dhammapala, who even took Hindu priests to court. His efforts led to the passage of the Bodh Gaya Temple Act, 1949 (BGTA) by the Bihar Assembly in 1949, 16 years after his death.

Why is BGTA Controversial? 

  • The Bodh Gaya Temple Act, 1949 (BGTA) provided for the creation of a Committee to run the Mahabodhi temple.
  • The Committee shall consist of a Chairman and eight members nominated by the state government, of whom four shall be Buddhists and four shall be Hindus including the Mahanth.
  • The District Magistrate of Gaya shall be the ex-officio Chairman of the Committee. The state government shall nominate a Hindu as Chairman of the Committee for the period during which the District Magistrate of Gaya is non-Hindu.
  • While the Act gave Buddhists a stake in the management of the shrine, control effectively remained with Hindus. The Buddhist side claims that Hindu rituals have gained predominance in the temple over the years.
  • The Buddhists' case is further complicated by the Places of Worship Act, 1991. The Act provides for the maintenance of the religious character of any place of worship as it existed on August 15, 1947. Hence, the act blocked any legal attempts by the Buddhists to regain control of the temple.

Mahabodhi Temple

Mahabodhi Temple
  • The Mahabodhi Temple Complex is one of the four holy sites related to the life of the Lord Buddha, and particularly to the attainment of Enlightenment.
  • Other three holy sites are: 
    • Lumbini in Nepal: Birthplace of Buddha 
    • Sarnath in Uttar Pradesh: Death of Buddha (Mahaparinirvana) 
    • Kushinagar in Uttar Pradesh: The site where Buddha delivered his first sermon.
  • Location: Bodh Gaya, Bihar, on the banks of the Niranjana River.
  • In the 3rd century BCE, Emperor Ashoka built a simple shrine at the site, of which only the Vajrasana (Diamond Throne), a stone slab under the Bodhi tree, remains. It is the first temple built by Emperor Asoka in the 3rd century B.C
  • During the Shunga period (2nd–1st century BCE), additional structures were added.
  • In the late Gupta period (5th–6th century CE), the temple was entirely reconstructed in brick, forming the structure that largely survives today.
  • The Palas (8th-12th century CE) were the last major royal patrons of the Mahabodhi temple.
  • The shrine was largely abandoned between the 13th and 19th centuries. The temple was in a state of disrepair when Alexander Cunningham (founder of the Archaeological Survey of India) began its restoration in the 1880s. 
  • The temple was recognised as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2002. 

Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj

Context: April 3 is the death anniversary of Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj who passed away in 1680 at the age of 50. 

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Shivaji.

About Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj: 

  • Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj  was born on February 19, 1630, at Shivneri Fort located in Maharashtra.
  • He was son of Shahaji Bhonsle (a Maratha general) and Jijabai (mother).
  • He grew up under the guidance of Dadoji Kondadev, who trained him in warfare and administration.
  • At the age of 16, he captured Torna Fort in 1645, marking the beginning of Maratha rule. 
  • He also took over several forts like Rajgad, Purandar, and Sinhagad from the Adil Shahi Sultanate ruling from Bijapur in Deccan. 
  • He introduced guerrilla warfare tactics to fight against the Mughals and Deccan Sultanates.
  • He took on the titles of Chhatrapati, Shakakarta, Kshatriya Kulavantas and Haindava Dharmodhhaarak.
Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Image

His struggles with Bijapur

  • Shivaji’s father Shahaji was in service of the Bijapuri Sultanate - a tripartite association between Bijapur, Ahmednagar, and Golconda, as a general.
  • By 1645, Shivaji acquired control of several strategic from under the Bijapur Sultanate around Pune.
  • Following his success, he had emerged as a threat for Mohammed Adil Shah who gave the order to imprison Shahaji in 1648. 
  • Shahaji was released on condition that Shivaji kept a low profile and kept from further conquests. Shivaji resumed his conquests after Shahaji’s death in 1665.
  • Battle of Pratapgad: The Battle of Pratapgad took place in 1659, at Pratapgad Fort in Satara. The battle was fought between the Marathas forces led by Chhatrapati Shivaji and the Bijapur troops under General Afzal Khan. The Marathas emerged victorious, marking their first significant military triumph against a major regional power.

Conflict with the Mughals

  • In 1659, he defeated Afzal Khan, a general of Bijapur, using strategic warfare.
  • In 1665, he signed the Treaty of Purandar with Raja Jai Singh (Ruler of Amber), surrendering 23 forts.
  • In 1666, he was captured and imprisoned in Agra by Aurangzeb but escaped using a clever disguise. His son Sambhaji Bhonsle was kept as a political prisoner to the ruler of Amber Sawai Jai Singh I, and later became Mansabdar.

Relationship with the English

  • Initial days of his reign, Shivaji maintained cordial relationships with the English till they supported the Bijapuri Sultanate in a confrontation against him in the capture of Fort of Panhala in 1660. So in 1670, Shivaji moved against the English in Bombay for them not selling him war material. 

Coronation & Expansion: 

  • On June 6, 1674: he was crowned as Chhatrapati (King or Lord of the Parasol) at Raigad Fort, officially establishing the Maratha Empire. In the following year, he expanded territory across Maharashtra, Karnataka, and Tamil Nadu.
  • For this, he built a strong navy to protect the Konkan coastline, making him one of the first Indian rulers to emphasise naval power.

Death:

  • He died on April 3, 1680, at Raigad Fort. He left behind a strong, independent Maratha Empire that challenged Mughal supremacy.

Administration of Shivaji

  • Was assisted by a council of ministers called Ashtapradhan (eight ministers). These eight ministers were:
    • The Peshwa or Prime Minister, was head of general administration and represented the king in his absence.
    • The Majumder or the Auditor was responsible for maintain the financial health of the kingdom.
    • The PanditRao or Chief Spiritual Head was responsible for overseeing the spiritual well-being of the kingdom,
    • The Dabir or Foreign Secretary was entrusted with the responsibility of advising the king on matters of foreign policies.
    • The Senapati or Military General was in charge of overseeing every aspect of the military.
    • The Nyayadhish or Chief Justice saw formulations of law and their subsequent enforcement, civil, judicial as well as military. 
    • The Mantri or Chronicler was responsible for keeping elaborate records of everything the king did in his daily life.
    • The Sachiv or Superintendant was in charge of royal correspondence
  • Except the Panditrao and Nyayadhis, all other ministers held military commands, their civil duties often being performed by deputies.
  • Reduced power of Deshmukh & Kulkarni and appointed his own revenue officials karkuns.
  • Chauth was 1/4th of land revenue and Sardeshmukhi was additional levy of 10% on those lands of Maharashtra over which Marathas claimed hereditary right but formed part of Mughal empire.
Chauth was a regular tax or tribute imposed from the early 18th century by the Maratha Empire and was an annual tax nominally levied at 25% on revenue or produce.
The sardeshmukhi was an additional 10% levy on top of the chauth. A tribute paid to the king. 
  • His army consisted of cavalry supervised by havildars and infantry having Malvi foot soldiers as an important feature. 
  • He also maintained a navy with the purchase of twenty galivats(armed boat) from the Portuguese shipyards of Bassein (Vasai). Shivaji fortified his coastline by seizing coastal forts and refurbishing them, and built his first marine fort at Sindhudurg, which was to become the headquarters of the Maratha navy.
  • Shivaji signed a charter to the Dutch banning, freeing, and stopping the import and export of all slaves under his rule.
  • Shivaji abolished the ‘vatandari’ system, a form of landlordism prevalent in the Deccan during his time, and implemented the Ryotwari system instead.
  • Vatandari system was a form of landlordism prevalent in the Deccan region, where landowners (vatandars) held hereditary rights to land and collected revenue from local cultivators, who were dependent on them for their livelihood. 
  • Shivaji abolished this system, and introduced the Ryotwari system, giving cultivators greater control over their land.

    Promotion of Art and Culture

    • Promotion of Marathi and Sanskrit: In his court, Shivaji replaced Persian with Marathi, and emphasised Hindu political and courtly traditions. Shivaji commissioned one of his officials to make a comprehensive lexicon to replace Persian and Arabic terms with their Sanskrit equivalents. This led to the production of ‘Rajavyavaharakosa’, the thesaurus of state usage in 1677
    • Seal: Shivaji's royal seal was in Sanskrit. 
    • Religious policy: Shivaji is known for his liberal and tolerant religious policies. While Hindus were relieved to practice their religion freely under a Hindu ruler, Shivaji not only allowed Muslims to practice without harassment, but supported their ministries with endowments.
    • Forts: The forts he built are Sindhudurg, Rajgad, Pratapgad, Raigad etc.
    • Shivaji was a contemporary of Samarth Ramdas and inspirer of Shivaji. He was an Indian Marathi Hindu saint, philosopher, poet, writer and spiritual master.

    Abortion and Foetal Viability: Legal Framework in India 

    Context: Abortion rights remain a contentious issue globally, often caught between ethical concerns and legal frameworks. India has a progressive abortion law compared to some nations but still presents challenges beyond 24 weeks of pregnancy.

    Relevance of the Topic: Mains: Abortion rights in India- Issues, Case Study, etc.

    Abortion Laws in India

    • The law on abortion in India is primarily governed by Sections 312-316 of the Indian Penal Code and the provisions of the Medical Termination of Pregnancy Act, 1971.
    • The MTP (Amendment) Act, 2021 has expanded the access to safe and legal abortion services on therapeutic, eugenic, humanitarian and social grounds to ensure universal access to comprehensive care.
    Abortion Laws in India

    Major Provisions of the MTP (Amendment) Act, 2021: 

    • Increase in Gestation Periods:
      • The Amendment Act increases the maximum gestational limit for pregnancies that may be aborted on the advice of one 'registered medical practitioner' from 12 weeks to 20 weeks.
      • For pregnancies that may be aborted on the advice of two medical practitioners, the limit has been raised to 24 weeks.
      • Earlier, if the length of the pregnancy was over 20 weeks and a woman wished to undergo a termination, she would have to file a writ petition before the High Court concerned or the Supreme Court.
    • Recognition of Pregnancies outside of Traditional Marriages:
      • The Amendment reflects the change in definition from "pregnant married woman" to "pregnant woman" and from "her husband" to "her partner".
    • Termination due to Failure of Contraceptive Method/Device:
      • Another laudable amendment is the inclusion of unwanted pregnancies due to the failure of contraceptives, as a ground for abortion.
      • Under the original MTP Act, abortions could take place only by proving that there was grave risk to the pregnant woman or grave risk of serious physical or mental abnormality.
    • Setting up of Medical Boards:
      • All state and union territory governments will constitute a Medical Board. The Board will decide if a pregnancy may be terminated after 24 weeks due to substantial foetal abnormalities.
      • Earlier, the medical boards were created by various High Courts and Supreme Court after entertaining writs filed by women, and were not in any way statutorily mandated.
    • Privacy: A registered medical practitioner may only reveal the details of a woman whose pregnancy has been terminated to a person authorised by law.

    Also Read: Medical Termination of Pregnancy (Amendment) Act, 2021 

    Important Judgement(s) by the Supreme Court w.r.t. Abortion

    • 2023 Supreme Court Judgment on Late-Term Abortions:
      • The Supreme Court ruled that a woman's bodily autonomy must be respected, even in late-term pregnancies.
      • However, it also emphasised the role of medical boards in determining whether abortion can be granted beyond 24 weeks.
      • This judgment highlighted the conflict between individual reproductive rights and state-mandated medical scrutiny.
      • This case has shown that women can be compelled to carry pregnancies, even if they vouch that the pregnancy is unwanted and dangerous to their well-being.
    • X v/s NCT of Delhi (2022):
      • In this judgement, the Supreme Court held that termination of pregnancies between 20 and 24 weeks is available to all women who are undergoing any change in their material circumstances.
      • The Court said that ‘it is the woman alone who has the right over her body’ and is the ‘ultimate decision-maker’ in deciding if she wants an abortion.

    Key Considerations on ‘Abortion Rights’ in evolving Medico-legal landscape: 

    1. Rights of a Foetus Under Indian Law: The rights of a foetus under the Indian Constitution are unclear as there has been no upfront articulation of it. A 2016 Bombay High Court decision relied on international human rights law to hold that the foetus does not have rights till birth. Hence, there is an urgent need to articulate the rights of a foetus under the Indian Laws.

    2. Challenges in Accessing Late-Term Abortions (Medico-legal Barriers): Medical boards follow strict guidelines, allowing abortion only in extreme cases. Even severe congenital conditions may not guarantee approval for termination. Women seeking abortions post-24 weeks face lengthy legal battles, delaying decisions. E.g., A woman with postpartum depression was denied abortion at 26 weeks despite medical complications.

    3. Implications of Advancements in Neonatal Medicine: With medical advancements, premature babies as early as 24-26 weeks can survive with intensive care. This raises concerns that should abortion rights be reduced as neonatal care improves? However, there is a risk of legal precedence restricting abortion rights based on medical developments rather than reproductive autonomy.

    4. Privacy Concerns (Case study: Haryana’s Pregnancy registration mandate): Haryana state government aims at curbing female foeticide by ensuring early pregnancy registration. It mandates ultrasound centers to register pregnant women. Critics argue it violates privacy rights and deters women from seeking legal abortions. Could push women towards unsafe abortions outside formal healthcare systems. The mandate is in conflict with the MTP Act, which ensures confidentiality in abortion cases.

    RBI to buy ₹80,000 Crore Government Securities

    Context: The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) has announced an open market operation (OMO) purchase to purchase government securities worth ₹80,000 crore in April 2025. This comes after major expectations of further liquidity operations by the Reserve Bank of India.

    Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about OMOs; G-Secs; Liquidity Management measures by RBI.

    Major Highlights

    • RBI will conduct fresh purchase of government securities under OMOs for an aggregate amount of ₹80,000 crore. This will be carried out in four tranches of ₹20,000 crore each. 
    • The move is in continuation of the RBI's recent measures to inject liquidity into the financial system.
      • Earlier in March 2025, RBI conducted OMO purchases of government securities worth Rs 1 lakh crore in two tranches of Rs 50,000 crore each. 
      • RBI also held a dollar-rupee buy/sell swap auction of $10 billion for 36 months.

    Open Market Operations (OMO)

    • OMOs are a key monetary policy tool used by the RBI to regulate liquidity in the banking system by buying or selling government securities (G-Secs) in the open market.
    • When RBI purchases government securities, it injects liquidity into the system. This encourages banks to lend more which can boost economic activity. 
    • When RBI sells government securities, it absorbs excess liquidity and helps to control inflation by reducing the money supply.
    • OMOs are crucial for maintaining stable interest rates, ensuring adequate credit availability, and managing overall financial stability in the economy.

    Government Securities (G-Secs)

    • G-Sec is a tradable debt instrument issued by Central government or State governments. It acknowledges the government's debt obligation.
    • Types of G-secs:
      • Short-Term Government Securities (maturity <1 year): Treasury Bills, Cash Management Bills.
      • Long-Term Government Securities (Maturity >1 year): Dated G-Secs.
    • G-Secs are issued through auctions conducted by Reserve Bank of India, through the electronic platform E-Kuber. 

    Also Read: RBI’s Liquidity Moves and Forex Market Intervention 

    The RBI’s liquidity support is crucial as it comes at a time when economic recovery in India is showing mixed signals, with inflationary pressures, slowing industrial output, and the global economic slowdown affecting business sentiments.

    Rising Geopolitical Conflicts in Arctic Region

    Context: International observers have raised concerns about escalating tensions in the Arctic Region, warning that if left unchecked it could eventually spark conflict in the region. 

    Relevance of the topic:

    Prelims: Arctic Council.

    Mains: Geopolitical conflict in the Arctic region. 

    Drivers of Geopolitical conflict in Arctic region

    • Vast resources: Beneath the frozen Arctic landscape lie untapped reserves of natural resources such as fossil fuels, rare earth elements, phosphates, and copper as well as lucrative fishing grounds. According to a Geological Survey report, the Arctic region holds 13% of the world’s undiscovered oil reserves and 30% of its untapped natural gas reserves. 
    • New trade routes: The melting of Arctic sea ice has opened up new commercial trade routes creating new strategic opportunities for global powers. E.g., The Northeast Passage running along Russia’s Arctic coast. This route, connecting the Bering Strait to Norway, could shorten the maritime distance between East Asia and Europe by about 8,000 kilometers compared to the Suez Canal route.
    • Lack of legal safeguards: Unlike Antarctica, the Arctic lacks legal safeguards and is mainly governed by UNCLOS (UN Convention on the Law of the Sea), allowing nations to claim territories and build military infrastructure. This has led to overlapping claims and rising tensions. 
    image 4

    Geopolitical Tensions and Conflicts

    • Russia: 
      • In 2007, Russia sent the MIR-1 submarine to the North Pole to plant a Russian flag on the seabed beneath the Arctic ice cap — a symbolic demonstration of its presence and capabilities. 
      • Russia has maintained a number of military bases in the Arctic, most of them dating back to the Soviet era. 
      • In 2022, it conducted joint naval exercises with Beijing in the East China Sea, which indicated strategic implications for Arctic security. 
      • Russia views the Northern Sea Route as an essential part of its Arctic strategy, aiming to establish it as a major shipping route connecting Europe and Asia.
      • Russia has made extensive claims over the Arctic seabed, including the Lomonosov Ridge, which it asserts is a natural prolongation of its continental shelf. This has led to overlapping territorial claims with other Arctic nations, particularly Canada and Denmark. 
      • Russia has suggested that Norway’s Arctic island of Svalbard should fall under its control. 
    • China:  Even China, an Arctic outsider by geography, has declared itself a “near-Arctic state” in 2018.  China is planning to construct its first nuclear-powered icebreaker. Investments in infrastructure and resources by China raise concerns among Arctic nations.
    • NATO:  Since Sweden and Finland joined NATO following Russia’s invasion of Ukraine, the alliance has intensified its military presence in the region, including large-scale exercises near the Russian border in Finland in 2024. 
    • US and Canada Dispute: The Northwest Passage, a potential Arctic shipping route that winds through Canada’s Arctic Archipelago, is a contentious point. Canada considers the passage part of its internal waters, granting it control over navigation, while the US claims it is an international waterway which means that any nation has freedom of navigation in the Passage.
    • Greenland Issue: The US President has expressed interest in buying Greenland, citing strategic reasons. Greenland hosts the Thule Air Base, a key US military installation. 

    Also Read: Greenland: The island of US interest

    Arctic Council:

    • It is an international body tasked with protecting the environment, conducting scientific research, and safeguarding the interests of indigenous peoples in the region.
    • Set up in 1996 by Ottawa Declaration.
    • Members: Canada, Denmark (through Greenland), Finland, Iceland, Norway, Russia, Sweden, and the U.S. 
    • These nations exercise sovereignty over the Arctic land and can also exploit resources within their Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs).

    The Arctic remains a region of immense potential. The Arctic may not yet rival the Suez Canal or the Malacca Strait as a global trade artery, but the slow, silent competition beneath its melting ice is reshaping the contours of international relations. 

    Labour needs as much focus as the Capital

    Context: India is facing a growing challenge in creating formal sector jobs despite a labour-abundant economy. 

    Relevance of the Topic: Mains: Amid shift towards capital-intensive production - need to focus on labour skilling and reforms.

    Employment Trends in India

    • Job Deficit: Since 2017-18, India's working-age population has increased by 9 crore, however,  formal sector jobs have risen by 6 crore, leaving a deficit of 50 lakh jobs annually. 
    • Rise in Informal and Self-Employment: Most employment growth is from self-employment in rural areas and informal services, affecting both quality and quantity of work.
    • Capital-intensive Production process: Production processes, including traditionally labour-intensive manufacturing and services industries, are becoming more capital-intensive (more investment in technology and equipment) and automated. The advent of Artificial Intelligence will further reduce the need for human labour. 

    Why is the capital intensity of production rising in a labour-abundant economy?

    1. Demand-Side Factors (Industry & Market-Driven): 

    • Need for Higher Productivity & Cost Efficiency: Businesses adopt capital-intensive technologies to improve productivity and reduce long-term costs. Machines provide greater efficiency, precision, and output per unit of input compared to human labour.
    • Global Competition & Quality Standards: Indian firms competing in global markets must meet high-quality standards, which often necessitate automation and capital-intensive methods.
    • Falling Cost of Capital: With advancements in technology, the cost of machinery and automation has decreased, making capital investment more attractive than hiring and training labour.
    • Economies of Scale: Large-scale production benefits from automation as it reduces per-unit costs, making capital-intensive production more viable. 

    2. Supply-Side Factors (Labour Market Issues):

    • Low Availability of Skilled Labour: Less than 10% of India’s workforce has formal vocational training. Many educated individuals lack industry-relevant skills, making them less competitive against machines. 
    • Rigid & Costly Labour Regulations: Stringent labour laws, high compliance costs, and restrictions on hiring and firing discourage firms from hiring more workers, making automation a preferable alternative. 
    • High Labour Costs in the Formal Sector: Though India has an abundant workforce, formal sector wages, social security obligations, and compliance costs increase the effective cost of hiring labour.
    • Uncertainty & Labour Unrest: Frequent labour strikes, job security demands, and union pressures lead industries to prefer mechanisation, which ensures uninterrupted production

    Some Government Efforts:  

    1. Production linked Incentive Scheme: 

    • The government offers incentives of 4% to 6% on incremental/additional sales. For example, earlier a company was selling goods worth Rs. 1 lakh in a year and now its sales increased to Rs. 1.2 lakh. Then the company will get an incentive of 4% on Rs. 20,000= Rs. 800.
    • Challenges:  
      • The current structure of the PLI scheme is primarily focused on expanding production of high-value products with backward linkages, which require high-skilled, specialised labour, and is relatively less focused on low- and middle-skilled labour-intensive sectors.
      • Over 50% of the PLI budget is allocated for large-scale electronics, IT hardware and drone manufacturing. However, the highest number of jobs under the scheme has been created in the food processing and pharmaceutical industries. 

    2. Education-Employment Linked Internship (ELI) scheme:

    • The central government incentivises the private sector to hire more labour while also skilling them, through the ELI and other internship programmes. 
    • Challenge: While this policy does reduce the cost of labour by shifting (the initial) burden on to the government, the period of the subsidy or transfers is short (about two to three years) The scheme does not sufficiently focus on upskilling workers, limiting future employability. 

    Way Forward

    • Integrated Policy Framework: Establish coordination between ministries of production, labour, and skilling to align production-linked incentive (PLI) schemes with current and future labor market needs.
    • Graded Incentive Structures: Modify PLI incentives from flat to graded, rewarding firms for certifying and upgrading workers' skills through on-the-job training.
    • Strengthen Skill Ecosystem: Enhance training institutes like ITIs by linking their funding and rewards to employment and earnings outcomes based on projected industry demand.
    • Flexible Labour Regulations: Encourage state governments to adopt flexible labor policies to reduce costs and promote labor-intensive technologies

    Hence, there is a need to focus on both the quantity and quality of the workforce by investing in skill development programs that cater to high-value manufacturing sectors. India needs to develop dynamic frameworks that adapt to evolving industrial and technological demands, ensuring alignment with the vision of "Viksit Bharat." 

    Is Income Inequality widening in India?

    Context: A number of recent consumption and asset surveys are showing a fall in inequality in India. 

    Relevance of the Topic: Mains: Debate surrounding income inequality in India.

    Economic Growth of India

    Post-Independence Economic Issues:

    • India inherited a poor economy in 1947 with excessive poverty levels. The first 50 years of independence saw poverty persist due to a lack of substantial economic growth, in spite of the socialist policies for income redistribution.
    • The economy witnessed slow growth, excessive taxation, and policies that focused on wealth redistribution by way of public sector dominance and centralised control. 

    Liberalisation in the 1990s: 

    • In the early 1990s, India shifted toward economic liberalisation, opening up its markets, reducing trade barriers, and embracing foreign investments. These reforms led to an annual growth rate of ~6% (1990-2020), lifting 400 million people out of poverty. 
    • By 2021, Indian poverty had declined to 13% of the population, from 40% in 2000, according to the World Bank's $2.15/day poverty line (2017 PPP). This reflects upwards economic mobility.
    • Based on household consumption expenditure surveys (2022-23), urban poverty was at 10%, while rural poverty was at 5%.
    • There has been a significant decline in multidimensional poverty, extending to access to sanitation, electricity, education, and healthcare.

    World Inequality Lab (WIL) Estimates: 

    • Inequality Trends in India: According to WIL, the top 1% of earners in India take home 21% of disposable income, while the bottom 50% earn only 13%.

    Limitations of WIL Data :

    • WIL's findings are based on income tax data, which represents a small proportion of the population. Surveys conducted by PRICE and NCAER, including both formal and informal sectors, reveal a far more equal distribution of income, with the richest 1% getting 8.8%, and the poorest 50% getting 22.8%.
    • Dependence on income tax data is a major drawback, as India has a relatively low proportion of taxpayers. This skews actual distribution of income and wealth. Other studies, including academic and market surveys, disagree with WIL's report, suggesting the data may not be credible.

    Trends suggesting fall of Inequality in India

    A number of recent consumption and asset surveys are showing a fall in inequality in India. 

    • More than 450 million individuals have moved past the $2/day income line from 2000 to 2012, with great economic mobility.
    • The proportion of individuals with incomes ranging from ₹5 lakh to ₹31 lakh annually grew from 14% between 2005 and 2021 to 31%, evidencing a large-based increase in income.
    • The ratio of workers in the population went up from 34.7% in FY18 to 43.7% in FY24, indicating better employment participation.
    • Average per capita income touched ₹2 lakh in FY24, which indicates rising economic growth.
    • Small FMCG players reaching price-sensitive consumers grew significantly more than big business, falsifying the premise that inequality is on the increase due to unbalanced consumption behavior.
    • Multidimensional poverty declined with noteworthy improvements in the availability of basic facilities like electricity, sanitation, and healthcare.
    • India has seen massive entry into wealth creation, particularly in the form of start-ups and MSMEs (Micro, Small, and Medium Enterprises). Credit to MSMEs has increased very fast, encouraging the establishment of new enterprises and facilitating wealth distribution among a wider segment of society. 
    • The number of Indian dollar millionaires doubled from 2012 to 2022, though their absolute numbers are few compared to world averages. India's percentage of world millionaires is merely 1.4%, whereas its percentage in world population is 17.2%. This shows that wealth creation is at a nascent stage in India.

    Way Forward

    • Focusing on Upward Mobility: Policy and research must aim at enhancing upward mobility in the income distribution, instead of monitoring poverty and inequality alone. Policy must encourage economic engagement and offer opportunities for individuals to climb the income ladder. 
    • Avoiding Excessive Taxation of Wealth Creators: Excessive taxation of wealth creators, as proposed by certain inequality research, may hurt India's growth prospects by discouraging entrepreneurship and innovation. The government must aim at creating conditions where prosperity and upward mobility across income levels are promoted to ensure long-term economic growth.
    • Improving Governance and Infrastructure: To ensure continued growth, India needs to give high priority to governance reforms, particularly in non-metro areas, so that economic benefits are spread widely. Improving infrastructure, decentralisation, and local public service delivery will be key to inclusive and sustainable growth.

    Indian growth is primarily based on a broad-based increase in consumption and economic mobility, as opposed to a concentration of wealth at the top. Policies aimed at economic mobility, employment generation, and narrowing inter-regional imbalances will be crucial to continuing this growth trend.  

    Astronomers discover 128 new Moons orbiting Saturn

    Context: Recently, astronomers have located 128 new moons orbiting Saturn using the Canada France Hawaii telescope. Saturn now officially has 274 confirmed moons, the highest for any planet in the Solar System. Saturn is followed by Jupiter with 95 known moons. 

    Relevance of the Topic:Prelims: Key facts about Saturn; Saturn’s Moons.

    Key facts about Saturn

    • Saturn is the sixth planet from the Sun. It is the second-largest planet in our Solar System, after Jupiter.
    • Saturn is a gas giant dominated by hydrogen and helium. Its atmosphere contains hydrogen, helium, methane, ammonia, and other gases, giving it a yellowish-brown appearance. The planet is thought to have a rocky core. 
    • Saturn's average density is 0.69 g/cm³, making it the only planet less dense than water by about 30%. Its low density is due to its vast gaseous atmosphere. 
    • Saturn's rapid rotation gives it an oblate shape. It is flattened at the poles and bulging at the equator. Saturn's rings are made of ice, dust, and rock. 
    • Saturn orbits the Sun at an average distance of 9.59 astronomical units (AU), or roughly 1,434 million kilometers. The orbital period is about 29.45 Earth years.
    • Saturn is known for its large and intense storm systems, such as the Great White Spot. This massive storm occurs roughly once every Saturnian year (about 29 Earth years). These storms can last for months and cover vast areas. 

    Saturn’s Important Moons

    image 3

    Saturn has 274 moons recognised by the International Astronomical Union.

    • Titan: 
      • Titan is Saturn's largest moon and is one of the most Earth-like bodies in the Solar System. Titan is larger (though less massive) than Mercury.
      • It is the only moon in the Solar System with a dense atmosphere.
      • Nitrogen and methane extend around the moon 10 times as far into space as Earth's atmosphere, sometimes falling to Titan's surface as methane rain.
      • It has liquid hydrocarbon lakes in the polar region. Cassini-Huygens spacecraft landed on Titan in 2005. 
    • Enceladus: 
      • Enceladus is an icy Saturnian moon that has a liquid ocean of water beneath its crust, making it one of the most promising places to look for signs of life beyond Earth. 
      • It has the whitest, most reflective surface in the solar system. 
      • The strange moon spews its ocean out into space. In 2005, NASA's Cassini spacecraft found icy water particles gushing from the surface at approximately 400 meters per second. 
      • Nanograins of silica have been found in Saturn's E-ring, which suggests the presence of hydrothermal vents within Enceladus' ocean. 

    Also Read: Age of Saturn’s Rings  

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