Context: Space travel poses significant challenges to human health due to microgravity, radiation exposure, and psychological stress.
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims & Mains: Impacts of space travel on the health of an astronaut.
Space omics
Space omics is a set of studies to understand how the space environment can impact the human body.
Factors in Space impacting Astronauts:
Radiation exposure (Unlike earth’s magnetic field that shields from space radiation, astronauts are exposed to high-energy radiation permeating the cosmos).
Confined environments (Isolation and limited social interaction and exposure to natural stimuli)
Time (Symptoms become more pronounced with increased stay duration in space).
Impacts of Space Travel on the Health of an Astronaut:
1. Bone and Muscle Degeneration:
Bone Weakening:
Microgravity results in the weakening of bones (particularly those that bear the body's weight on Earth).
The bone density loss occurs at a rate of about 1-2% per month, increasing the risk of fractures and osteoporosis.
Muscle Atrophy:
Muscles in space experience reduced demand which leads to loss of muscle mass and strength.
E.g., weightlessness in space reduces the heart's workload, leading to shrinkage of heart muscles. The cardiovascular system struggles to regulate blood pressure upon return to Earth.
Balance and Coordination Issues: Prolonged exposure to microgravity conditions also affects the inner ear’s ability to sense movement and orientation, leading to balance and coordination issues.
RBC Loss: Blood loses more red blood cells per day in space than on Earth. This condition is called space anaemia.
In microgravity conditions, the fluids in the body shits upwards towards the head. This leads to an accumulation of fluid at the back of the eye resulting in facial swelling and vision loss.
Around 70% of astronauts involved in long-duration spaceflight develop SANS.
3. Changes in Gene Expression:
NASA's Twins Study (2016) revealed that space travel causes an increase in DNA methylation and the process of turning genes on and off (gene expression).
Space travel caused lasting changes to 7% of the genes of astronaut Scott Kelly compared his DNA to that of his twin brother.
High radiation exposure can lead to DNA damage, increased cancer risk, neurodegenerative effects and immune system dysregulation.
4. Psychological Stress:
Long-duration space missions can lead to psychological stress, sleep disturbances, and mood disorders.
Context: China’s Ambassador to India posted about the historic Tea Horse Road which spanned more than 2,000 km, and connected China to India via Tibet.
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Tea Horse Road.
Tea Horse Road/ Ancient Chama Road
Origin: It can be traced back to the 618-907 CE during the rule of Tang Dynasty.
Route: It was not a single road, but a network of paths that started from Southwest China and ended in the Indian Subcontinent.
The main pathways passed through Chinese cities like Lijiang in Yunnan Province and Chengdu in Sichuan Province.
Then it reached Lhasa in Tibet, from where it branched into India, Nepal and Bangladesh.
Though it is not known as the Silk Road (China- Europe), the Tea horse road was a crucial commercial trade route for centuries.
Significance of the route in Trade
As per the writings of Buddhist Monk and traveler I-Tsing/ Yijing (635-713 CE):
From China to India: Products like Sugar, Textiles and Rice Noodles were transported from Southwestern China to Tibet and India.
From India to China: Horses, leather, Tibetan Gold, Saffron and medicine herbs.
From the times of Song Dynasty (960-1279 CE) trade mainly focused on Tea from China and Horses from India.
By 1912, the route gained significance as it became a toolfor bringing new techniques and goods to the less developed mountainous regions of Yunnan (China)which helped in expanding the tea industry rapidly.
During World War II, Japan gained control over the entire Chinese coastline and airspace. The road became crucial for transporting supplies to the frontline battlefield in China.
Decline in significance: With establishment of the People’s Republic of China in 1949, the road witnessed decline in significance. This happened mainly because of Mao Zedong’s land reforms, after which porters mostly stopped the backbreaking work of carrying the loads.
Contemporary significance: China has promoted tourism along the historic path and Lijiang became a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1997.
Context: The Ministry of Panchayati Raj has recently published the Panchayat Devolution Index 2024. The index was last published in 2014. Over the past decade, the national average score has increased from 39.92 to 43.89.
Relevance of the topic:
Prelims: Key facts about Panchayat Devolution Index 2024.
Mains: Challenges faced by Panchayats.
About Panchayat Devolution Index (PDI)
PDI is a tool to assess the devolution of powers and resources to Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs) across Indian states and Union Territories.
The index measures the performance of India’s panchayat system across states based on six key parameters:
Framework: Legal and policy framework supporting Panchayati raj institutions.
Functions: Extent of devolution of functions to panchayats.
Finances: Availability and allocation of financial resources.
Functionaries: Availability of trained personnel and administrative capacity.
Capacity building: Training and skill development of panchayat members.
Accountability: Transparency and effectiveness in governance.
Developed by: Indian Institute of Public Administration.
Key findings of the 2024 report
Top performing States: Karnataka, Kerala, and Tamil Nadu.
The national average score rose from 39.92 in 2013-14 to 43.89 in 2024.
The PDI was last published in 2014. The slight improvement in national average score indicates modest progress in devolution efforts.
Improvements and Declines:
18 states and Union Territories improved their scores, while 11 recorded declines.
Uttar Pradesh and Bihar showed the biggest improvement compared to their past performance.
Maharashtra, despite ranking fourth overall in 2024, is the only top-10 state to register a decline.
Lowest-ranked states: Manipur, Arunachal Pradesh, and Jharkhand, with Manipur, Arunachal, and Haryana experiencing the steepest declines over the past decade.
Representation and demographics of Panchayats in 2024
Total number of panchayats in India:
Numbers have increased from 2.48 lakh (2013-14) to 2.62 lakh (2024).
States with the highest number of panchayats are Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, and Madhya Pradesh.
Average rural population per panchayat:
Increased from 3,087 (2013-14) to 4,669 (2024), indicating a trend of fewer but larger panchayats.
West Bengal, Assam, and Bihar have the most densely populated panchayats.
Women's representation in Panchayats
Women’s reservation in panchayats:
Most states follow the 50% reservation quota for women in panchayat seats.
However, seven states and UTs fall below their mandated quota, E.g., Madhya Pradesh, Haryana, Punjab, and Tripura.
Highest representation of women:
Odisha (61.51%)
Himachal Pradesh (57.5%)
Tamil Nadu (57.32%)
Lowest representation of women: Uttar Pradesh (33.33%), which aligns with its one-third reservation policy for women rather than the 50% quota followed by most states.
Overall progress:
The national average of women representatives has risen slightly from 45.9% (2013-14) to 46.44% (2024).
The number of states with 50% or more women representatives has increased from 11 (2013-14) to 16 (2024).
Representation of Scheduled Castes (SC), Scheduled Tribes (ST), and Other Backward Classes (OBC):
Highest representation of marginalised groups in panchayats:
Scheduled Castes (SCs): Punjab (36.34%)
Scheduled Tribes (STs): Chhattisgarh (41.04%).
Other Backward Classes (OBCs): Bihar (39.02%)
National averages for representation of marginalised groups in 2024:
SC representation: 18.03%
ST representation: 16.22%
OBC representation: 19.15%
Arunachal Pradesh: Reported 100% ST representation (2013-14), but did not provide 2024 data.
Challenges faced by Panchayats
1. Funding:
Despite allocations, actual release of funds is often delayed. For instance, in 2023-24, only Rs 10,761 crore out of Rs 47,018 crore allocated was released as of November 2023.
Poor internal resource generation: Most panchayats lack the ability to generate their own revenue, exacerbating their financial constraints.
2. Infrastructure shortfalls:
Many panchayats lack basic infrastructure like pucca buildings, computers, and internet access. E.g., Arunachal Pradesh has only 5% pucca buildings and no panchayat with computers.
Digital Infrastructure: 100% computer availability in panchayats was reported in 12 states and UTs, while:
Arunachal Pradesh had 0% computer availability.
Odisha had only 13% of panchayats with computers.
Internet access in panchayats:
14 states and UTs reported 100% internet access.
Haryana (0%) and Arunachal Pradesh (1%) had nearly no internet connectivity in their panchayats.
3. Administrative challenges:
Inadequate devolution of Powers: Many states have not fully devolved functions and authority to panchayats, limiting their scope of work.
Lack of skilled functionaries: There is a shortage of trained and skilled personnel, including elected representatives and support staff.
Interference from higher authorities: Interference by MPs and MLAs is seen to have undermined the autonomy and decision-making capacity of panchayats.
4. Women representation:
While 21 states and UTs meet or exceed the 50% reservation threshold for women, seven states fall below it.
5. Social Challenges:
Gender and social biases: Despite reservations, women and marginalized groups often face challenges in exercising their roles effectively due to patriarchal attitudes and biases.
Illiteracy among the functionaries: Illiterate or semi-literate sarpanch struggle to represent their panchayats effectively.
Way Forward
Enhanced funding and infrastructure: Ensure timely release of allocated funds to panchayats and empower panchayats to generate their own revenue There is a need to invest in basic infrastructure like buildings, computers, and internet connectivity.
Capacity building and training: Provide regular training and capacity-building programs for panchayat functionaries to enhance their skills and knowledge.
Improved accountability and transparency: Implement robust accountability mechanisms to ensure transparency in decision-making and resource allocation.
Strengthening framework and devolution of functions: Regularly review and update the legal framework to ensure it aligns with evolving needs and supports effective decentralization.
Streamline administrative processes: Reduce interference from higher authorities and ensure clear devolution of powers.
The PDI 2024 findings underscore the need for renewed efforts in financial devolution, administrative capacity-building, and infrastructure development to strengthen Panchayati Raj Institutions as the backbone of India’s rural democracy.
Context: A newly published study highlights that melting ice from glaciers worldwide has led to the sea level rising by almost 2 cm this century alone.
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key trends regarding climate change.
Major Highlights of the Study
Study: Community estimate of global glacier mass changes from 2000 to 2023.
Contributors: Scientists from the University of Edinburgh (Scotland) and the University of Zurich (Switzerland)
Findings:
Melting ice has led to the sea level rising by almost 2 cm this century alone.
Glaciers have been losing 273 billion tonnes of ice each year, equivalent to water Earth’s entire population would consume over a period of 30 years.
Glacial Melting and Sea Rise
According to the US agency National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA):
The rate of glacial melting has doubled from 0.18 cm per year in 1993 to the current rate of 0.42 cm per year.
The global sea level has risen by about 21-25 cm since 1880.
As per the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), global sea levels have risen by more than 10 cm between 1993-2024.
According to a World Meteorological Organisation report, sea level is not rising uniformly around the world (owing to local changes in ocean heat content and salinity). For example- the southwestern Indian Ocean region is seeing sea level rise at a rate of 2.5 mm per year, faster than the global average.
Indian Scenario
Data from the Center for Study of Science, Technology and Policy (CSTEP), Bengaluru.
Mumbai has witnessed a rise of 4.44 cm between 1987 and 2021, the worst among Indian cities.
West Bengal’s Haldia has witnessed a sea-level rise of 2.726 cm.
Andhra Pradesh’s Visakhapatnam has witnessed a sea-level rise of 2.381 cm.
Kerala’s Kochi has witnessed a sea-level rise of 2.213 cm.
Factors contributing to the Sea level Rise:
Sea level rise is essentially the increase in the average height of the ocean’s surface, measured from the centre of the Earth.
Global Warming: This has resulted inincreased melting of land-based ice, such as glaciers and ice sheets. According to the latest study, since 2000, glaciers have lost between 2% and 39% of their ice regionally, and about 5% globally.
Thermal expansion of seawater: With global temperatures rising, oceans are becoming warmer, and as a result, the volume of water is increasing as well. According to the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) thermal expansion of seawater is responsible for one-third to half of global sea level rise.
Concerns associated with the rising sea levels
As per the study “Every centimeter of sea level rise exposes another 2 million people to annual flooding somewhere on our planet”.
Flooding and erosion of coastal areas:
Sea level rise leads to more frequent and intense coastal flooding, which exacerbates coastal erosion.
According to a 2018 report by the National Centre for Coastal Research (NCCR), between 1990 and 2016, the West Bengal coast alone lost almost 99 sq km of land.
More severe geophysical phenomenon:
The rise results in more intense storm surges, allowing more water inland during tropical storms.
This in turn can impact coastal ecosystems like mangroves, coral reefs and salt marshes, contaminate fresh water supplies etc.
Displacement of population:
Submergence, erosion and intense climatic events may result in huge displacement of coastal populations, which in turn would adversely impact their livelihood and their age-old traditions.
A 2024 study in the journal Scientific Reports found that 15% of the global; population lived merely 10 km away from water.
Changes in weather patterns: Addition of a considerable amount of freshwater into the ocean is concerning as this increase in freshwater has the potential to disturb the oceanic circulations, which is a crucial system of ocean currents responsible for shaping the Earth's climate and weather patterns.
Context: Indian Researchers have created the first ever detailed geological map of the moon’s south polar region, where India’s Chandrayaan-3 lunar module (Vikram) landed on August 23, 2023.
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Chandrayaan mission series.
Major Highlights:
Researchers from the Physical Research Laboratory (Ahmedabad), Panjab University (Chandigarh), and ISRO’s Laboratory for Electro-Optics Systems have created the lunarmap using data from the Pragyan rover.
The new map shows an undulating landscape of highlands and low, flat plains around the landing site.
Using the map, the age of the region is calculated to be around 3.7 billion years. It is around the same time the first signs of microbial life emerged on Earth.
Researchers traced the alignment of secondary craters and identified Schomberger crater as the primary source of debris covering the landing site.
Significance
Understanding Lunar Evolution:
The map will throw new light on the moon’s origin and geological evolution.
Lunar craters are important tools for scientists to calculate the age of geological features on other planets with solid surfaces.
This can give significant insights about the evolution of impact craters elsewhere on the earth and on the inner planets of the solar system.
Confirms magma hypothesis
Data from previous missions (Apollo, Surveyor, Luna, Chang’e 3 probes), indicated the presence of sea of lava beneath the lunar surface, but lacked data from polar regions.
Pragyan’s Alpha Particle X-ray Spectrometer detected magma under the landing site (near the Polar region). This confirms the ancient ocean of molten lava once extended across the entire moon.
Context: Agricultural goods receive high protection in India and have largely remained outside trade agreements. India is considering a range of items for tariff reductions on US products, however, the United States is particularly interested in reduction of tariffs in the agricultural sector to export more agricultural goods to India.
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key trends in the US-India Trade relations.
India-US trade in Agricultural products
High protection in India:
India has traditionally maintained high tariffs on agricultural imports to protect its domestic farming sector, which is highly sensitive and politically significant.
Despite tariff reductions on select products in recent Union Budgets, agriculture remains a protected sector.
US Agricultural export interests:
The American agricultural sector (especially in the Midwest) forms a key voter base for former President Donald Trump, influencing US trade policies.
Increasing agricultural exports is an offensive interest for the US, aiming to support domestic farmers and strengthen economic ties.
Tariff rates comparison:
India’s average applied Most Favoured Nation (MFN) tariff on agricultural goods: 39%
The US average applied MFN tariff on agricultural goods: 5%
Implications:
High Indian tariffs on agricultural products lead to trade imbalances and hinder the growth of US exports to India.
The disparity prompts US demands for reciprocal tariff reductions, which could potentially benefit both sides through enhanced trade volumes.
Lowering tariffs could improve the market access for Indian agricultural goods in the US.
Enhanced access could particularly benefit sectors like basmati rice, processed foods, and spices.
Sectoral vulnerabilitiesin Indian agriculture from US Reciprocal Tariffs (As per GTRI Report):
Seafood (Fish, Meat, Processed Seafood):
Exports worth $2.58 billion face a 27.83% tariff differential.
Shrimp, a key export item, is likely to lose competitiveness in the US market.
Processed Foods, Sugar, and Cocoa:
Exports worth $1.03 billion affected by a 24.99% tariff increase.
Indian snacks and confectionery products will become costlier and less attractive to US consumers.
Edible Oils: Coconut and mustard oil exports valued at $199.75 million face a 10.67% tariff increase.
Alcohol, Wines, and Spirits: Exports of $19.20 million affected by a steep 122.10% tariff hike.
Live Animals and Animal products: $10.31 million in exports face a 27.75% tariff differential.
Tobacco and Cigarettes: Despite a high US tariff of 201.15%, Indian exports worth $94.62 million remain largely unaffected due to an already negative tariff differential (-168.15%).
United States - Mexico - Canada Agreement (USMCA):
Signed during Trump’s tenure to replace North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) and expand the US agricultural market access.
Key Provisions:
Removal of Canadian Class 6 and 7 milk pricing programs to prevent undercutting of US dairy prices.
Reforms in Canada’s wheat grading system to ensure fair competition for US wheat growers.
Impact: Significant increase in the US dairy and wheat exports to Canada.
US-China Trade Deal (2020-2021):
Focused on boosting US agricultural exports amid the trade war.
Key Provisions:
China agreed to purchase US agricultural products worth $12.5 billion above the 2017 baseline in 2020 and $19.5 billion above the same baseline in 2021.
Removal of non-tariff barriers, such as lifting age restrictions on US beef imports.
Outcome: Enhanced market access and increased agricultural trade between the two economies.
Context: The Centre government has withheld ₹2,152 crore in funds to Tamil Nadu under the Samagra Shiksha scheme due to the State’s refusal to implement the National Education Policy (NEP) 2020’sthree-language formula.
Tamil Nadu follows a two-language policy and views three-language policy as an imposition of Hindi and a threat to its linguistic identity.
Definition: The three-language policy was introduced in the National Education Policy (NEP) of 1968 to standardise language education across India.
Objective: To promote multilingualism, national unity, and administrative efficiency.
Structure:
Hindi-speaking States: Hindi, English, and a modern Indian language (preferably a south Indian language).
Non Hindi-speaking States: Regional language, Hindi, and English.
Background of Three-Language formula:
1968: Introduced in the first NEP under Prime Minister Indira Gandhi.
1986: Reiterated in the National Policy of Education (NPE) 1986 without major changes.
2020: Retained in NEP 2020 with greater flexibility, allowing States to choose languages.
Tamil Nadu’s Resistance
Tamil Nadu adopted a two-language policy (Tamil and English)in 1968, citing Hindi imposition.
Historical background:
In 1937, the Justice Party strongly opposed the Rajaji-led Madras government’s attempt to make Hindi compulsory in schools. Protests led to the deaths of two activists, Thalamuthu and Natarajan, and the policy was eventually withdrawn.
1968: DMK government passed a resolution rejecting the three-language formula, reinforcing Tamil Nadu’s two-language policy. Since then, successive governments have opposed any changes to this policy.
2019: Strong resistance from Tamil Nadu led to the removal of mandatory Hindi learning from the draft NEP proposed by the Kasturirangan Committee.
Three-Language Formula in NEP 2020
Flexibility: States and students can choose the three languages, with at least two being native to India.
No Imposition: No specific language is mandated for any State.
Emphasis on mother tongue: Encourages teaching in the home language/mother tongue until Grade 5, preferably till Grade 8.
Encouraging Sanskrit: Promoted as an optional language within the three-language formula.
Significance of Three-Language Formula
Promotes Multilingualism: Encourages learning multiple languages for better communication and cultural understanding.
National integration: Bridges linguistic divides and fosters unity across regions.
Global competence: Retains English as a global link language while promoting Indian languages.
Cognitive benefits: Research shows learning in the mother tongue enhances cognitive development.
Issues in Three-Language Formula
Perceived Hindi imposition: Non-Hindi-speaking States, especially Tamil Nadu, view it as an attempt to impose Hindi.
Cultural resistance: Seen as a threat to regional languages and linguistic identities.
Political tensions: Opposition from regional parties fearing erosion of linguistic autonomy.
Resource constraints: Lack of teachers and materials for additional languages.
Implementation challenges: Varied adoption across States, with some prioritising Sanskrit over modern Indian languages.
Supreme Court observations on the Three-Language Formula
Linguistic Secularism:
The Supreme Court, in the U.P. Hindi Sahittya Sammelan vs State of U.P. (2014), emphasised “linguistic secularism”— ensuring the rights and aspirations of all language speakers.
It observed that India’s linguistic policies should be “accommodative” rather than rigid.
Medium of Instruction and Parental Choice: In State of Karnataka vs Associated Management of Primary & Secondary Schools (2014), the Supreme Court ruled that:
Parents and students have the right to choose the medium of instruction.
The state cannot impose a particular language in primary education.
Freedom of Speech and Expression (Article 19) extends to the right of a child to choose a language.
The judgment referred to Pierce v. Society of Sisters of Holy Names (1924, U.S.), which held that “a child is not a mere creature of the state” and parents play a crucial role in deciding their child's education.
Hindi as an Official Language, not National Language: The Supreme Court has clarified that Hindi is not India's national language.
The Munshi-Ayyangar Formula in the Constituent Assembly led to Article 343, making Hindi the official language, but not the national language.
Furthermore, Article 29(1) guarantees all linguistic communities the fundamental right to conserve their language, script, and culture—for both majority and minority groups.
Law Commission Report (216th Report, 2008): It has observed that language imposition could be counterproductive and harm national unity.
Allahabad High Court: In Sunil K.R. Sahastrabudhey vs IIT Kanpur, it was observed that although Article 351 places a “duty” on the government to promote Hindi, there is no right to compel an institution to provide education in Hindi.
Way Forward
Constructive dialogue: Centre and States must engage in discussions to address concerns and find common ground.
Flexible implementation: Allow States to choose languages based on local preferences and needs.
Resource allocation: Provide adequate funding and infrastructure for language teachers and materials.
Focus on multilingualism: Promote learning of Indian languages without undermining regional identities.
Decentralised approach: Respect State autonomy in education while aligning with national goals.
Context: Recent studies highlight the role of dark-pigmented microalgae in intensifying Greenland Ice Sheet melting process, which is a critical contributor to global sea-level rise.
Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Trends in Climate Change- Greenland Ice Sheet, Glacier ice algae.
About Greenland Ice Sheet
Greenland Ice Sheet contains the equivalent of 7.4 meters of global sea level rise, currently frozen atop the world’s largest island.
Greenland Ice Sheet gains mass chiefly from snow accumulation, and loses mass through meltwater runoff and discharge of solid ice into the ocean.
It has experienced net-annual mass loss for 27 years, every year since 1998.
The melting of the Greenland Ice Sheet is the single largest contributor of freshwater to global sea-level rise.
Ice sheet mass loss affects human and natural environments worldwide through:
Coastal erosion
Saltwater intrusion
Habitat loss
Heightened storm surges
Tidal flooding
Permanent inundation
About Glacier Ice Algae:
Glacier algae are dark-pigmented microalgae capable of surviving extreme glacier environments.
This algae plays a significant role in altering the surface properties of Greenland Ice Sheet, contributing to accelerated melting.
The algaegrows onmelting glacier and ice sheet surfacesacross the cryosphere. This causes the ice to absorb more solar energy and consequently melt faster.
This also results in cycling of carbon and nutrients within the ecosystem.
Key findings of the study
Efficient nutrient uptake:
The microalgae possess an extraordinary ability to absorb essential nutrients such as carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus at high rates.
This efficiency allows them to sustain growth even in environments with limited nutrient availability.
Adaptation mechanism:
The algae’s survival strategy involves maintaining high carbon-to-nutrient ratios and storing phosphorus internally.
This adaptation is crucial for thriving on the nutrient-poor glacier surfaces, where traditional nutrient sources are scarce.
Expansion potential:
As the Greenland Ice Sheet continues to melt, more bare ice is exposed, providing new surfaces for colonisation.
The algae’s ability to persist without significant external nutrients enables them to rapidly expand their coverage, further intensifying the melting process.
Albedo reduction:
The dark pigmentation of the algae significantly decreases the reflectivity (albedo) of the ice surface.
With less sunlight reflected back into the atmosphere, more heat is absorbed, leading to a higher rate of ice melting.
Melt rate amplification:
Algal blooms along the western margin of the ice sheet have been shown to increase melt rates by 10 to 13%.
This substantial contribution underscores the critical role of biological factors in the ice sheet’s mass loss.
Environmental and Climatic Implications
Sea-level rise: The enhanced melting driven by algal colonisation adds to the volume of freshwater entering the oceans, directly contributing to global sea-level rise.
Climate modeling: The study emphasises the necessity of incorporating biological processes, such as algal growth and spread, into climate models that predict ice sheet melt.
Urgency in mitigation: Understanding the biological drivers of ice melt is crucial for formulating effective climate mitigation and adaptation strategies.
