Daily Current Affairs

February 21, 2025

Current Affairs

SC stays Lokpal’s order on HC judges

Context: The Supreme Court has stayed a Lokpal order bringing High Court judges under its jurisdiction, terming that the Lokpal order impacted the independence of the judiciary. 

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about Lokpal & Lokayukt. 

Reasoning given by the Lokpal to bring High Court Judges under its purview

  • The Lokpal (in its now-suspended order) ruled that High Court judges fall within the definition of “public servant” under the 2013 Lokpal Act, asserting its jurisdiction over them.
    • Unlike the Supreme Court, the High Courts in India were constituted by British Parliamentary Acts — Indian High Courts Act, 1861 and Government of India Act 1935 — and thus the High Courts pre-date the Constitution.
    • Article 214 of the Constitution, which said “there shall be a High Court for each State”, had only “intrinsically recognised” the existence of the High Courts. The Constitution did not establish the High Courts. 
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Reasoning given by Supreme Court to stay the Lokpal order

  • The special bench of SC stated that high court judges would not come under the purview of the Lokpal and Lokayuktas Act, 2013, since their appointment is governed by the Constitution and that they are not like any other “public servant” functioning in an organisation established by a parliamentary law.
    • After the commencement of the Constitution, High Court judges are constitutional authorities and not mere statutory functionaries.

About the office of Lokpal

  • The Lokpal is an independent statutory body established under Section 3 of the Lokpal and Lokayuktas Act, 2013. 
  • Aim: To inquire and investigate allegations of corruption against public functionaries who fall within the scope and ambit of the Act. 
  • Since India is a signatory to the United Nations Convention against Corruption, it mandates the Government to provide clean and responsive governance which is reflected in passing of the legislation and creation of the body of Lokpal to contain and punish acts of corruption.

Objective behind establishing the office of Lokpal

  • To address concerns and aspirations of the citizens of India for clean governance. 
  • To serve the public interest and use the powers vested in it to eradicate corruption in public life.

Features of Lokpal and Lokayukta Act (2013) 

  • Uniform anti-corruption roadmap: It seeks to establish the institution of the Lokpal at the Centre and the Lokayukta at the level of the State and thus seeks to provide a uniform vigilance and anti-corruption road map for the nation both at the Centre and at the States. 
  • Jurisdiction of Lokpal includes the Prime Minister, Ministers, Members of Parliament and Groups A, B, C and D officers and officials of the Central Government. 
  • Composition: Lokpal consists of a Chairperson with a maximum of 8 members of which 50% shall be judicial members.
    • 50% of the members of the Lokpal shall come from amongst the SCs, the STs, the OBCs, minorities and women. 
    • The selection of the Chairperson and the members of Lokpal shall be through a Selection Committee, consisting of:
      • Prime Minister
      • Speaker of Lok Sabha
      • Leader of the Opposition in Lok Sabha
      • Chief Justice of India or a sitting Supreme Court Judge nominated by the Chief Justice of India
      • Eminent Jurist to be nominated by the President of India on the basis of recommendations of the first four members of the selection committee. 
Search Committee: 

-A Search Committee will assist the Selection Committee in the process of selection. 

- 50% of the members of the Search Committee shall also be from amongst the SCs, the STs, the OBCs, minorities and women.

Jurisdictional Aspect

  • Office of Prime Minister: The Prime Minister has been brought under the purview of the Lokpal with subject matter exclusions and specific process for handling complaints against the Prime Minister. 
  • Lokpal’s jurisdiction will cover all categories of public servants, including Group A, Group B, Group C, and Group D officers and employees of Government. 
    • On complaints referred to the Central Vigilance Commission (CVC) by the Lokpal, the CVC will send its report of preliminary enquiry in respect of Group A and Group B Officers back to the Lokpal for further decision. 
    • With respect to categories of employees from Group C and Group D, the CVC will proceed further in exercise of its own powers under the CVC Act subject to reporting and review by the Lokpal. 
  • Lokpal will have the power of superintendence and direction over any investigating agency, including the CBI, for cases referred to them by the Lokpal. 

Changes made by the Lokpal Act

  • Appointment of CBI Director: A High-Powered Committee chaired by the Prime Minister will recommend the selection of the Director of CBI. 
  • Attachment of property: It incorporates provisions for attachment and confiscation of property of public servants acquired by corrupt means, even while the prosecution is pending.
  • Provides timeline: It lays down clear timelines.
    • For preliminary enquiry, it is three months extendable by three months. 
    • For investigation, it is six months which may be extended by six months at a time. 
    • For trial, it is one year extendable by one year and to achieve this, special courts to be set up. 
  • Maximum punishment under Prevention of Corruption Act enhanced:
    • It enhances maximum punishment under the Prevention of Corruption Act from seven years to ten years. 
    • The minimum punishment under sections 7, 8, 9 and 12 of the Prevention of Corruption Act will now be three years, and the minimum punishment under section 15 (punishment for attempt) will now be two years.
  • Enhanced ambit: Institutions which are financed fully or partly by Government are under the jurisdiction of Lokpal, but institutions aided by Government are excluded. 
  • Power to grant sanction: Lokpal is conferred with power to grant sanction for prosecution of public servants in place of the Government or competent authority. 
  • Provisions to strengthen CBI: It contains a number of provisions aimed at strengthening the CBI such as:
    • setting up of a Directorate of Prosecution headed by a Director Prosecution under the overall control of the Director of CBI. 
    • appointment of the Director of Prosecution on recommendation of the CVC. 
    • maintenance of a panel of advocates by CBI other than Government advocates with the consent of the Lokpal handling Lokpal-referred cases. 
    • transfer of officers of CBI investigating cases referred by Lokpal with the approval of Lokpal. 
    • provision of adequate funds to CBI for investigating ca referred by Lokpal.
  • FCRA: All entities receiving donations from foreign sources in the context of the Foreign Contribution Regulation Act (FCRA) in excess of ₹10 lakhs per year are brought under the jurisdiction of Lokpal. 
  • Institution of Lokayukta for States:
    • It contains a mandate for setting up of the institution of Lokayukta through enactment of a law by the State Legislature within a period of 365 days from the date of commencement of this Act. 
    • Thus, the Act provides freedom to the states to decide upon the contours of the Lokayukta mechanism in their respective states. 
  • Protection to the honest and upright: It provides adequate protection for honest and upright public servants. 

Government begins consultations on Airport Privatisation

Context: The Centre government has initiated the consultation process for leasing out (privatisation of) more than 10 airports under the public-private partnership (PPP) model.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Key facts about National Monetisation Pipeline. 

Airport Privatisation

  • The Cabinet will decide which airports will be leased out and if any new terms and conditions should be added in the concession agreement for the upcoming round.
  • The initiative falls under the National Monetisation Pipeline (NMP).
    • Under the NMP, 25 airports belonging to the Airports Authority of India (AAI) were earmarked for leasing out between 2022 and 2025.
    • These included airports in Bhubaneswar, Varanasi, Amritsar, Tiruchi, Indore, Raipur, Kozhikode, Coimbatore, Nagpur, Patna, Madurai, Surat, Ranchi, Jodhpur, Chennai, Vijayawada, Vadodara, Bhopal, Tirupati, Hubli, Imphal, Agartala, Udaipur, Dehradun and Rajahmundry.
  • The government is planning to lease out the airports to improve their management by utilising private sector efficiency and investment.
  • It is being planned to bundle profitable and non-profitable airports for the bidding process to attract a variety of bidders.

Note: 

  • Since 2014, Airports Authority of India (AAI) has leased out six of its airports for better operations, management, and development under the PPP model.
  • These airports have been leased out for 50 years, with AAl remaining the owner of the airport land throughout the lease period. The land and other assets would revert to AAl on expiry of the lease period.
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National Monetisation Pipeline (NMP)

  • Aim of NMP: Envisages an aggregate monetisation potential of Rs 6 lakh crore through the leasing of core assets of the Central government. NMP does not include monetisation of non-core assets (such as land, buildings etc).
  • Core Assets: Roads, railways, power, oil and gas pipelines, telecom, civil aviation, shipping ports and waterways, mining, warehouses, stadiums and sports complexes.
  • Sector accounting for highest share: Roads (27%), Railways (25%), Power, Oil & Gas Pipelines and Telecom. Roads and Railways together account for 52% of the share.
  • Duration: Four-year period (FY 2022 to FY 2025)

Imperatives for Core Asset Monetisation

  • Monetisation of 'Rights' not 'Ownership': Assets will be handed back to the government at the end of transaction life. 
  • Selection of de-risked and brownfield assets with stable revenue streams. 
  • Structured partnerships under defined contractual frameworks with strict key performance indicators (KPIs) & performance standards. 

India Qatar elevate ties to Strategic Partnership

Context: The Amir of the State of Qatar, Sheikh Tamim bin Hamad Al-Thani, made a state visit to India in February, 2025. During this visit, India and Qatar elevated their bilateral relations to a strategic partnership to deepen cooperation in trade, energy, investment, security and international forums. 

Relevance of the Topic: Mains: Bilateral Relations: India-Qatar. 

Key Highlights of India-Qatar Strategic Partnership

  • Strategic Partnership Agreement:
    • India and Qatar have elevated their bilateral relationship to a Strategic Partnership. This brings Qatar on par with the United Arab Emirates (UAE), Saudi Arabia, Oman, and Kuwait, all of which have strategic partnerships with India. 
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  • Economic Cooperation and Investment:
    • Qatar has committed to invest USD 10 billion in India, with the Qatar Investment Authority (QIA) planning to open an office in India. 
    • India is Qatar’s second largest trading partner, with bilateral trade of about $14 billion in 2024. The two countries have set a target to double bilateral trade to $28 billion by 2030. 
    • The countries have agreed to explore an India-Qatar Free Trade Agreement (FTA) and Bilateral Investment Treaty (BIT). 
    • The countries have signed a revised Double Taxation Avoidance Agreement and five MoUs on economic collaboration, youth and sports, archives and investments.
    • Both sides are exploring opportunities to increase investments in infrastructure, technology, manufacturing, food security, logistics, hospitality and other areas of mutual interest. 
  • Energy Partnership:
    • India and Qatar are deepening their energy partnership through trade and mutual investments. Qatar is the largest supplier of LNG to India, accounting for over 48% of India's global LNG imports. 
    • An agreement between Qatar Energy and Petronet LNG Limited ensures the supply of 7.5 million metric tonnes per annum of LNG to India for 20 years starting in 2028.
  • Bilateral Mechanisms:
    • The establishment of two Joint Ministerial Commissions, at the level of Foreign Ministers and Ministers of Commerce and Industry, to strengthen cooperation has also taken place.
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Other Key Outcomes

  • Extension of the Indian e-Visa facility for Qatari nationals.
  • India and Qatar have agreed to celebrate a Year of Culture, Friendship, and Sports in the near future. 
  • Operationalisation of India's UPI at Qatar National Bank (QNB) Point of Sales in Qatar.
  • Expansion of Qatar National Bank's presence in India by setting up an office in the GIFT City.

Areas of Discussion

  • Middle East Peace Process: Discussions between the two leaders also included the Middle East peace process, with both sides appreciating each other's positions on the Israel-Hamas issue. 
  • Terrorism: They also unequivocally condemned terrorism in all its forms and manifestations, agreeing to cooperate in combating this menace through bilateral and multilateral mechanisms.
  • UN reforms: Both leaders emphasised the importance of a reformed and effective multilateral system, centered on a UN reflective of contemporary realities, as a key factor in tackling global challenges.

Qatar is a key strategic partner for India due to its geopolitical location, economic potential, energy resources, and a large Indian diaspora. 

Revamping India’s Intellectual Property Rights Ecosystem

Context: A major revamp of India’s Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) ecosystem is underway. Efforts are being made on all fronts — making the application process smoother, digital infrastructure upgradation, expansion of manpower etc.

Relevance of the Topic: Mains: Intellectual Property Rights in India

What are Intellectual Property Rights?

  • Intellectual property rights (IPRs) are the rights given to persons over the creations of their minds. They usually give the creator an exclusive right over the use of his/her creation for a certain period of time. 
  • There are various types of IPRs, for E.g., Patent, Trademark, Copyright, Industrial design etc. 
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  • India is a signatory to Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS), which sets global standards for intellectual property protection. 
  • India has formulated the National IPR Policy 2016 to strengthen the Indian IPR ecosystem including- speeding up registration proceedings and reinforcing enforcement mechanisms and processes for all IP rights. 

Key developments in India’s IPR ecosystem

  • Expansion in Patent filings:
    • The number of applications filed grew from 42,951 in 2013-14 to 92,168 in 2023-24, with 103,057 patents granted.
    • Resident Indians now contribute more to patent filings than multinational corporations. The share of patents filed by residents has more than doubled, from 25.5% in 2013-14 to 56% in 2023-24.
  • Trademarks filings growth:
    • India ranks fourth globally in trademarks filings, behind the US, China, and Russia. The number of trademarks filed has increased from 2 lakh in 2016-17 to 4.8 lakh in 2023-24.
    • Despite the rise in filings, trademark registrations have plateaued, remaining between 2.5 lakh and 3 lakh annually since 2016-17.
  • Global harmonisation efforts: India has signed the Riyadh Design Law Treaty in 2024, focusing on industrial design protection and aligning with global standards.
  • Improved ranking in GII: The positive shifts in India’s IPR ecosystem is reflected in the improvement in the country’s rank in the Global Innovation Index (published by World Intellectual Property Organisation). India has moved up from 66th position in 2016 to 39th position (among 133 global economies) in 2024. 

Issues in India’s IPR regime

  • Outflow exceeds Inflow:
    • India’s current IP ecosystem is weak compared to China and the US. According to data released by the International Monetary Fund, India paid USD 8.63 billion for the use of foreign IPs in 2021, compared to the USD 870 million received by India for its IPs.
    • The number of patent grants is still far below 3,10,245 granted in the US in 2023 and 7,98,347 by China in 2022.
  • Lengthy Patent Examination Process:
    • Lengthy patent examination process in India leads to delays in obtaining patent protection. 
    • This may discourage innovation and investment, particularly for technology-driven industries where rapid development is essential. 
  • Huge Pendency:
    • In India, as of March 2022, around 1.64 lakh applications were pending at the controller level. 
    • Further, the average time taken for disposing of a patent application in China and the US is 20- 21 months, almost one-third of the time taken in India.
  • Manpower limitations: 
    • As of 2023-24, India’s patent office had 956 personnel, compared to China’s 13,704 and the US’s 8,132. This shortage of staff has led to delays in processing applications.
  • Complex Legal Proceedings:
    • Litigation and disputes over patent validity and infringement can take years to resolve, adding to the uncertainty and costs for both patent holders and challengers.
    • The Intellectual Property Appellate Board (IPAB) was abolished in 2016, transferring jurisdiction to adjudicate appeals over patents, trademarks, copyrights, and other Intellectual Property Rights matters to the already overburdened High Courts. 
  • Weak enforcement of IPR laws: 
    • E.g., Despite having a Copyright Act, there is widespread piracy of copyrighted materials. 
    • As a result, India remains on the United States Trade Representative's ‘Priority Watch List’ for alleged violations of IPR. 
  • Lack of Data Exclusivity law in India risks unfair commercial use of test data submitted to the government, during application for market approval of pharma or agro-chemical products.
  • Inadequate private sector investment in R&D:
    • India’s R&D spending is 0.65% of GDP, significantly lower than the US (3.6%), China (2.4%), and Singapore (2.2%). 
    • Private sector R&D spending is only 36% of the total R&D expenditure, in contrast to higher contributions by private institutions in the US & Japan (79% of total R&D expenditure), China (77%), and Singapore (63%).
    • Lack of Industry-acaemia collaboration and inadequate investment in Innovation is one of the reasons for limited commercialisation of patents. 

Measures for strengthening India’s IPR ecosystem:

  • Fixed timelines for various steps and reduced compliance burden for the applicants. 
  • Capacity building of IP enforcement agencies including strengthening of IPR cells in Police. Establishment of a Central Coordination Body on IP Enforcement for enforcement of IP laws to check IP crimes.
  • Establishment of an exclusive apex level institution for IPR development. 
  • Specific legislation to curb counterfeiting and piracy and dedicated benches in High Courts for IP matters.
  • ‘Patent Pending’ status for innovations filed with patent offices that have not been conferred patent.
  • IP audit for assessing IPR potential in specific sectors to formulate targeted IPR programs.
  • Holistic review of National IPR Policy in view of emerging trends of innovation, research and challenges.
  • IP backed financing and promotion of commercialisation of IPRs.
  • Promoting an environment of innovations in academic institutions, increased spending and Industry-Academia partnership for R&D.

Also Read: Riyadh Design Law Treaty  

Reforms in Insurance Sector

Context: The Insurance Regulatory and Development Authority of India (IRDAI) has formed a 7-member committee to scrutinise Insurance Act 1938 and suggest amendments. Also, the Government of India is gearing up to introduce the Insurance Amendment Bill in Parliament.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Insurance Sector- FDI limit, GST provisions.

The Insurance Act, 1938

  • Background: Originally passed in British India to regulate the insurance sector. 
  • What does it include: 
    • Statutory framework: It provides the broad legal framework within which the insurance industry operates. 
    • Institutional framework: It also led to establishment of the regulatory authority, Insurance Regulatory and Development Authority of India (IRDAI), which oversees the implementation of the Act. 
    • Insurance Act, 1938 outlines the various types of insurance policies that can be offered in India, such as life insurance, general insurance and health insurance. It also allows insurers to appoint insurance agents for soliciting and procuring insurance business.

Proposed Reforms in Insurance Sector

  • 100% FDI in Insurance:
    • Budget 2025 proposed to raise the FDI limit in the Indian insurance sector from 74% to 100%. 
    • Previously the FDI cap had been raised from 26% to 49% in 2015, and from 49% to 74% in 2021.
    • Benefits:
      • Fully open the insurance market to global investors and attract significant capital inflows.
      • Improve competition.
      • Increase insurance penetration. 
  • Roadmap for GST Relief:
    • A roadmap for reducing the GST rates on term and health insurance premiums (currently taxed at 18%) is likely to be introduced.
    • This move aims to reduce the financial burden on policyholders and make insurance more affordable across different income groups.
  • Composite Licenses:
    • Composite licenses  for Insurance companies to allow insurers to offer both life and non-life insurances (health, motor insurance etc.) under a single license.
      • Presently, as per the provisions of the Insurance Act, 1938, life insurance companies can only offer life insurance products, while general insurance companies can offer non-life insurance products, such as health, motor insurance etc. 
    • Benefits:
      • Enhance operational flexibility
      • Streamline regulatory processes
      • Foster innovation
      • Insurers will be better positioned to cater to diverse customer needs, improving their competitive edge in the market.
  • Capital Requirement: 
    • The 1938 Act provides capital requirements for different classes of insurance business. 
    • The amendment provides that IRDAI may specify the capital requirements for entities engaged in more than one class of insurance business. This should not be less than the sum of capital required for carrying out each class of business separately. 
    • In addition, IRDAI can also reduce the minimum capital required to up to Rs 50 crore. This can be done for insurers serving underserved or special segments prescribed through regulations.
  • Value-Added Services to make insurance more personalised.
    • Examples: 
      • Health-monitoring devices with health insurance policies. 
      • Rewards programs for healthy behavior and timely premium payments.
    • Purpose: This will align with global trends to attract new policyholders and improve customer retention.

Challenges & Concerns

  • Exclusion of proposal to sell Financial products:
    • A proposal to allow insurance companies to sell other financial products (E.g., bank deposits and mutual funds) may not feature due to regulatory challenges and operational complexities.
  • Issue with composite license:
    • To enable PSU insurers for availing composite licenses, the government needs to amend the two existing Acts- The Life Insurance Corporation Act of 1956 and the General Insurance Business (Nationalisation) Act, 1972 (GIBNA). However, in the list of proposed amendments no such provisions have been proposed. 
    • This implies that only the private sector companies can offer both Life Insurance and General Insurance. This would hinder public sector insurance companies from competing with the private sector Insurance companies.
  • Regulatory hurdles: 
    • Proposed changes, particularly in FDI limits and product diversification, may face regulatory challenges that could delay their implementation. 
    • Additionally, the GST reduction for insurance products might encounter political resistance due to the fiscal constraints and competing budget priorities.
  • Operational complexities:
    • The introduction of composite licenses and changes in capital requirements may introduce operational complexities for existing insurers. 

Also Read: Insurance Regulatory and Development Authority of India (IRDAI) 

The Insurance Amendment Bill is expected to introduce transformative reforms in India’s insurance sector. This aligns with the “Insurance for All by 2047” vision, which seeks to enhance financial inclusion and provide wider insurance coverage to citizens.

Delhi Earthquake

Context: Recently, Delhi witnessed an earthquake of 4.1 magnitude, and the epicenter being within Delhi raised concerns. 

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: Questions based on geographical phenomena related to earthquakes.

Mains: Detailed question on Indian earthquake risk zones, vulnerabilities and preparedness.

About Delhi Earthquake

  • Delhi witnessed an earthquake of 4.1 magnitude. As per National Center of Seismology it was the strongest earthquake to have originated in Delhi in the past five years.
  • How is this earthquake different from previous ones?
    • Epicenter: Previous earthquakes had an epicenter away from Delhi, like Afghanistan and Nepal. This time the earthquake originated within Delhi near Dhaula Kuan region.
    • Shallow depth: The earthquake had a shallow focus of about 5 km below the surface.
    • Peculiar sound: The earthquake was reported to have a low-frequency sound produced due to the passing of vibrations and shaking of material. Such sounds are observed when the epicenter is shallow. The high-frequency seismic vibrations generate short-periodic vibrations in the air above the surface leading to a sound, which is often referred to as the earthquake boom.

Reasons for the Earthquakes in Delhi

  • Aravalli-fold: Delhi lies on the Aravalli-Delhi fold belt which is a seismically-active geological belt extending from southern and eastern Rajasthan to Haryana and Delhi.
  • Presence of deformed rocks: The possibility of earthquakes is intensified due to the presence of deformed layers of rocks that have folded or bent due to geological processes hundreds of millions of years ago.
  • Alluvial soil: Delhi is dominated by the alluvial soil type that has high potency to transfer the vibrations without much loss of energy. Therefore, the presence of alluvial soil adds to the earthquake’s intensity. 
  • Proximity to the risk zones: Delhi is located near the Himalayan seismic belt, one of the world’s highest risk zones for the earthquake. The Himalayas lie at the active convergent boundary between the Indian plate and the Eurasian plate. 

Earthquake disaster vulnerabilities in Delhi

Delhi falls in earthquake Zone IV due to following vulnerabilities:

  • Geographical vulnerabilities: Delhi’s location is near Aravalli-fold and High risk seismic zones like Himalayas. Also, the domination of alluvial soil makes Delhi vulnerable for the earthquake led disaster.
  • Infrastructural vulnerabilities: Delhi is a densely populated location, also most of the infrastructure of Delhi is colonial and obsolete. These closely placed buildings and lack of seismic resistant buildings contribute to the vulnerability of earthquake led disaster. 
  • Demographic vulnerability: Delhi is a prime destination for migration contributing to the resource burden and poverty. Persistent migration and lack of resources leads to the slum proliferation. Slums and unsafe constructions due to encroachments also enhance the vulnerability of Delhi.

Preparedness initiatives in India

  • Zonation: The Geological Survey of India has identified and zoned the various earthquake regions based on their risks and vulnerabilities.
  • BIS standards: The Bureau of Indian Standards has released the detailed guidelines for material and construction in various zones of India. (On the basis of recommendations of BIS and Gujarat earthquake, India has reduced earthquake zones from five to four, removing the Zone I)
  • International efforts: India has founded the Coalition of Disaster Resilient Infrastructure (CDRI) to foster the investment and technological collaboration among the nations to enhance preparedness.
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Key terms related to Earthquakes

  • Earthquake (EQ) is any sudden shaking of the ground caused by the passage of seismic waves through Earth’s rocks. 
  • Seismic waves are vibrations generated by an earthquake, explosion, or similar energetic source and propagated within Earth or along its surface. Earthquakes generate four principal types of elastic waves:
    • Body waves (P and S) travel within Earth. 
    • Surface waves (Love and Rayleigh) travel along its surface.
  • Focus: Point of origin of the vibrations below the surface of the earth.
  • Epicenter: Point on the Earth's surface directly above a hypocenter or focus, the point where an earthquake or an underground explosion originates.
  • Magnitude of EQ: It is a measure of the size or amplitude of the seismic waves generated by an earthquake source and recorded by seismographs. It is measured by the Richter Scale from 0 to 10.
  • Intensity of EQ: Intensity measures the strength of shaking produced by the earthquake at a certain location and its impact. It is measured by the Mercalli scale and Medvedev-Sponheuer-Karnik (MSK) scale. 

Read More: Earthquake Waves & Shadow Zones 

Global Sea Ice Cover has dipped to Record Low

Context: As per the data from US National Snow and Ice data Center (NSIDC), the combined extent of Arctic and Antarctic sea ice dropped from 15.93 million sq km to 15.76 million sq km in marking a record low. 

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Questions based on climate change and climatology. 

About Sea Ice Cover

  • There are two major sea ice spots in the world, the Arctic and Antarctic. Arctic sea ice covers 40% of total global sea ice. Whereas, Antarctic sea ice accounts for 60% of total global sea ice due to its extensive seasonal fluctuation.
  • Role of sea ice in maintaining climate: 
    • Enhancing albedo: The white ice helps in reflecting back the insolation, enhancing albedo. This helps in maintaining the global temperature.
    • Absorbing heat: The sea ice absorbs the subsurface heat in the ocean. This reduces the average ocean temperature.
    • Prevents ocean acidification: By reducing the ocean temperature, sea ice cover helps in reducing the carbonification of ocean water. This in turn helps in maintaining health of corals, across the globe.

Extent of ice dip in Arctic and Antarctic (As per the study)

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  • According to the NSIDC, an estimate of 77,800 sq km of ice has been lost per year since the late 1970s.
  • Arctic: Between 1981 and 2010, Arctic sea ice extent in September (when it reaches its minimum) shrunk at a rate of 12.2% per decade. 
  • Antarctica: Until 2015, the region actually witnessed a slight year-on-year  increase in sea ice. But, between late 2014 and 2017 the Antarctic lost two million square km of sea ice, i.e., an area equivalent to roughly four times the size of Spain. 
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Reasons behind the dip: 

  • Oceanic and Atmospheric changes: The studies suggested the subsurface warming of the Southern Ocean has pushed the Antarctic sea ice melt. 
  • Transformed wind pattern: Changes in the wind patterns can influence sea ice extent by pushing warmer water. The transformed wind pattern in the Arctic, sea ice remained low because of the delayed freezing around the Hudson Bay. 
  • Increased ocean heat loss: Less ice means more open ocean, which accelerates further melting of ice, due to rise in absorption of heat.
  • Storms and higher air temperature: The regions like the Barent sea witnessed some storms due to which the Arctic ice has become thinner and more fragile over the years. Also, higher than usual air temperatures in areas such as Svalbard, Norway resulted in further loss of sea ice.

Implications of sea ice loss

  • Climate regulation: Antarctica sea ice plays a crucial role in regulating earth’s climate by reflection. A decrease in the sea ice alters these dynamics, potentially accelerating global warming.
  • Ecosystem impact: The loss of ice affects the habitat of various polar species (like Polar Bear and Penguins), disrupting food chains and threatening biodiversity.
  • Sea level rising: While sea ice melt does not directly contribute to sea level rise leading to further vulnerability and climate change induced migration. (E.g., Indonesia changed its capital from Jakarta due to the threat of sea level rise.)

Understanding the contributing factors for dip in ice cover and its potential consequences is essential for developing effective mitigation and adaptation strategies. 

Translocation of African Cheetahs: Neither Ecologically Sustainable nor Ethical

Context: A new study by the Centre for Wildlife Studies (which examines the ethical, ecological and welfare challenges associated with the translocation of African cheetahs to India) has expressed concern over the translocation of the animals.

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: Key facts about Cheetah; Project Cheetah 

Mains: Conservation of keystone species: Significance and challenges. 

Major Highlights: 

  • The study highlights that the translocation of African cheetahs to India has resulted in significant challenges:
    • High mortality rate of 40%-50% in the first phase of the project, far below the expected survival rate of 85%.
    • High levels of stress for Cheetahs with over 90 chemical immobilisations and regular veterinary interventions, raises concerns about their physical and mental health.
    • Reliance on a continuous supply of cheetahs from southern Africa, is neither ecologically sustainable nor ethical. African cheetah populations are already under pressure with only around 6,500 mature individuals remaining in the wild.
  • This raises concerns about the scientific rationale and the long-term viability of the Cheetah translocation project (Project Cheetah) in India. 

Project Cheetah (Cheetah Reintroduction in India)

  • Project Cheetah is an initiative to reintroduce cheetahs into the wild after their extinction in the country in 1952. 
  • Initiative of: National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA). The Wildlife Institute of India (WII) provides technical assistance, coordinating the reintroduction project. 
  • Under Project Cheetah, so far 20 adult African cheetahs, eight from Namibia in September 2022 and 12 from South Africa in February 2023, were introduced into the Kuno National Park (KNP) in Madhya Pradesh.
  • As of February 2025, 26 Cheetahs survive (including 12 Adults and 14 cubs), and other adult Cheetahs died. There were various causes of their death including starvation and bacterial infection (blood poisoning/septicaemia) due to wounds caused by the tracking radio collar.
  • Under the Cheetah Action Plan, the government is planning to relocate a new batch of Cheetahs from Africa to the Gandhi Sagar Wildlife Sanctuary in Madhya Pradesh.

About Cheetah

  • The cheetah is a large cat and the world’s fastest land animal.
  • Characteristics:
    • They have a slender body with long legs, a small round head, and distinctive black spots on their tan fur.
    • They are carnivorous animals and hunt mainly small to medium-sized antelopes such as gazelles and impalas.
    • They inhabit diverse scrub forests, dry grasslands, savannas and other arid and semi-arid open habitats.
About Cheetah

Distribution of Cheetahs:

  • Historically, Asiatic Cheetahs had a very wide distribution in India (from Punjab to southern Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, Rajasthan to Bengal). In 1952, the cheetah was declared officially extinct in India.
  • Today, four subspecies of Cheetahs are recognised that are native to Africa and Central Iran. (present in fragmented habitats in Iran, Sahara Desert, Tanzania, Namibia, South Africa etc.) 

Threats and Conservation status: 

  • Threats: Habitat loss, conflict with humans, poaching and high susceptibility to diseases. 
  • Protection Status: 
    • IUCN Status: Vulnerable
    • CITES: Appendix I
    • Wild Life (Protection) Act 1972: Schedule II
  • Cheetah Conservation Fund (1990): An international non-profit organization headquartered in Namibia, founded in 1990 for the conservation of cheetahs and their ecosystems.

Significance of conserving Keystone Species:  

  • Cheetahs, a keystone species, have been reintroduced in India owing to their ecological and economic significance.
    • A keystone species helps to keep an ecosystem together and functioning by shaping it in various ways, from being apex predators to ecosystem engineers.
    • Without them, their ecosystems would be dramatically different or even cease to exist. A keystone species is often, but not always, a predator. E.g., Cheetah, Wolf, Sea otters etc.
  • The significance of key stone species conservation includes:
    • Restores degraded ecosystem: Many Keystone species are at the top of the food chain and naturally control the prey base population, thus reducing the pressure on ecosystems. E.g., Cheetahs can restore open forest and grassland ecosystems.
    • Bio-diversity: Keystone species prevent species at lower trophic levels from monopolising critical resources, such as competition for space or key producer food sources, thereby enabling multiple species to survive. E.g., Abundance of sea otters controls sea urchin population, thereby reducing pressure on kelp forest which support diverse fish species.
    • Ecosystem services: Conservation of these species are economically beneficial as they ensure the ecosystems to deliver crucial ecosystem services. E.g., According to the IIFM report, every rupee spent on tiger conservation will yield returns of ₹ 2500 through ecosystem services of tiger reserves such as water provisioning, soil conservation, gene pool protection, tourism etc. 

By revisiting India’s conservation ethos, Project Cheetah aims to revive the lost splendor of the cheetah, contributing to the country’s rich biodiversity and ecological balance.

Supermassive Black Hole Sagittarius A*

Context: NASA’s James Webb Space Telescope is providing insights into the chaotic events unfolding around the supermassive black hole Sagittarius (Sgr) A*, at the center of our Milky Way galaxy.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Sagittarius (Sgr) A*; Terms associated with black holes; James Webb Space Telescope. 

Major Highlights:

  • James Webb has allowed astronomers to observe the region around the black hole Sagittarius (Sgr) A*, for extended periods for the first time.
    • The region around Sgr A* was seen active, rather than remaining in a steady state. 
    • A constant flickering of light from its accretion disk (swirling disk of gas surrounding the black hole) and occasional bright flares were observed. 
  • Significance: The observations are providing insight into how black holes interact with their surrounding environments. 
our solar system in milky way galaxy

About Sagittarius A*

  • Sagittarius (Sgr) A* is the supermassive black hole at the Galactic Center of the Milky Way.
    • Supermassive black holes are found at the centres of most galaxies including the Milky Way. 
    • Their origin is not exactly understood, but may involve accretion of matter, merger or collapse of massive gas clouds. 
    • Their masses range from millions to billions of times the sun’s mass.
  • Sgr A* possesses roughly four-million-times the mass of our sun and is located about 26,000 light years from the Earth.
  • Sgr A* is a bright and very compact astronomical radio source. It is not as active as some at the centres of other galaxies.

What are Black Holes?

  • Black holes are the regions of spacetime where gravity is so strong that nothing (including light and other electromagnetic waves) has enough energy to escape. The boundary of no escape is called the event horizon. 
  • Formation: A black hole forms when a massive star (at least three times the mass of our Sun), exhausts its fuel, explodes in a supernova, and collapses under gravity into an incredibly dense core called a singularity.
black hole regions

Key terms related to black holes

S.No. Terms Description 
1. Singularity- The centre of a black hole is a gravitational singularity. It is a point where the predictions of general theory of relativity do not apply. 
2. Accretion Disc- Accretion disc is a flat, rotating structure of matter (gas, dust, or other material) that forms around a black hole. The material in the accretion disc spirals inwards due to the gravitational attraction of the black hole. 

- As the matter spirals inward, it gets heated up due to friction and emits various forms of electromagnetic radiation (including visible light, X-rays, gamma rays and radio waves). 

- About 90% of the accretion disk’s material falls into the black hole, while the rest is ejected back into space.
3. Event Horizon (a point of no return)- The event horizon is like a boundary around a black hole (around the singularity). 

- Once anything (matter, energy, light) crosses this boundary, it can not escape unless it travels faster than the speed of light (which is impossible). 
4. Ergosphere- The Ergosphere is a bigger sphere, outside the event horizon of a black hole, where matter can enter and then return (escape the black hole's gravitational pull), if they are moving with speeds very close to the speed of light.
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About James Webb Space Telescope (JWST)

  • World’s most advanced telescope launched in 2021 designed to conduct infrared astronomy. 
  • It is the largest infrared telescope ever built (6.5 metre primary mirror). It detects near-infrared and mid-infrared wavelengths to observe faint and distant objects.
  • Location: Orbits the Sun at L2 Lagrange point (1.5 million km from Earth)
  • It is equipped with high-resolution and high-sensitivity instruments, enabling investigations such as:
    • observation of the first stars and the formation of the first galaxies (almost to the beginning of the universe. 
    • detailed atmospheric characterisation of potentially habitable exoplanets. 
  • JWST can see further than Hubble Telescope and is considered as its successor. 
  • Collaborative Project of: National Aeronautics and Space Administration, European Space Agency and Canadian Space Agency.
hames webb and hubble compared

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