February 11, 2025

Current Affairs

India-EFTA Trade and Economic Partnership Agreement

Context: India is pushing for the trade deal with EFTA. Also, EFTA nations Switzerland and Liechtenstein are pushing for a Bilateral Trade Agreement with India.

Relevance of the Topic: Mains: Dynamics of India-EFTA trade.

About India-EFTA TEPA

India signed a free trade agreement (FTA) with four European countries — Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway, and Switzerland (European Free Trade Association countries) in March 2024.
This positions EFTA as the first European bloc to formalise a trade pact with India.

Key Highlights of the Agreement:

Investment commitments: EFTA nations have pledged to invest $100 billion in India over 15 years.
Tariff reduction: EFTA removes and reduces tariffs on several products like renewable energy and pharmaceutical goods.
Technology transfer: EFTA countries agree to share technology expertise in the field of precision engineering, pharmaceuticals, financial services and renewable energy.
Sustainable development progression: EFTA includes clauses to promote green technology, clean energy and responsible business practices.

Present status of TEPA:

The agreement was signed in March 2024, but has a pending ratification by all the participating nations. TEPA is expected to come into force by the end of 2025.
Inauguration of India-EFTA Desk:
- India-EFTA Desk will function as a single-window mechanism to provide support to EFTA businesses looking to invest, expand, or establish operations in India.
- It will serve as the primary channel for fostering continuous business-government dialogue.
Over 100 EFTA companies have visited India to explore business opportunities. E.g., Swiss pharmaceutical giants like Novartis and Roche are planning to expand manufacturing in India.

Scopes and benefits for India:

Export growth: It is expected to boost Indian exports in pharmaceuticals, textile, jewelry, IT services sector. India’s textile and garment industry is expected to gain a 10-15% increase in exports.
Boost FDI: Expected $100 billion investment over 15 years in India will foster foreign direct investment in India, enhancing the infrastructure and industrial capabilities.
Job creation: TEPA is expected to create 1 million jobs by the investment by EFTA firms.
Strengthen Make-In-India: EFTA led investment will support Make in India initiative, by supporting domestic manufacturing and high-quality goods.
- E.g., Norwegian firms partnering with India for solar energy expansion are promoting the Make in India Solar panels.
Buffer against US tariffs: India is likely to face tariffs from the US, TEPA will create a buffer for India against the possible US tariffs.
- US has imposed a 25% tariff on steel to prevent dumping, TEPA will enhance the alternate destinations for the Indian steel.

Advantages to EFTA countries:

EFTA countries will benefit from elimination or reduction of import duties by India on a large number of industrial goods, which include pharmaceutical products, machinery, watches, fertilizers, medicines, chemical products, minerals and fish.
- Exclusion list: However, sectors such as dairy and coal and sensitive agricultural products have been kept in the exclusion list, which means there would not be any tariff cuts by India on these.
Help EFTA countries diversify their supply chains and render them more resilient.

Constraints in the Agreement

IPR concerns: EFTA firms emphasise stringent Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) norms, which raises concerns for the Indian companies, particularly pharma sector.
- E.g., Indian Pharma companies worry that strict patent laws will limit their ability to produce low-cost generic drugs.
Regulatory challenges: EFTA countries maintain high standards and strict food safety norms. Indian agriculture and dairy exporters may face challenges in meeting the strict criteria.
Trade deficit concerns: India imports high-value goods like luxury watches, advanced machinery from EFTA countries, which can potentially widen India’s trade deficit.
Bilateral trade issues: There is a scope for bilateral trade disputes.
- E.g., Switzerland withdrew the Most Favoured Nation (MFN) status of India by stating the Principle of Reciprocity, after the Supreme Court's decision in Nestle's Double Taxation Avoidance Agreement (DTAA) case.

EFTA’s has strategic importance to India’s development goals with Norway’s expertise in green shipping, Switzerland’s advancements in rail networks, Iceland’s leadership in geothermal energy, and Liechtenstein’s high-value manufacturing. The research collaborations between IITs and the Arctic University of Norway, demonstrating TEPA’s broader scope beyond trade.

IAF’s Modernisation Plans: LCA-Mk2 & AMCA

Context: The first prototype of the country’s fifth-generation fighter jet, the Advanced Medium Combat Aircraft (AMCA) is expected to be rolled out by the end of 2026 or early 2027. The first prototype of the Light Combat Aircraft-Mk2 (LCA-Mk2) is expected by the end of 2025.

Relevance of the Topic:Prelims: Basic understanding of India’s aircraft technological development.

India’s Aircraft Fleet

Indian Air Force (IAF) has 31 fighter squadrons as against the sanctioned strength of 42 squadrons, significantly below the optimal readiness requirements.
- Of the current 31 squadrons, the phase out of two MIG-21 squadrons has been extended due to the delayed deliveries of LCA-Mk1A.
- LCA-Mk2 & AMCA are critical for IAF’s modernisation plans.
IAF has acquired 36 Rafale (4.5 generation aircraft) from France through a government-to-government deal in 2016.

1. LCA-Mk2 (Tejas 2)

LCA Mark 2 is a 4.5 generation Advanced Medium Combat Aircraft, an improved version of LCA Tejas fighter jet.
Indigenous development by: Aeronautical Development Agency (ADA) and Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL).
IAF plans to have about six squadrons of Tejas Mk2. Estimated induction: 2028-29

Key specifications of LCA-Mk2 (Tejas 2):

Engine: Would be powered by GE-414 engine (a high-performance afterburning turbofan engine).
Combat Range: 1500 kms
Maximum Speed: 1.8 Mach
With a weight of 17.5 tonnes, it can carry 6.5 tonnes of weapons. It has all indigenous weapons and about 11 weapon stations.
Multirole aircraft: Designed to carry a range of air-to-air, air-to-surface and precision-guided weapons.
It is capable of carrying 8 Beyond-Visual-Range (BVR) missiles at once, in addition to incorporating modern armaments.

2. Advanced Medium Combat Aircraft (AMCA)

AMCA is a 5th-generation fighter aircraft (FGFA). It is currently the only 5th generation fighter under development in India.
Indigenous development:
- Designed by: Aeronautical Development Agency under the Defence Research and Development Organisation.
- Manufactured by: state-owned Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL).
Full-stealth AMCA aircraft programme was sanctioned in 2024. Estimated induction: 2034

Key specifications of AMCA:

AMCA is a 25-tonne twin-engine aircraft.
Max speed: Nearly 2,600 kilometres per hour (Mach 2.15)
Combat range: 1,620 km
Designed for multi-role missions, including air-to-air and air-to-ground operations, suppression of enemy air defenses (SEAD) and electronic warfare.
Stealth aircraft (capable of avoiding enemy radars and air defence mechanisms). The stealth fighter uses:
- specialised paint coating and radar-absorbing material to reduce radar bounce-off
- exhaust nozzles that reduce infrared radiation emitted by the engine
- exhaust plume and fuselage technology that reduces the heat signature of the engine.
First look, first kill: AMCA will be based on the ‘first look, first kill’ concept, where an AMCA pilot would see an enemy plane first, fire a missile and destroy it before the latter can react.
Fuel and Weapons: AMCA will have a concealed internal fuel tank of 6.5-tonne capacity, and an internal weapons bay for a range of weapons, including indigenous weapons.
Engine:
- AMCA Mk1 variant will have the US-built GE414 engine of the 90 kilonewton (kN) class.
- The more advanced AMCA Mk2 will have a more powerful 110kN engine, to be developed indigenously by DRDO’s Gas Turbine Research Establishment in collaboration with a foreign defence major.
AMCA can carry armament weighing 6,500 kg (1.5 tonnes internal payload capacity).
AMCA will carry:
- BrahMos-NG (next generation) air-to-ground missiles
- Astra air-to-air missiles
- Rudram air-to-ground anti-radiation missiles
- Anti-tank missiles, laser-guided bombs and precision munitions.

India as a bridge between Global North and South

Context: The Prime Minister of India in his address at 18^th Pravasi Bharatiya Divas convention in January 2025, emphasised India’s role in amplifying the voice of Global South. Similarly, during the 3^rd Voice of Global South Summit 2024, he reiterated India’s aspiration to lead reforms for a more inclusive global governance structure.

Relevance of the Topic: Mains: India as a bridge between Global North and South.

Understanding the Global North and Global South

Global North: Comprises nations such as the U.S., Canada, Europe, Russia, Australia, and New Zealand, which share commonalities in wealth, education, development, and healthcare.
Global South: Includes countries in Asia, Africa, and South America facing developmental deficits. Nations like India and China have experienced rapid economic growth, challenging the idea that the North is the global standard for development.

Emergence of the global North-South divide:

The Cold War classifications lost relevance after the USSR's collapse in 1991, leading to new global alignments.
The previous East-West classification oversimplified complex economic and political realities.
Many Global South nations share a colonial history and remain underrepresented in global institutions like the UN Security Council.

India’s motivations in championing the Global South:

Renewed focus: Unlike the Non-Alignment Movement (NAM), India’s current motivation is not rooted in decolonisation or strong criticism of the West. Instead, India is expanding its influence in the Global South while strengthening relations with traditional partners such as the U.S. and Europe.
China factor: India’s proactive stance can also be seen as aimed at countering China’s global dominance, particularly in Africa where both nations compete for influence. Additionally, industrialised nations may be strategically partnering with India to limit China’s international expansion.

Strategic identity: India seeks to establish itself as an independent emerging power that advances its strategic trade, defense, and geopolitical interests.
Indian value system: Nations of Global South do not seek a replacement for Western influence but rather an alternative model of cooperation. India can serve as a bridge between the Global North and Global South because of its value system of vasudhaiva kutumbakam.

Challenges to Global South development

High debt levels: Most Global South countries struggle with substantial debt burdens, limiting investment in essential services and infrastructure.
Unequal trade patterns: Dependence on exporting raw materials at fluctuating prices, leaving them vulnerable to market fluctuations.
Limited access to finance: Difficulty in accessing international capital for development projects due to risk perceptions.
High population growth: Rapid population growth can strain resources and infrastructure.
Climate change vulnerability: Countries in the Global South are often disproportionately affected by climate change events like droughts, floods, and extreme weather, impacting food security and livelihoods.
Green Energy Fund: Despite the Global North’s greater role in climate change, they neglect funding for green energy, disproportionately impacting developing nations.
Russia-Ukraine War: The war has exacerbated food, energy, and financial crises in the least developed countries (LDCs), threatening their economic stability.
China’s Interference: Through the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), China has expanded influence in the Global South, raising concerns about debt dependency.
US Hegemony: Despite the perception of a multipolar world, the U.S. still dominates global affairs and institutions, limiting opportunities for other nations.
Inadequate access to resources: Industrialisation has historically favoured advanced economies, perpetuating disparities in development outcomes.
Impact of COVID-19: The pandemic widened economic divides, with countries like Argentina, Egypt, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka struggling with economic vulnerability.

Steps that can be taken by India to strengthen its role

Promoting an alternative development model:

India advocates for equal partnerships rather than top-down approaches imposed by the Global North.
The ‘Global Development Compact,’ aimed at fostering growth in the Global South, is rooted in Indian experiences.
To be perceived as an inclusive leader, India must move beyond being a knowledge provider and engage in mutual learning with Global South nations.

Focusing on Human-centric Development:

India promotes behavioural change via initiatives like Mission LiFE (‘Lifestyle For Environment’), emphasising sustainable consumption.
However, a broader human-centric development model should include:
- Workforce capacity building through initiatives like Skill India.
- Women’s mainstreaming and entrepreneurship programs to foster economic growth.
- A shift from short-term sector-specific programs (like ITEC) to long-term capacity-building efforts in partner nations.
- Leveraging India’s micro, small, and medium enterprises (MSMEs) expertise to facilitate knowledge exchange.
- Strengthening cooperation in key areas such as digital infrastructure, climate and energy solutions, and food and water security.

Initiatives to strengthen South-South Cooperation:

Global Initiatives:
- BRICS (Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa) Forum
- IBSA (India, Brazil, South Africa) Forum
- UN Day for South-South Cooperation (September 12)
Indian Initiatives:
- TRIPS Waiver proposal (2020): India and South Africa pushed for a temporary easing of intellectual property rights on COVID-19 vaccines.
- Vaccine Maitri Campaign (2021): India provided COVID-19 vaccines to neighboring and Global South nations under its ‘Neighbourhood First’ policy.
- Pan African e Network Project.
- International Solar Alliance

The road ahead: Institutional and global governance reforms

Africa as centerpiece: India has pushed for inclusive global governance, evidenced by its successful advocacy for African Union membership in the G-20 during its presidency in 2023.
Building domestic capacity: Beyond international institutional reforms, India must build its domestic capacity for global partnerships.
Utilizing existing multilateral frameworks: (E.g., United Nations, Germany, and France’s cooperation models) can be a steppingstone for India to develop its own robust mechanisms.
Trilateral partnerships: Embrace trilateral partnerships (i.e., partnerships between India, recipient country and International Development Agency like World Food Program) and new alliances as a learning process, eventually leading to India-driven global initiatives.

India aspires to be the ‘Voice’ of the Global South. It has the opportunity to shape a new, inclusive global order by fostering meaningful collaborations and establishing itself as a responsible global development player.

Crocodile Species in India

Context: Recently, the two-day long census to count the number of marsh crocodiles in Vishwamitri river has concluded and the data is being analysed.

Relevance of the Topic:Prelims: Key facts about crocodile species in India.

About Vishwamitri River

The Vishwamitri originates from the Pavagadh hills in Panchmahal district, Gujarat.
Primarily it is a rain-fed river. It flows around 80 kms, merges with Dhadhar river and eventually drains into the Gulf of Khambhat, Arabian Sea.
The Vadodara-stretch of the Vishwamitri is home to a large population of mugger or marsh crocodiles.
The river is highly polluted as it receives a large amount of sewage and industrial pollutants.

Crocodiles in India

India is home to three crocodile species – Gharial, Mugger, and Saltwater Crocodiles.
Usually spotted on banks of the aquatic systems, crocodiles are cold-blooded animals.
Crocodiles are apex predators. These reptiles play a critical role in the ecosystem by maintaining biodiversity and ecological balance: they control the population of other aquatic animals.
India launched the Crocodile Conservation Project in Odisha's Bhitarkanika National Park in 1975, with the aid from the United Nations Development Programme.
All three crocodile species in India are placed under the Schedule I of the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972.

1. Mugger:

They have a broad-snouted nose.
They are also known as Marsh crocodiles. They are found in freshwaters like rivers and also in estuaries and marshy areas.
Mugger has a diverse and broad diet. They are known to dig burrows or holes for nesting purposes.
Muggers have stronger legs which allow them to bask mainly on river banks choosing steeper slopes and elevated platforms.
Their tough keratin scales are known to be sensitive to even the slightest motion in the water and this helps them detect prey easily.
IUCN status: Vulnerable

2. Gharials:

They are endemic to the Indian subcontinent.
They are shy-natured and the most aquatic of all the species.
They are the longest living crocodile species, native to northern India and are distinguished by their long, narrow snouts.
The gharials are predominantly a fish-eater.
Gharials prefer to bask on mid-river sand islands on gentle slopes as they have weaker legs and can only crawl.
Chambal River (tributary of river Yamuna) holds the largest population of Gharials in the wild.
IUCN status: Critically Endangered

Note: Both the species are freshwater and have overlapping habitats in the northern rivers (Ganges, Chambal, Son, Ramganga and Girwa) and eastern (Mahanadi) river systems of India. They have shown systematic resource partitioning in their aquatic environments.

3. Saltwater crocodiles:

Largest crocodile species, also recognised as man eater. Largest reptile in the world.
Also known as estuarine crocodiles. Its habitat includes regions such as Odisha’s Bhitarkanika National Park, West Bengal’s Sundarbans, and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
IUCN status: Least concern.

India plans to amend Nuclear Liability Laws

Context: India has announced plans to amend the Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage Act 2010 and the Atomic Energy Act, 1962, to enable active participation of the American and French nuclear power firms in the Indian Nuclear Energy sector.

Relevance of the topic:

Prelims: Key facts about Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage Act (CLNDA), 2010; Atomic Energy Act, 1962.

Mains: Significance of Nuclear Energy sector & impediments to its growth.

Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage Act (CLNDA), 2010

India enacted CLNDA in 2010 to provide a quick compensation mechanism for victims of a nuclear accident.
The Act establishes a strict and no-fault liability for nuclear plant operators, meaning they are liable for damage regardless of fault.
However, the operator of the nuclear installation, after paying the compensation for nuclear damage shall have the right to recourse where-
- The nuclear incident has resulted as a consequence of an act of supplier or his employee, which includes supply of equipment or material with patent or latent defects or sub-standard services.
- The nuclear incident has resulted from the act of commission or omission of an individual done with the intent to cause nuclear damage.
The operator will have to maintain a financial security to cover its maximum liability of ₹1,500 crore for civil nuclear damage and requires the operator to cover liability through insurance or other financial security.
In case the damage claims exceed ₹1,500 crore, the gap will be bridged by the Central Government. The government liability amounts to the rupee equivalent of 300 million Special Drawing Rights (SDRs) or about ₹2,100 to ₹2,300 crore.

Atomic Energy Act, 1962

The Atomic Energy Act, 1962 provides for the development, control and use of atomic energy for the welfare of the people of India and for other peaceful purposes.
The central government through the Nuclear Power Corporation of India (NPCIL) holds the authority for activities related to nuclear energy, including its production, development, use, and disposal.
The Act restricts private companies from owning and operating nuclear power plants in India.
The 2015 amendment to the Atomic Energy Act, allows NPCIL to form joint ventures with other public sector units (PSUs) to secure funding for new projects. However, this does not extend to private or foreign companies.
Currently, private companies can participate in specific areas like supplying components and reactors, but not owning or operating plants. Discussions are ongoing about allowing Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs). This would require amendment to the Act.

Impediments in Nuclear Cooperation

India has signed the Civil Nuclear Agreement with the U.S. and France. Despite this several impediments hinder the progress of their collaboration. This includes:

Nuclear Liability law of India:
- India’s Nuclear Liability law (Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage Act, 2010) has been a barrier to the growth of the nuclear energy industry.
The strict liability law places the burden of compensation for nuclear accidents on the plant operator, which can deter private companies from investing in nuclear power.
Also, as per the Act, the liability can be shifted from the operator to the vendor or supplier in case the accident is due to equipment or material. The Act contradicts the International Convention for Supplementary Compensation for Nuclear Damage (CSC) which focuses only on the liability of operators of the plant.
This has created apprehension among potential foreign suppliers, delaying India’s ambitious nuclear energy plans. E.g., Nuclear liability is the major issue why the deal to install French EPRs at Jaitapur has not made progress.
The Atomic Energy Act, 1962 prohibits investments by the private sector in nuclear power plants.
Regulatory Challenges:
- The Indian regulatory framework for nuclear energy is stringent, it requires extensive safety certifications and compliance with international standards.
- E.g., Process of certifying European Pressurised Reactor (EPR) technology has been lengthy, which has slowed down project timelines and created uncertainties for investors.
Financial Considerations: High costs associated with building and maintaining nuclear power plants pose a financial challenge. The Jaitapur project (with an estimated capacity of 990 MW) requires large investment.
Technological transfer: While countries have committed to enhancing technological collaboration, concerns about intellectual property rights and technology transfer can create friction.

Significance of the Proposed Amendments:

As of January 30, 2025, India’s nuclear capacity is 8180 MW from 22 reactors (the only foreign operator in India is Russia’s Rosatom). India aims to achieve 100 GW of Nuclear energy capacity by 2047. This would require greater participation from domestic private companies and foreign firms.

CLNDA would be amended to separate operator’s liability from supplier’s liability to bring it in line with the International Convention for Supplementary Compensation for Nuclear Damage (CSC). It will resume the progress of:
- Electricite de France (EDF) MoU to build six EPR1650 reactors at Jaitapur in Maharashtra, signed in 2009.
- American Westinghouse Electric Company’s MoU, to build six AP1000 reactors at Kovvada in Andhra Pradesh, signed in 2012.
It is also expected to help India tap into new nuclear power technologies, particularly for small modular reactors (SMR).
The amendment in the Atomic Energy Act would liberalise investment in power projects in India.

Also Read: Nuclear Energy Sector in Union Budget 2025-26

Thus, the amendments will further the nuclear energy sector in India and will set clear legal standards in Indian domestic legislation aligned with international standards.

NTCA’s concerns on Morand-Ganjal Irrigation Project

Context: The National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA) has warned that the construction of the Morand-Ganjal Irrigation Project in Madhya Pradesh will submerge a crucial tiger corridor between the Satpura and Melghat Tiger Reserves.

Relevance of the Topic: Prelims: Questions based on conservation reserves i.e., Satpura and Melghat Tiger reserve.

About Morand-Ganjal Irrigation Project

The project involves a dam on Morand and Ganjal rivers of Madhya Pradesh.
The project was proposed in 1972, and got approved in 2017 by the Madhya Pradesh government.
Benefits of project: Provide irrigation to 211 villages in Hoshangabad, Betul, Harda and Khandwa districts. The project will provide irrigation to over 52,000 hectares of agricultural land.

Environmental concerns raised by the Project

Loss of vital Tiger habitat: The NTCA’s 2022 Tiger Estimation report confirms that the proposed project area is an active tiger habitat.
Forest submersion: The dam construction will cause large areas of forest land to be submerged under water, which is a major wildlife corridor between Satpura and Melghat Tiger reserve.
Disruption to wildlife movement: Tigers rely on connected forest migration and genetic exchange leading to:
- Reduced tiger population due to inbreeding, leading to risk susceptibility of pandemic in tiger population
- Increased human-animal conflict as displaced tigers might enter human population regions.
- Biodiversity loss, affecting other wildlife leopards, deer and smaller species.

Impact on Indigenous Communities

The project will directly displace over 600 members of the Korku tribal community.
- The Korku tribe is an indigenous community in Central India that depends on forest for food, medical, plants and cultural practice.
Loss of livelihood: Displacement will force tribals to leave their ancestral land leading to:
- Loss of traditional farming methods of tribals.
- Cultural erosion of tribals as they will be forced to relocate to unfamiliar areas.
Social unrest: The possible relocation of tribals due to the project may lead to protests and social unrest.

Recommendation for the Project

Alternative method: NTCA has suggested to the Madhya Pradesh government to explore the alternative site for the project to avoid the negative implications on wildlife.
Tiger movement corridor: Alternate tiger movement corridors to be established for fostering the movement of tigers.
Redesign project: The project can be redesigned by reducing reservoir size or use tunnel-based irrigation design.
Implementing government review steps: The Forest Advisory Committee reviewed the project in 2025 and gave a proposal to divert 2250 hectares of forest land for the project.
Rehabilitation of tribals: A fair compensation, alternative housing and providing livelihood training to tribals can help in rehabilitation of the displaced Korku Tribal community.
Long-term methods: Promoting eco-friendly methods like micro irrigation, dry land agriculture and agroforestry can help in reducing the requirement of irrigation and promoting water-use efficiency.

About National Tiger Conservation Authority

NTCA is a statutory body established in 2005 under the WildLife Protection Act, 1972.
It is the overarching body focused on conservation of tigers in India.
NTCA is administered under the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC).
Conservation Initiatives by NTCA:
- M-STrIPES to monitor tiger movement using technology.
- Tiger relocation program to reintroduce tigers to balance population.
- Community-based conservation by involving communities in habitat protection and sustainable livelihood.

Key facts about Tigers

Tiger is an umbrella species. Its conservation automatically ensures the conversation of a large number of flora and fauna and entire ecosystems.
India is home to 75% of the global tiger population.
- NTCA conducts a tiger census across India every 4 years.
- As per the latest Tiger Census Report (2022), India has 3682 tigers. (2967 in 2018)
- Madhya Pradesh has the highest number of tigers (785) in India, followed by Karnataka (563) and Uttarakhand (560).
Conservation status:
- IUCN Red List: Endangered
- Wildlife Protection Act: Schedule 1
- CITES: Appendix 1

About Mentioned Tiger Reserves

Satpura Tiger reserve (Madhya Pradesh)
- Geographical features: Hilly terrain, deep valet, sandstone peaks and dense forests
- Vegetation: dry deciduous forest, moist deciduous forests and grassland.
- Fauna: Bengal Tigers, leopard, sloth bear Indian giant squirrel, gaur and wild dog
- Rivers: Denwa river (main river), Sonbhadra and Nagdwari river.

Melghat Tiger Reserve (Maharashtra):
- Geographical features include rugged hills, deep gorges and plateaus.
- Vegetation: Dry deciduous forest, teak dominated forests, and bamboo grooves.
- Fauna: Bengal tiger, leopard, Indian bison, sambar deer, porcupine, and Malabar pied hornbill
- Rivers: Tapti (main river), Khandu, Sipna and Gadga river.

A well-planned irrigation project should not come at the cost of tiger conservation and tribal displacement. The government must find a balance to protect both nature and livelihoods.