Context: The iconic wagh nakh or tiger claws used by Maratha king Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj was brought to India from London. The weapon was brought to Mumbai from the Victoria and Albert Museum to commemorate the 350th anniversary of the famed Maratha ruler’s ascension to the throne.
About the 'wagh nakh':
Literally ‘tiger claws’, the wagh nakh is a medieval claw-like dagger which was used across the Indian subcontinent.
It was a weapon used for personal defence or stealth attack.
It is believed that the 'wagh nakh' was used by Shivaji to kill Bijapur Sultanate's general Afzal Khan in 1659
Afzal Khan was a general of Bijapur’s Adil Shahi Sultanate.
Shivaji used to be a former vassal of the Adil Shahis but by the 1650s, he had become increasingly assertive, taking forts across the Konkan, and bringing under control large areas of Adil Shahi territory.
Given Afzal Khan’s success in the south, he was sent by the Sultan, with a mighty army, to subdue the Maratha icon.
As per historical accounts, the Maratha ruler killed Afzal Khan at the foot of Pratapgarh Fort in the present-day Satara district of Maharashtra.
In the Battle of Pratapgarh, the Marathas defeated the Adilshahi forces. The killing was a turning point in history as it helped Shivaji to establish the Maratha Empire’s rule.
How did Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj’s wagh nakh reach London?
According to the Victoria and Albert Museum’s website, the weapon was brought to Britain by East India Company officer James Grant Duff (1789- 1858).
Duff was the Company Resident (political agent) of the Satara State from 1818-22. He was also an historian, writing the ‘A History of the Mahrattas (1826)’.
The last Peshwa (Prime Minister) of the Marathas, Baji Rao II, surrendered to the British in June 1818 after defeat in the Third Anglo-Maratha War.
He was banished to Bithoor in Kanpur.
It is believed that he surrendered this weapon to Grant Duff.
Context: After the recently concluded Lok Sabha elections, there is a debate around the system of elections in India, and should India go for the Proportional representation system in place of the presently used First Past the Post System.
Proportional Representation System vs FPTP
First Past the Post System (FPTP): Under this system, the candidate who polls more than any other in a constituency is declared elected.
Proportional Representation System: The Proportional Electoral System is an electoral system where the political parties get as much representation (number of seats) in the legislature as per the share of votes they secure in the elections.
Advantages of Proportional Representation (PR) over First-Past-the-Post (FPTP)
Fairer Representation:
PR: Ensures that political parties gain seats in proportion to the number of votes they receive. This means minority groups and smaller parties get better representation in the legislature.
FPTP: Often results in a significant disparity between the percentage of votes a party receives and the percentage of seats they win. Smaller parties may be underrepresented.
Reduces Wasted Votes:
PR: Fewer votes are "wasted" as most votes contribute to the election of a representative.
FPTP: More number of votes can be wasted (i.e., not contributing to the election of any candidate) if they are cast for losing candidates.
Encourages Multi-Party Systems:
PR: Facilitates the existence and success of multiple political parties, promoting a broader spectrum of political viewpoints and policy options, essential for a vibrant democracy like India.
FPTP: Often leads to a two-party system, marginalizing smaller parties and reducing voter choice.
Higher Voter Turnout:
PR: Voters may be more motivated to participate when they feel their vote has a higher likelihood of influencing the outcome.
FPTP: Voter turnout can be lower if individuals feel their vote is unlikely to impact the result, particularly in "safe" seats. (As observed in 2024 General elections)
Coalition Governments:
PR: Encourages coalition governments, which can lead to more collaborative and consensual policymaking.
FPTP: Usually leads to single-party majority governments, which may result in more adversarial politics.
Challenges associated with Proportional Representation (PR) compared to First-Past-the-Post (FPTP)
Complexity:
PR: Involves a more complex voting and counting processes, which can be harder for voters to understand and may require more administrative resources.
FPTP: Simple and straightforward, with voters selecting one candidate and the candidate with the most votes winning.
Instability:
PR: Coalition governments can be less stable, potentially leading to more frequent elections if coalitions break down.
FPTP: Single-party majority governments are generally more stable and less prone to collapse.
Fragmentation:
PR: Can lead to a fragmented legislature with many small parties, making it difficult to form a cohesive government leading to stalemate on basic issues.
FPTP: Typically results in fewer parties with clearer majorities, enabling more decisive governance.
Accountability:
PR: Coalition governments can dilute accountability as it may be unclear which party or individual is responsible for specific policies or decisions.
FPTP: Voters can more easily identify who is responsible for government actions, facilitating greater accountability.
Extreme ideologies Parties:
PR: May give seats to extremist parties that receive a small but significant portion of the vote, potentially allowing them to influence policy. (Far Right AfD of Germany has been able to secure 15 seats in recently held EU elections.)
FPTP: Less likely to give representation to extremist parties, as they typically cannot win enough votes in any single constituency.
Way forward:
Mixed-Member Proportional Representation (MMPR) system can be explored.
The Mixed-Member Proportional Representation (MMP) system combines elements of both proportional representation (PR) and first-past-the-post (FPTP) electoral systems.
The law commission in its 170th report, ‘Reform of the electoral laws’ (1999), had recommended the introduction of the Mixed-Member Proportional Representation (MMPR) system on an experimental basis. It suggested that 25% of seats may be filled through a PR system by increasing the strength of the Lok Sabha.
Working of Mixed-Member Proportional Representation (MMP): A proportion of the parliament (E.g.: roughly half in the cases of Germany, Bolivia, and Venezuela) is elected by plurality-majority methods, usually from single-member constituencies, while the remainder is constituted by PR lists.
Two Votes per Voter: In some of these systems, the voters are entitled to two kinds of votes.
Party Vote: Voters cast a vote for a political party. This vote determines the overall proportion of seats each party will receive in the legislature.
Candidate Vote: Voters also cast a vote for a specific candidate to represent their local constituency. The candidate with the most votes in each constituency wins a seat in the legislature.
Merits of Implementing MMPR
Challenges associated with the implementation of MMPR
-Proportional Representation: The overall distribution of seats matches the proportion of votes each party receives, addressing the issue of disproportionality in pure FPTP systems. -Local Representation: Voters still have a direct representative for their local constituency, maintaining the link between constituents and their representatives. -Reduced Wasted Votes: Votes for smaller parties are less likely to be wasted since these parties can gain compensatory seats even if they do not win many (or any) seats. -Increased Voter Choice: Voters can support a local candidate from one party while voting for a different party on the party list, providing greater flexibility and choice. -Balanced Governance: Combines the stability of FPTP (through representatives) with the fairness of PR, potentially leading to more balanced and inclusive governance. -Implementation examples: The Bundestag (Federal parliament) of Germany uses MMP. Scotland and Wales
-Complexity: The system is more complex than either pure FPTP or pure PR, requiring voters to understand two types of votes and how they contribute to the overall result. -Potential for Overhang Seats: If a party wins more seats than it is entitled to based on its proportion of the party vote, additional seats (overhang seats) may be created to maintain proportionality, potentially complicating the size and structure of the legislature. -Coalition Governments: Like pure PR systems, MMP often results in coalition governments, which can be less stable and require more negotiation and compromise among multiple parties. -Dual Accountability: Representatives elected through the party list may be less accountable to specific local constituencies, potentially leading to a perception of less direct representation.
The Mixed-Member Proportional Representation (MMP) system which is a hybrid electoral model can capture the benefits of both FPTP and PR systems. It can ensure ensure fairer representation while maintaining direct local accountability.
The delimitation exercise to increase the number of seats is due based on the first Census to be conducted after 2026. Determining the number of seats in Lok Sabha solely in proportion to population may go against the federal principles of our country and may lead to a feeling of disenchantment in the States (Southern, Northeastern, and smaller States in the northern region) that stand to lose through such representation.
Context: The securities regulator, Sebi, is proposing a new investment option for those willing to take on more risk in exchange for potentially higher returns. This new category aims to bridge the gap between traditional mutual funds and exclusive services like portfolio management.
AIFs and Mutual Funds Explained
Currently, there's a limited selection for investors. Mutual funds offer lower minimum investments but also lower risk profiles. Portfolio management services (PMS) and alternative investment funds (AIFs) cater to high net-worth individuals with higher minimum investments and higher risk tolerance.
Mutual Funds
Portfolio Management Services/ Alternative Investment Funds (AIFs)
Investors
Low investment size (Retail investors)
High investment size-Typically above ₹50 lakh (High Networth Individuals)
Risk
Relatively lower
High risk appetite
Nature of products
Standard products for all investors
Customised products
Regulation
Heavily regulated by SEBI
Regulated by SEBI but less stringent than mutual funds
Emergence of unregulated investment products:
SEBI believes this gap has led some investors who are invest relatively high investment, seeking high returns and have risk appetite fall prey to unregulated investment schemes promising unrealistic returns. This new option would be a regulated product.
Key features of the new asset class proposed by the SEBI:
Investment size: Minimum investment is Rs. 10 lakh. This is significantly lower than the minimum investment size for similar high-risk investment options like Portfolio Management Services (PMS) or AIFs which typically start at Rs 50 lakh.
Returns and Risk: Higher risk compared to mutual funds, offering potentially higher returns but will be a regulated product, unlike some unauthorized investment schemes.
Context: India’s post-harvest losses amount to approximately ₹ 1,52,790 crore annually, according to a Ministry of Food Processing Industries 2022 study.
What are post-harvest losses?
The post-harvest system should be thought of as encompassing the delivery of a crop from the time and place of harvest to the time and place of consumption.
The expression "post-harvest losses" means a measurable quantitative and qualitative loss in a given product. These losses can occur during any of the various phases of the post-harvest system.
From the harvest onward, then, the grain undergoes a series of operations during the course of which quantitative and qualitative losses can occur.
What is the present status of India’s high post-harvest losses?
India’s post-harvest losses amount to approximately ₹1,52,790 crore annually, according to a Ministry of Food Processing Industries 2022 study.
The biggest loss is from perishable commodities, which include livestock produce such as eggs, fish and meat.
During the export of perishables, approximately 19% of food is lost.
What are the causes behind India’s huge post-harvest losses?
Direct Causes
Premature harvest result in lower quality and quantity.
Poor threshing: Inefficient separation of grain from stalks results in loss of produce.
Insufficient drying lead to spoilage and mold growth.
Insufficient cleaning-> contamination and quality degradation.
Bird, Rodent, and Insect Attacks
Improper storage conditions
Poor handling and transportation can lead to physical damage and loss.
Indirect Causes
Inadequate capital: Farmers often lack the financial resources to invest in modern equipment, storage facilities and modern machinery for harvesting, threshing, drying, and cleaning.
Lack of professionalism: Limited access to training and education on best post-harvest practices.
Lack of Organization: Fragmented supply chains and lack of coordination among stakeholders.
Social Constraints: Issues such as land fragmentation and small farm sizes affect efficiency.
Economic Constraints: Market inefficiencies and price volatility impact farmers' ability to invest in post-harvest technologies.
Political Constraints: Inadequate policy support and lack of investment in agricultural infrastructure.
Why we should reduce post-harvest losses?
To maintain the quality of the product.
To increase the agro-export potential.
To double the farm income.
To ensure food security in the country.
To reduce price volatility.
To reduce the waste and make agriculture environment friendly.
A report from the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) using the life cycle perspective, estimated about 3.3 G tonnes of CO2 equivalent emissions due to food that was produced but not eaten, without even considering the land use change
What steps should be taken to reduce Post harvest losses?
Investing In adequate storage facilities
India’s tropical climate can be bad news for the quality of perishable crops, and there need to be proper climate-controlled storage facilities as well as cold-storage facilities.
Ensuring appropriate harvesting methods at the right stage
when the produce has completed its natural growth and is all set for harvesting. It is also important to use the most suitable harvesting methods to prevent losses from premature or delayed harvesting.
Effective handling and transportation to reduce damage
as the majority of the losses take place during the transportation stage. Rough handling can also cause damage to the crops. They should be properly packed for better protection, ventilation, and labeling. This along with choosing the right vehicle and other tools can go a long way in preserving the produce during transportation.
Following the process of sorting & grading for better quality control
There need to be higher standards for post-harvest handling and grading. This helps in identifying damaged or low-quality produce, following which the produce can be sorted, which is essentially the removal of bad crops from healthy ones. The continuous check on quality control invariably helps in reducing post-harvest loss.
Upgradation of grain drying equipment
This assistance encompasses a range of options, including the provision of basic materials like tarpaulins and covers, as well as more advanced grain drying equipment and shelters that offer protection against rainfall. By enabling farmers to access improved drying solutions, we can effectively reduce food losses and improve overall grain quality.
Agarwood, also known as oud, aloeswood, or gaharu, is a highly valuable and fragrant resinous wood formed in the heartwood of Aquilaria trees. It is an evergreen tree that can grow to 40 metres.
Agarwood is produced when Aquilaria trees are infected by a type of mold, usually Fusarium solani. The tree reacts to the infection (stress-response) by producing a dark aromatic resin, which gives the wood its characteristic fragrance.
Geographical Distribution: The tree is native to the countries in South and South-East Asia, particularly India (North-East Indian states), Bangladesh, Bhutan, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, the Philippines, and Thailand.
Economic value:
Agarwood is one of the most expensive natural raw materials in the world. Its value can range to $100000 per kilogram for high-grade resin.
Agarwood oil or oud is extracted through steam distillation. This oil is highly prized in the perfume industry, and termed as ‘liquid gold.’
Uses: Agarwood is used in the production of high-end perfumes, incense sticks, traditional medicine, and religious and cultural rituals. It is highly valued in Middle Eastern and East Asian cultures.
Artificial induction: Given the high demand and conservation issues, methods to artificially induce resin production in Aquilaria trees have been developed. These include mechanical wounding, chemical treatments, and biological inoculation with fungi.
Conservation status:
Due to unchecked demand for agarwood, trade in the tree and its products is protected by CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora). It is listed in Appendix II of the CITES.
IUCN status: The most renowned species for agarwood production is Aquilaria malaccensis which is ‘critically endangered’. Its population has declined over 80% in the past 150 years due to indiscriminate logging and commercial exploitation.
Context: The Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) will launch its “one scientist, one product” programme to improve research in the field of agriculture and animal husbandry.
About One Scientist and One Product
Under this initiative, all 5,521 scientists within the institution (ICAR) are given a target to come up with a product, technology, model, concept, or a good publication.
The program aims to drive maximum productivity without duplicating efforts.
Scientists identify their products, and the ICAR monitors progress at the institute and headquarters levels.
The scheme operates over five years, focusing on seed hubs for high-yielding oilseeds and pulses varieties.
The council will formally announce the release of 323 varieties of 56 crops, including cereals, oilseeds, forage crops, and sugar cane.
These crops include 289 climate-resilient varieties and 27 bio-fortified varieties.
Additionally, the ICAR is working to develop 100 new seed varieties and 100 farm technologies in 100 days as part of the Centre’s 100-day action plan.
