June 2024

Current Affairs

The Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure (CDRI)

Context: Rising Temperatures and Electricity Demand in Delhi

In the past month, Delhi has experienced relentlessly high temperatures, causing electricity demand to repeatedly break records.
This surge in demand led to frequent power cuts in Delhi and neighbouring areas. Central and eastern India faced similar or worse situations.
The combination of high temperatures and lack of electricity made life miserable and possibly contributed to several heat-related deaths.

About CDRI

Stress on Critical Infrastructure

The unprecedented surge in electricity demand highlights the stress that critical infrastructure faces from extreme weather events and disasters.
Vulnerable systems include not only power systems but also telecommunications, transportation, health services, and cyber systems.
Disruptions in these services during disasters complicate crisis situations, hinder relief, rescue, and recovery efforts, and amplify risks, sometimes adding to the devastation.

Importance of Infrastructure Resilience

Making critical infrastructure resilient to extreme events and disasters is crucial for climate change adaptation.

Mounting Economic Losses

Although early warnings and quick responses have reduced human casualties in disasters, economic and other losses from extreme weather events and disasters are rising due to increased frequency and intensity.
Government data shows that between 2018 and 2023, states spent more than Rs 1.5 lakh crore on disaster aftermaths.
These expenditures do not account for long-term costs such as livelihood losses or reduced agricultural land fertility.
A 2022 World Bank report projected that heat-related productivity declines could result in the loss of 34 million jobs in India by 2030. Food wastage due to non-air-conditioned transport was already worth about $9 billion annually.

Uncounted Damages to Critical Infrastructure

Damages to critical infrastructure like transportation, telecommunications, and power supply are often not included in government figures, especially when privately owned.
However, such damages cause massive disruptions and exacerbate disasters.

Steps Toward Resilience

Infrastructure sectors now have disaster management plans in place.
Hospitals in disaster-prone areas are equipping themselves with backup power supplies, airports and railways are improving water drainage, and telecommunication lines are being taken underground.
Despite this, much of India's infrastructure remains vulnerable.

CDRI's Role in Building Resilience

The Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure (CDRI), an international organization established on India’s initiative, conducted a study on Odisha’s electricity infrastructure.
It found the infrastructure extremely fragile, with significant portions susceptible to cyclonic winds. This situation is likely similar in other coastal states.
CDRI aims to make critical infrastructure resilient to natural disasters and is developing into a knowledge hub for implementing these transitions.
Over 30 countries are part of this coalition, working to strengthen their infrastructure. However, few Indian states have sought CDRI's expertise.

Future Infrastructure Development

India is still developing its infrastructure, with much of the proposed infrastructure for 2030 yet to be built.
It is more cost-effective to incorporate disaster resilience during construction than to retrofit later.

Upcoming projects need to be climate-smart, sustainable, energy-efficient, and disaster-resilient.

Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure

CDRI is a global partnership that aims to promote resilience of infrastructure systems to climate & disaster risks, thereby ensuring sustainable development.
Prime Minister of India launched CDRI during his speech at the UN Climate Action Summit on 23 September 2019.
Objectives of CDRI: CDRI seeks to rapidly expand the development & retrofit of resilient infrastructure towards expanding universal access to basic services, enabling prosperity and decent work.

Functions of CDRI

Raising awareness of the benefits of resilient infrastructure and building linkages with other relevant initiatives to achieve this.
Serving as a platform for knowledge generation and exchange on disaster & climate resilient infrastructure.
Enhancing national and regional standards, codes and guidelines for planning, design, operation & maintenance of infrastructure systems
Enhancing practices and capacities to reduce infrastructure damages and losses from disasters and climate change.
Enabling technological and institutional innovation for resilient infrastructure systems
Making available technical expertise to assist countries to develop resilient infrastructure
Advocating for financial arrangements, including risk transfer, supporting development of resilient infrastructure
Assisting countries to adopt appropriate risk governance arrangements & strategies for resilient infrastructure.

Governance of CDRI: Secretariat of CDRI is located in New Delhi and has three principal bodies: (i) Governing Council (ii) Executive Council (iii) Secretariat.
- Governing Council: Governing Council is the highest policy-making body of CDRI and will have representation from all members of CDRI such that at least two-thirds of the members of the Governing Council represent national governments. Members of. Governing Council shall be co-chaired by representatives of two national governments with India being the permanent co-chair of Governing Council. The other co-chair shall be nominated by rotation by the members of Governing Council, every two years.
- Executive Committee: Managerial body of CDRI that oversees implementation of decisions of Governing Council. It is a 10-member body with Director General being one of the members.
- Secretariat: Secretariat of the CDRI shall be headed by a Director-General appointed by the Governing Council.
Membership: Membership of CDRI is open to national governments, UN Agencies & multilateral banks, private sector, academic & knowledge institutions.
Funding: A large share of the estimated fund requirements to cover the core costs over the first five years has been invested by India. There are no obligations on the part of members to make financial contributions to CDRI.

Initiatives under CDRI

Infrastructure Resilience Accelerator Fund (IRAF):
- A US $50 million multi-donor trust fund created by CDRI to support global action on disaster resilience of infrastructure systems, especially in developing countries and small island developing countries.
- IRAF will play a critical role in equipping the Coalition to deliver on improved infrastructure governance, inclusive infrastructure services and diversified knowledge and financing for resilient infrastructure globally.
- IRAF has been established with the support of UNDP & UNDRR and will be managed by UN Multi-Partner Trust Fund Office. IRAF was launched COP 27 of UNFCCC at Sharm El Sheikh, Egypt.
- One of the first initiatives to be supported by IRAF is the Infrastructure for Resilient Island States (IRIS).
Infrastructure for Resilient Island States (IRIS):
- A dedicated initiative co-curated by Small Developing Island States (SIDS) and Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure (CDRI) partners to promote resilient, sustainable, and inclusive infrastructure development in SIDS. IRIS will cater to all SIDS.
- IRIS will design and implement projects considering the demands and absorptive capacities of SIDS and strive to foster SIDS ownership and leadership in the development of resilient, sustainable and inclusive infrastructure.
- In the initial phase, IRIS will prioritize the needs of the most vulnerable SIDS.It was launched during COP 26 of UNFCCC at Glasgow.
- Focus areas of IRIS are:
  - Improved resilience of SIDS infrastructure to climate change & disaster risks.
  - Strengthened knowledge & partnerships for integrating resilience in SIDS infrastructure.
  - Gender equality and disability inclusion promoted through SIDS infrastructure.
Biennial Report on Global Infrastructure Resilience: Flagship report of CDRI focusing on critical challenges faced by infrastructure due to disaster and climate risks. The report will develop a Global Infrastructure Risk Model & Global Infrastructure Resilience Index (GIRI) and advocate pathways for nature-based solutions for disaster resilient infrastructure, conduct review of global goals and targets for resilient infrastructure and finance for disaster & climate resilient infrastructure.
International Conference on Disaster Resilient Infrastructure (ICDRI): Annual conference of CDRI bring together experts and participants from member countries, institutions and organisations to discuss challenges and identify good practices on disaster & climate resilient infrastructure.
DRI Connect: An online platform to connect, learn and collaborate towards improved practices, processes and policies for resilient infrastructure systems.

Engaging China in Modi 3.0

Context: It has been 4 years since Galwan valley clashes in which the Forces of China and India locked horns in the high altitudes of Himalayas. As PM Modi has returned to power for the third time, there is a need to look at how India will engage with China in Modi 3.0

Developments in India-China relations:

Managing the relationship with China is the most pressing challenge for the Modi government in its third term. About 50,000 to 60,000 troops are still deployed on each side of the border.
In a pre-election interview, PM Modi had remarked that stable and peaceful relations with China are important not just for the countries, but for the whole world.
- China responded positively to the overture and said that India-China ties are “more than border situation” and China wishes to maintain relations from “strategic heights and long-term perspectives.”
EAM S. Jaishankar remarked that the primarily revolved around “patrolling rights” and “patrolling abilities”.
- Limiting the dispute to “patrolling rights” and “patrolling abilities” can be seen as a nuancing of the Indian position, pivoting away from the earlier stance of “disengagement” and “de-escalation”.

Post-election:

Issue of Taiwan: Exchange of messages between the Prime Minister and Taiwan’s President Lai Ching-Te with respect to deepening cooperation trade, technology, peace, and stability in Indio-Pacific on the social media platform angered the Chinese as they saw it as provocation.
- China saw it as deviation from One-China Policy.
Tibet: A seven-member bipartisan delegation of the United States Congress met the Dalai Lama in Dharamsala, the former House Speaker Nancy Pelosi remarked that while the Tibetan spiritual leader’s “legacy will live forever”, Xi will “be gone and nobody will give him credit for anything”.
- China reacted sharply, and “urged” US to “adhere to its commitments of recognizing Xizang as part of China and not supporting “Xizang independence”.
- Recently, US Congress has also passed “Resolve Tibet Act”.
  - Resolve Tibet Act authorizes the use of funds to counter Chinese disinformation about Tibet (including disinformation about the history of Tibet, the Tibetan people, and Tibetan institutions).
  - Act also challenges the Chinese contention that Tibet has been a part of China since ancient times.
  - Act underlines the right of the Tibetan people to self-determination and human rights.

What lies ahead:

Some analysts believe that while India has shown its intent on resolving the border situation through the interviews given by the PM and Jaishankar, it has also sent out a signal through Pelosi’s visit to the Dalai Lama ahead of a possible meeting between Modi and Xi in Astana that in any case, India will not negotiate on a weaker stance.
Whereas some other analysts believe that while New Delhi had initially wanted to resolve the border situation after the Lok Sabha election, it has now changed its mind after the NDA got a weaker mandate, the government might now be wary of criticism which reconciliation might draw.

Way forward:

India needs stable borders as they are key for the government to focus on its agenda for economic growth and job creation.
India can follow the template of ongoing engagement between Australia and China in which Australia is engaging with China at the highest level without compromising Australia’s core Interest.
Even though there is heightened awareness of security threat perception from China has led to the decoupling of Interests, the upcoming meet of Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO) in Astana (Kazakhstan) is likely to show someway ahead.

Srinagar gets tag of ‘World Craft City’

Context: Srinagar has become the fourth Indian city to be recognised as a ‘World Craft City’ by the World Craft Council (WCC) international, will bring attention to Srinagar’s crafts and showcase its ancient techniques to the world.

The achievement follows Srinagar’s recognition as a United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) Creative City for Crafts in 2021.

About World Craft City:

Launched in 2014 by the World Crafts Council AISBL (WCC-International), to acknowledge the significant contributions of local authorities, craftspeople, and communities to cultural, economic, and social development globally.
Previously, Indian cities such as Jaipur, Malappuram, and Mysore have been honoured as World Craft Cities.

World Craft Council (WCC) international:

A Kuwait-based, non-government organisation working to empower artisans and safeguard craft heritage globally.
It was founded by Ms. Aileen Osborn Vanderbilt Webb, Ms. Margaret M. Patch, and Smt Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay in 1964.
The Council aims to promote fellowship among craftsperson by offering them encouragement, help, and advice.
It fosters and assists cultural exchange through conferences, international visits, research study, lectures, workshops, exhibitions, and other activities.
The WCC also seeks to foster wider knowledge and recognition of the crafts people’s work with due regard to the diversified cultural and national backgrounds and tradition of its members.
In carrying out these principles, the Council shall consult with governments, national and international institutions, societies, and individuals.
It has been affiliated with UNESCO under Consultative Status for many years.

Antarctic Treaty

Context: The 46th Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting (ATCM-46), that was held in Kochi, Kerala last month, it highlighted the debate on Antarctic tourism.

About Antarctic Treaty

While the meeting sought to bring in a regulatory framework, it ultimately fell short of a definitive solution, reflecting the complex challenges of managing tourism in a region governed by international consensus and where the environment is rapidly changing.

Antarctic Treaty Explained: The Antarctic Treaty was signed in Washington on 1 December 1959 by the twelve countries whose scientists had been active in and around Antarctica during the International Geophysical Year (IGY) of 1957-58. It entered into force in 1961 and has since been acceded to by many other nations. The total number of Parties to the Treaty is now 57.

Original Signatories:

The treaty was initially signed by 12 countries:

Argentina
Australia
Belgium
Chile
France
Japan
New Zealand
Norway
South Africa
United Kingdom
United States
Soviet Union (now succeeded by Russia)

Some important provisions of the Treaty:

Article I: Antarctica shall be used for peaceful purposes only.
Article II: Freedom of scientific investigation in Antarctica and cooperation toward that end… shall continue.
Article III: Scientific observations and results from Antarctica shall be exchanged and made freely available.
Article IV: The treaty does not recognize, dispute, or establish territorial sovereignty claims; no new claims shall be asserted while the treaty is in force.
Article V: Any nuclear explosions and disposal of radioactive waste in Antarctica are prohibited.
Article VII: Provides for inspection by observers from any member country, ensuring compliance with the treaty.
Article IX: Parties to the treaty shall meet periodically to discuss measures to further the objectives of the treaty.

Antarctic treaty and India:

India has been a Consultative Party to the Antarctic Treaty since 1983. With the other 28 Consultative Parties, India has a crucial role in governing Antarctica’s scientific exploration and environmental protection.

Strategic imperative and environment concern in Great Nicobar Project

Context: The opposition party has raised significant concerns over the proposed Rs 72,000-crore infrastructure upgrade at Great Nicobar Island, labelling it as a “grave threat” to the island’s indigenous inhabitants and its fragile ecosystem.

The party demands an “immediate suspension of all clearances” and calls for a “thorough, impartial review of the proposed project, including by the Parliamentary committees concerned”.

Location and Significance of Great Nicobar

Great Nicobar is the southernmost and largest of the Nicobar Islands, covering 910 sq km of mainly tropical rainforest in the southeastern Bay of Bengal.
Indira Point, located on the island, is India’s southernmost point, situated only 90 nautical miles from Sabang in Sumatra, Indonesia.
The island hosts two national parks, a biosphere reserve, small populations of the Shompen and Nicobarese tribal peoples, and a few thousand non-tribal settlers.

The Infrastructure Project

Project Details

The mega infrastructure project is spearheaded by the Andaman and Nicobar Islands Integrated Development Corporation (ANIIDCO). It includes:

An International Container Transshipment Terminal (ICTT)
A greenfield international airport with a peak hour capacity to handle 4,000 passengers
A township
A gas and solar-based power plant

The project spans 16,610 hectares and aims to leverage the island’s strategic location, roughly equidistant from Colombo, Port Klang, and Singapore, to enhance its participation in the regional and global maritime economy.

Implementation and Approvals

The project was initiated following a report by NITI Aayog, highlighting the strategic potential of the island.
Galathea Bay, the proposed site for the ICTT and power plant, is uninhabited and located on the southeastern corner of the island.
The project received in-principal forest clearance and environmental clearance in October 2022.
A detailed project report (DPR) has been prepared, and the government is expected to invite bids for the initial construction phase soon.

Strategic Importance

Security Interests

The Bay of Bengal and Indian Ocean region are crucial for India’s strategic and security interests, particularly in countering the Chinese People’s Liberation Army Navy's expanding presence.
India's concerns include Chinese military activities at key Indo-Pacific chokepoints such as Malacca, Sunda, and Lombok.

Military Upgrades:

Significant military infrastructure upgrades at the Andaman & Nicobar Islands, including:

Revamping airfields and jetties
Building additional logistics and storage facilities
Establishing a base for military personnel
Enhancing surveillance infrastructure

These upgrades aim to support the deployment of additional military forces, larger warships, aircraft, missile batteries, and troops, reinforcing India’s national security.

Environmental Concerns

Ecological Impact

Conservationists, wildlife biologists, and local tribal councils have criticized the project for its potential ecological damage.

Major concerns include:

Violation of tribal rights, particularly the Shompen, a vulnerable tribal group of hunter-gatherers
Felling of nearly a million trees
Destruction of coral reefs
Threats to the Nicobar Megapode bird and leatherback turtles in Galathea Bay

Seismic Vulnerability

The opposition also highlights the seismic risks, noting the area’s subsidence during the 2004 tsunami.
They also accuse local authorities of inadequate consultation with the Tribal Council of Great and Little Nicobar Islands.
In 2022, the tribal council revoked a no-objection certificate, citing insufficient information.

Legal and Administrative Actions

In 2023, the Kolkata Bench of the National Green Tribunal (NGT) declined to intervene in the environmental and forest clearance but recommended forming a high-power committee to review the clearances.
The committee's report status remains unclear.

The proposed infrastructure development at Great Nicobar Island is a contentious issue, balancing strategic national interests against significant environmental and indigenous rights concerns.

The Court spells the way in Himalaya’s development

Context - In State of Telangana and Others vs Mohd. Abdul Qasim (Died) Per Lrs, the Court had said that the need of the hour is to adopt an eco-centric view of the environment, where nature is at the core.

What is the importance of the Himalayan region?

Himalayas are a Biodiversity hotspot region and is also a huge pool of biotic resources.
Major rivers of the region have their origin from these mountains
Many of the world’s crops originate in mountains, a crucial resource that should be conserved for sustaining modern agriculture.
Natural wealth in the region, including geological assets, forms an important part of the Himalayan eco-system.
All this has contributed to a whole range of diversity in indigenous human habitations, cultures and knowledge systems. The region is largely inhabited by indigenous societies.

Present model of destruction:

Hydroelectric power stations on the rivers and streams in the IHR are been constructed, without any care for the rights of these rivers and streams.
Reckless widening of existing hill roads to four lanes in the name of development destabilizing the rocks and encroaching into the wildlife territories.
A post-disaster need assessment report by the NDMA in Himachal Pradesh identified, unsurprisingly, rampant construction in violation of norms, regulations (and even court orders in many cases) right on river beds and food plains, on the steep slopes, in seismic zones, in landslide-prone areas and the loss of green cover as the reasons for the disaster.

Important court judgements in this regard:

In State of Telangana and Others vs Mohd. Abdul Qasim (Died) Per Lrs, the Court had said that the need of the hour is to adopt an ecocentric view of the environment, where nature is at the core. The Court said, “Man being an enlightened species, is expected to act as a trustee of the Earth.
Ashok Kumar Raghav vs Union of India and Ors., the Supreme Court asked the central government and the petitioner to suggest a way forward so as to enable the Court to pass directions on the carrying capacity of the Himalayan States and towns.

Logistic Growth of Population size over time

In the case of the Great Indian Bustard, the Court has recognised the right of the people of this country to be free from the adverse impacts of climate change. Unfortunately the Court’s verdict in the Great Indian Bustard case is being interpreted in a very narrow sense — as if the Court has given a clean chit to all renewable energy projects over and above the concerns for biodiversity or any other right that might get compromised.

The Court has detailed how the fundamental rights in Articles 14 and 21 intersect with human rights, such as the right to development and adapting to climate change. It emphasized that a clean, stable environment is essential for fully realizing the right to life. The Court stated that the inability of underserved communities to adapt to climate change violates their rights to life and equality. These rights should be understood in light of the Court's decisions, state commitments, and scientific consensus.

Development and disaster resilience:

As a lower-middle-income country with a large young population, India's rapid development is inevitable. However, the link between disasters and unregulated development is increasingly evident. Disaster management must be integrated into development planning for prevention and resilience. Unchecked development often leads to unnatural disasters from natural hazards.

Development plans, policies, and laws contribute to these issues, necessitating coordinated planning that includes disaster and climate resilience considerations.

Development and disaster resilience must go hand in hand, with science, policy, and action aligned in an integrated approach involving all stakeholders.

Given Supreme Court judgments and the right to be free from climate change impacts, a sustainable development model in line with the Indian Himalayan Region's (IHR) carrying capacity is now a fundamental right.

Caracal: An Intimate History of Mysterious Cat

Context: Caracal: An Intimate History of Mysterious Cat, a book by Dharmendra Khandal and Ishan Dhar is the first and definitive work exploring the Caracal’s biology and ecology, the fascinating history with humans, and the changes in its distribution over time in the country.

About caracal:

It is a medium-sized wild cat native to Africa, the Middle East, Central Asia, and arid areas of Pakistan and northwestern India.
It is characterised by a robust build, long legs, a short face, long tufted ears, relatively short tail, and long canine teeth.
Its coat is uniformly reddish tan or sandy, while the ventral parts are lighter with small reddish markings.
It is typically nocturnal, highly secretive and difficult to observe.
It is territorial, and lives mainly alone or in pairs.
It is a carnivore that typically preys upon birds, rodents, and other small mammals.
In India, it is known locally as Siyah Gosh, a Persian name that translates as ‘black Ear’ and occurs in Sariska Tiger Reserve and Ranthambhore National Park, followed by Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, and Maharashtra.
A Sanskrit fable exists about a small wild cat named deergha-karn or long-eared.
It is classified as "Least Concern" on the IUCN Red List, listed under Schedule I of the Wildlife Protection Act of 1972, and included in Appendix I of CITES.

Oath of MPs in newly elected Lok Sabha

Context: As the newly elected 18th Lok Sabha convenes, Protem Speaker will preside over the House as the other members of the House take oath or affirmation as prescribed in the third schedule of the Constitution.

Oath taking of MPs Explained

Constitutional Position of Protem Speaker:

According to the Article 95 (1) of the Constitution, if both the office of Speaker and Deputy Speaker are vacant, the duties of the office of Speaker shall be performed by such member of the House of People as the President may appoint for the purpose.
Since in a newly elected Parliament, the first duty is to enable the newly elected MPs to take an oath or affirmation only after which MPs can starting voting or taking part in the proceedings of the House.
Protem speaker takes an oath in front for the President. Protem Speaker enables MPs to take an oath as member of the Lok Sabha. Protem Speaker acts as the representative of the President for facilitating such oath.

Term of an MP

According to the Section 73 of Representative of Peoples Act, 1971, For a newly elected Lok Sabha or Legislative Assembly of a State, the term of the MPs starts after the notification of election results by the Election Commission.
From this day, MPs are eligible to certain rights such as salaries and allowances. The Anti-defection law also comes into force which means with MPs change their party membership, whips can be issued by the Speaker of the House.
However, till the time until an oath is taken by the members, he or she cannot vote, speak or take part in the proceedings of the House.

Constitutional position of Oath or affirmation of MPs

Article 99 (Oath or Affirmation by members): According to Article 99 of the Constitution, every member of either House of Parliament (Lok Sabha & Rajya Sabha) shall before taking his seat, make and subscribe before the President or some person appointed in that behalf by him, an oath or affirmation, as given in the Third Schedule of Constitution.
- Thus, all MPs before taking a seat in the House must take an oath as prescribed in the Third Schedule of the Constitution.
Article 104 (Penalty for sitting and voting before making oath or affirmation under Article 99): Constitution prescribes a penalty of five hundred rupees to be recovered as a debt to the Union, if a person sits or votes as a member of either House of Parliament before he has complied with requirements under Article 99.
Form of oath or affirmation to be made by a member of Parliament --

'I, A/B, having been elected (or nominated) a member of the Council of States (or House of People) do swear in the name of God (or solemnly affirm) that I will bear true faith and allegiance to the Constitution of India as by law established, that I will uphold the sovereignty and integrity of India and that I will faithfully discharge the duty upon which I am about to enter'.

Before taking the oath or affirmation, MPs must submit their election certificate to the Lok Sabha secretariat for verification. After the verification, MPs can subscribe to the oath or affirmation in English or any of the 22 languages listed in the 8th Schedule of the Constitution. MPs must use their name as mentioned in the Election Certificate and adhere to the text of the oath or affirmation.
Exception to the above rule: An individual can become a minister without being elected to Parliament. Constitution prescribes a period of 6 months for a MP to secure a seat in either Lok Sabha or Rajya Sabha. During this time, the Minister can participate but not vote in House proceedings.

Evolution of Agricultural Governance in India

Context: Since gaining independence, India has seen its approach to agricultural management evolve significantly, marked by a transition from a unified Ministry of Food and Agriculture to a splintered set of specialized ministries. This detailed analysis delves into the historical trajectory, examines the current fragmented structure, and explores the benefits of a more integrated approach to agricultural management in India.

Historical Evolution of Agricultural Governance in India

Consolidation and Early Successes

During India's early years of independence, the Ministry of Food and Agriculture was a consolidated entity under the leadership of significant figures such as Rajendra Prasad and later, ministers like C Subramaniam and Jagjivan Ram.
Subramaniam, in particular, played a pivotal role in initiating the Green Revolution by facilitating the import of high-yielding wheat seeds from Mexico (Sonora 64 and Lerma Rojo 64A), setting up the Agricultural Prices Commission, and founding the Food Corporation of India. These steps were crucial for establishing minimum support prices and enhancing crop procurement.
Under the tenure of Prime Minister Indira Gandhi, the ministry expanded to include community development and cooperation in 1966, and in 1974 Ministry of Irrigation was merged with it, reflecting a holistic approach to agricultural needs including water management.

Period of Fragmentation

However, from the mid-1970s onwards, the ministry began experiencing fragmentation.
Separate ministries were created for fertilizers (December 1975), rural development (August 1979; it was initially called rural reconstruction), irrigation(January 1980), and food & civil supplies (February 1983), each splitting from the original agricultural ministry.
This trend continued with the establishment of the Ministry of Food Processing Industries(1988) and the Agricultural and Processed Food Products Export Development Authority under the Ministry of Commerce(1986), further dispersing the focus and responsibilities once held by the Ministry of Agriculture.
The various statutory commodity boards for spices, rubber, coffee, tea and tobacco also function under the Ministry of Commerce. The Cotton Corporation of India (CCI) and the Genetic Engineering Appraisal Committee (GEAC) are, likewise, under the administrative control of the Ministry of Textiles and the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change respectively.
The recent establishment of an independent Ministry of Fisheries, Animal Husbandry and Dairying in 2019 and a Ministry of Cooperation in 2021 under the Narendra Modi-led government marked further segmentation.
Today, the Ministry of Agriculture handles fewer direct responsibilities, with key areas like fertilizers, water management, and genetically-modified crop regulations being managed by other ministries or specific governmental bodies.

Impacts of Fragmentation

Spread of Responsibilities: Today, essential functions like the management of fertilizers, irrigation, MSP procurement, and agricultural research are scattered across multiple ministries and departments. For Eg- Marketing and MSP procurement of food grains and cotton are with FCI and CCI that report to other ministries.
Challenges Posed by Fragmentation: This dispersal leads to coordination problems, policy inconsistencies, and inefficiencies in addressing the comprehensive needs of the agriculture sector. For instance, policies on water management are disconnected from those on crop cultivation, leading to suboptimal outcomes

Comparative Analysis with the USDA Model

USDA’s Integrated Approach: The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) offers a contrasting model where a single federal agency responsible for
- Public policy on farm production and land conservation, food, nutrition, research, marketing, foreign trade and rural development (which extends to supporting entrepreneurship, housing and utilities) in that country.
- It is headed by a single secretary (read minister) of agriculture, who reports directly to the US President.
- The USDA also works with two other agencies – the US Food and Drug Administration and the US Environmental Protection Agency – for regulating GM crops based on science and safety of the final product for human, plant and animal health.

Proposals for Structural Reform in India

Reintegrating Agricultural Functions

Consolidated Ministry Proposal: Proposing a reconsolidation of agricultural functions under a single ministry which would oversee all aspects, from soil health to crop insurance and rural development.
Advantages of Reintegration: This approach would streamline decision-making, improve policy coherence, and enable the government to more effectively address broad issues such as sustainability, farmer welfare, and climate resilience.

Policy Recommendations

Enhanced Political and Administrative Will: Effective reform would require strong leadership and a commitment to overhaul the existing structure, akin to the political support seen during the era of Shastri
Stakeholder Engagement: Engaging with farmers, agricultural scientists, and industry experts to ensure that the restructured ministry is responsive and tailored to the diverse needs of India’s agricultural sector.

Conclusion: The evolution of India's Agriculture Ministry reflects broader trends in government administration, where specialization often leads to fragmentation.

While this can increase focus on specific issues, it may also complicate coordination and dilute overall effectiveness in sectors that inherently require integrated approaches.

Revisiting the structure and function of the Agriculture Ministry could enhance its efficiency and impact, making it more responsive to the current challenges faced by Indian agriculture.

Methanol Poisoning

Context: At least 47 people have died and nearly 100 others are battling for their lives after consuming a methanol-spiked alcohol in Tamil Nadu.

What is the alcohol in liquor?

Liquor is differentiated by its alcohol content – from the 5% or so of beer to the 12% or so of wine to the 40% or so of distilled spirits (all by volume).
In the beverages consumed for recreational purposes, the alcohol used is ethanol.

Ethanol:

Ethanol: Ethanol (C2H5OH), in low doses, is a psychoactive drug that reduces the level of neurotransmission in the body leading to its typical intoxicating effects.
- The World Health Organisation has found that no level of alcohol consumption is safe for our health.
- Long-term use leads to dependence, heightens the risk of some cancers and heart disease, and may eventually cause death.
Inside the body, it is metabolised in the liver and the stomach by alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH) enzymes to acetaldehyde. Then, aldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH) enzymes transform the acetaldehyde into acetate. The adverse effects of alcohol consumption, from the hangover to cancer, are due to acetaldehyde.

What is spurious liquor?

Spurious liquor is characterised by the liquid mixture containing methanol as well. Such liquors are typically homemade to which methanol is added to strengthen the intoxicating effects (in colloquial parlance, its kick) and/or to increase its bulk volume.
The Food Safety and Standards (Alcoholic Beverages) Regulations 2018 stipulate the maximum permissible quantity of methanol in different liquors. These values span a wide range, including “absent” in coconut fenny, 50 grams per 100 litres of country liquor, and 300 grams per 100 litres of pot-distilled spirits.

Methanol:

The methanol molecule (CH3OH) consists of one carbon atom bonded with three hydrogen atoms and one hydroxyl group.
Methanol is a toxic industrial chemical mentioned in the Schedule I of the Manufacture, Storage and Import of Hazardous Chemical Rules 1989.
The most common way to produce methanol is to combine carbon monoxide and hydrogen in the presence of copper and zinc oxides as catalysts at 50-100 atm of pressure and 250° C.

Applications of Methanol:

Methanol has several industrial applications:

Production of chemicals: Methanol is a basic building block for the production of many chemicals, including formaldehyde, acetic acid, MTBE (methyl tert-butyl ether) and other aromatic hydrocarbons.
Fuel: Methanol is a clean-burning fuel that can be blended with petrol or used in pure form in specially designed engines.
Solvent: Methanol is a good solvent and is used in various industrial and commercial applications, such as in the production of paints, coatings, inks, and cleaning agents.
Antifreeze: Methanol is used as an antifreeze because it has a low freezing point. It is often mixed with water to create a coolant for engines.

How does spurious liquor kill?

The deadliness of spurious liquor arises from methanol. The human body contains infinitesimal quantities of methanol (4.5 ppm in the breath of healthy individuals) as a result of eating some fruits. But even for an adult, more than 0.1 ml of pure methanol per kilogram of body-weight can be devastating.
Once ingested, methanol is metabolised in the liver by ADH enzymes to form formaldehyde (H-CHO). Then, ALDH enzymes convert formaldehyde to formic acid (HCOOH). The accumulation of formic acid over time leads to a baneful condition called metabolic acidosis. Acidosis can lead to acidemia: when the blood’s pH drops below its normal value of 7.35, becoming increasingly acidic.
Formic acid also interferes with an enzyme called cytochrome oxidase, which in turn disrupts cells’ ability to use oxygen and leads to the build-up of lactic acid, contributing to acidosis.
Further, consuming methanol also leads to “methanol-induced optic neuropathy”- a serious condition that may result in long-term or irreversible visual impairment or even blindness due to damage and loss of function of the optic nerve and retina.
Eventually, Methanol-poisoning can cause swelling in the brain, haemorrhage, and death.

Immediate ways to treat Methanol poisoning:

One is to administer ethanol (of a pharmaceutical grade, by healthcare workers). This may sound counterintuitive but ethanol competes very well with methanol for the ADH enzymes, which metabolise ethanol around 10x faster. As a result, the methanol is kept from being metabolised to formaldehyde.
Second option is to administer an antidote called fomepizole, which has a similar mechanism: it slows the action of the ADH enzymes, causing the body to produce formaldehyde at a rate that the body can quickly excrete, preventing the deadlier effects from kicking in.
Other options include:
- Undertaking a dialysis to remove methanol and formic acid salts from the blood, and mitigating damage to the kidneys and the retina.
- Administering folinic acid which encourages the formic acid to break up into carbon dioxide and water.

Catalytic Boost for Cheaper Biodiesel Production

Context: A global team, including scientists from Assam, Odisha, China, and the UK, has developed a superhydrophobic catalyst to significantly reduce biodiesel production costs. This catalyst mimics natural water-repellent surfaces, such as lotus leaves, and promises substantial cost reductions and efficiency improvements in biodiesel production.

What is Biodiesel?

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Oils from oilseeds are basically straight chain hydrocarbons but long ones.
This is the only difference between biodiesel and diesel.
If we take vegetable oil and break its long hydrocarbon straight chain into 1/3rd, 1/3rd, 1/3rd you get biodiesel.
Biodiesel can directly replace diesel in diesel-IC engines.
The resultant product, i.e, biodiesel is called ester.
That’s why the process of breaking long straight chain hydrocarbons into short chains is called transesterification.
Breaking can be done by following ways:
- Heat it: Pyrolysis
- Apply pressure: Cracking
- Replace double bonds with hydrogen: Hydrogenation

Feedstock for Biodiesel Production

Any oil seed can be used to extract oil. However, better option is to use non-edible oil seeds.
There are more than 200 variety of oil seeds that can be used to produce biodiesel.
Some common examples include rice bran, sal, neem, mahua, karanja, castor, linseed, jatropha, honge, rubber seed etc.

Advantages of Biodiesel

Fuel	Energy density] (in MJ/ kg)
Ethanol	24-25
Petrol	43-44
Biodiesel	40-41
Diesel	45.5

High energy density
Low energy input
Nitrogen-fixation
No Sulphur
No aromatics

A case for biodiesel

India uses 5 times more diesel than petrol, so an alternative for diesel is more important than that for petrol.
De-sulphurisation of diesel is cost intensive.
Rural development: growing oilseed-based crops for biodiesel will augment farmer’s income.
Converting degraded land
Improves soil fertility as most oilseed-crops are leguminous crops which helps in nitrogen fixation.

Key Features of the Superhydrophobic Catalyst

Innovation and Robustness:
- The superhydrophobic catalyst is designed to withstand the water by-product in biodiesel production, maintaining high effectiveness and allowing multiple reuses. This innovation is crucial for enhancing the cost-effectiveness and efficiency of the biodiesel production process.
Economic Impact:
- Current biodiesel costs around $1.2 per litre. The new catalyst can potentially lower this cost to approximately 37 cents per litre, making biodiesel a more viable alternative to conventional diesel, which costs around ₹87 per litre in India.
Environmental and Economic Benefits:
- The catalyst, derived from biomass such as cellulose, is ecologically benign and abundant. This approach not only reduces production costs but also promotes the use of sustainable energy sources, contributing to a greener future.
Broader Implications:
- The successful implementation of this catalyst could lead to wider adoption of biodiesel, thus supporting India's energy security and reducing dependence on fossil fuels.

Research and Development Contributions

The catalyst development involved collaboration among multiple international institutions, including the National Institute of Technology (NIT) Silchar in Assam, NIT Rourkela in Odisha, the University of Cambridge, and Guizhou University in China. This highlights the importance of global cooperation in advancing sustainable technologies.

Technological Advancements

The catalyst utilizes activated carbon derived from biomass. This approach not only leverages sustainable resources but also provides an alternative to expensive materials like graphene and carbon nanotubes, making the technology more accessible and cost-effective.

Potential Applications and Future Prospects

Beyond biodiesel production, the superhydrophobic catalyst could have applications in other areas where water-resistant materials are beneficial, such as in coatings and filtration systems.
The research paves the way for further innovations in biofuel production, potentially leading to even more cost reductions and efficiency improvements in the future.

Government Policies and Support

National Policy on Biofuels (2018):
- The Government of India has been promoting biofuel production through various initiatives. The National Policy on Biofuels (2018) supports biofuel production in Special Economic Zones (SEZs) and Export Oriented Units (EOUs), allowing import of feedstock for export-oriented biofuel production without restrictions.
Amendments and Targets:
- Recent amendments to the National Policy on Biofuels include advancing the target for 20% ethanol blending in petrol to 2025-26 from 2030, and allowing more feedstocks for biofuel production. This aligns with the 'Make in India' initiative and aims to foster indigenous technological developments, boosting employment and reducing petroleum imports.
Regulatory Framework:
- The Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas has issued guidelines for the sale of biodiesel for blending with high-speed diesel, ensuring quality and quantity standards are maintained. This regulatory framework is crucial for the integrity and reliability of the biodiesel market.

Strategic Importance

Adoption of such technologies aligns with India's strategic goals under the National Policy on Biofuels, aiming to achieve energy independence by 2047 as part of the Atmanirbhar Bharat (Self-reliant India) initiative.
This development also supports global environmental goals by promoting cleaner, renewable energy sources, reducing greenhouse gas emissions, and addressing climate change.

Conclusion

The development of a superhydrophobic catalyst for biodiesel production represents a significant technological breakthrough with far-reaching economic and environmental benefits. Supported by robust government policies and regulatory frameworks, this innovation aligns with India's goals of energy security, sustainability, and economic growth.

National Forensic Infrastructure Enhancement Scheme (NFIES)

Context: Union Cabinet has approved the central sector scheme - National Forensic Infrastructure Enhancement Scheme with a total outlay of Rs 2254.43 crores for improving the criminal justice system in India.

About National Forensic Infrastructure Enhancement Scheme

The scheme will be operated by the Union Home Ministry.
The scheme will be a central sector scheme (100% financed by Central Government) with a total outlay of Rs 2254.3 crores.
The scheme will run from 2024-25 to 2028-29.
Components under the scheme:
- Establishment of campuses of National Forensic Sciences University (NFSU) in India.
- Establishment of Central Forensic Science Laboratories in India.
- Enhancement of existing infrastructure of Delhi Campus of NFSU.

Rationale behind the NFIES Scheme

New Criminal laws mandates forensic investigation for offences involving punishment of 7 years or more, which is expected to create a significant increase in the workload of forensic science laboratories. Thus, the scheme will create the required infrastructure to address this increased demand for forensic science professionals and laboratories.
Currently, there is a significant shortage of trained forensic science laboratories in India. The scheme is expected to increase the number of trained forensic professionals in India.
Establishment of additional off-campuses of National Forensic Sciences University (NFSU) and new Central Forensic Science Laboratories would address shortage of trained manpower.
Aims to establish an effective and efficient criminal justice system, based on scientific and timely forensic examination of evidence.
Creation of high quality, trained forensic professionals in the timely and scientific examination of evidence for an efficient criminal justice process, leveraging advancements in technology & evolving manifestations and methods of crime.

Importance of increased reliance on forensics in criminal justice system

Securing an increased conviction rate of more than 90%.
Alleviate case load and pendency.
Prevent miscarriage of justice and correct identification of perpetrators.
Enhanced public trust in the criminal justice system
Restrains the police from employing inhuman techniques like third degree and torture.
Formulating standardised procedures and protocols for evidence collection
Helps to create integrated databases and international cooperation.